Operations and Maintenance Manual forEnergy Management This page intentionally left blank Operations and Maintenance Manual ^Energy Management James E Piper O Routledge Taylor & Francis Group LONDON AND NEW YORK First published 1999 by M.E Sharpe Published 2015 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon 0X14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA , Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group an informa business Copyright © 1999 Taylor & Francis All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Notices No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use of operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds,or experiments described herein In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging4n-Publication Data Piper, James E Operations and maintenance manual for energy management / James E Piper p cm Includes index ISBN 0-7656-0050-1 (h e : alk paper) Buildings—Energy conservation— Handbooks, manuals, etc Buildings—Energy consumption— Handbooks, manuals, etc Buildings— Mechanical equipment— Maintenance and repair— Handbooks, manuals, etc I Title TJ163.5.B84P57 1998 658.2—dc21 98-47335 CIP ISBN 13: 9780765600509 (hbk) About the Author James E Piper is an engineer with more than 25 years of experience in the fields of energy management and facilities maintenance He is a licensed professional engineer who has developed and implemented both energy and maintenance management programs for facilities ranging in size from a few thousand square feet to ones with more than ten million square feet He is currently working as a facility consultant in Bowie, Maryland The author received both a Bachelor’s degree and a Master of Science degree in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Akron, and a Ph.D in Educational Administration from the University of Maryland Dr Piper has published more than 300 articles on a wide range of facilities management topics, including the Handbook o f Facility Management v This page intentionally left blank What This Manual Will Do for You Operations and Maintenance Manualfor Energy Management is a complete reference that you can use to evaluate and improve your maintenance and energy management operations Every day, you are faced with having to make decisions on how best to use available resources There never is enough money to all that you want or need to As a result, maintenance managers and energy conservation program managers often find themselves competing for the same resources What is needed is a guide to show you how both maintenance operations and energy management can be enhanced at the same time This book is written for those who are responsible for managing energy use in their facilities It is designed to serve as a practical guide to energy conservation through sound operation and maintenance practices It provides detailed, practical information on how to improve the energy efficiency of your facility without having to invest thousands or millions of dollars in energy conservation projects It provides straight forward information on operation and maintenance tasks that you can implement to reduce energy use Examples of tasks and their economic benefits are presented throughout the book Here are just a few of the benefits that you will gain from this book: □ an understanding of the relationship between maintenance practices and energy conservation; □ a method to evaluate the energy performance of your facilities; □ maintenance activities that will help to reduce building chiller energy requirements; □ boiler operation and maintenance activities to minimize eneigy use and promote equipment life; □ HVAC operation and maintenance activities that improve system perfor mance and reduce energy requirements; □ lighting system maintenance practices that increase light output while reducing energy requirements; □ operation and maintenance practices that increase the life of building exterior components while reducing energy requirements; □ how to establish a comprehensive maintenance program that helps to ensure that energy use is reduced and remains low throughout the life of the systems Today, even though the chances of a new oil embargo are slight, energy conservation continues to play an important role in managing the operation of facilities To many vii What This Manual Will Do for You facility managers, energy conservation means making significant investments in capital improvements: installation of high-efficiency chillers and boilers, building energy management systems, thermal storage systems, or high thermal efficiency windows Projects such as these typically cost tens or hundreds of thousands of dollars to implement, cause significant disruptions to the day-to-day operation of facilities dining construction, and take years to recover the investment in the form of energy savings While there is no doubt that energy conservation projects, if properly implemented, will reduce energy use, energy conservation projects are not sufficient on their own to manage energy use Comprehensive energy management also requires that building systems and components be operated and maintained at their best possible operating efficiency Without proper maintenance, those new, energy conserving systems being installed today will rapidly deteriorate in both performance and efficiency Energy conservation and maintenance are so interconnected that it is impossible to separate the activities that promote energy conservation from those that promote good maintenance Energy management requires sound maintenance, and sound mainte nance promotes energy conservation Sound maintenance is so effective at conserving energy that the highest rates of return for energy conservation investments are nearly always associated with maintenance activities Typical payback periods are measured in weeks and months, not years One would be hard-pressed to find energy projects offering similar rates of return If sound maintenance practices are so effective at promoting energy conservation, why are they so often overlooked in energy management programs today? The problem is one of perception To those in facility management who are not responsible for maintenance activities, maintenance is typically viewed as a necessary evil An enor mous amount of money is spent maintaining what you already have—money that then is unavailable for investment in programs that provide a return for the organization Many have a hard time understanding why money must be spent on systems that are operating perfectly well “If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it.” Perhaps this is a major reason why traditionally, maintenance has been one of the first areas to be cut during tight fiscal times For those who are responsible for maintenance of facilities, the challenge is to reverse this belief The challenge is even more difficult for those who are responsible for energy management Those who control the budget must be convinced that financing mainte nance is really an investment—an investment that provides rates of return that exceed all other investments made by the organization HOW TO USE THIS BOOK This book is divided into five sections: The first section presents an overview of how maintenance managers have approached energy management in the past, and why energy management is more important today The second examines building mechan ical systems, identifying operation and maintenance activities that can be implemented to reduce energy use The third section examines building electrical systems, identify viii What This Manual Will Do for You ing operation and maintenance practices that can be implemented to improve the energy efficiency of electrical systems ranging from lighting to motors The fourth section examines the building envelope Specific practices are suggested to reduce the impact of aging and wear and tear on the energy efficiency of components of the building envelope Finally, the fifth section shows how to promote and establish a comprehens ive maintenance program designed to increase equipment life and performance while minimizing energy requirements Figures and worksheets, along with step-by-step instructions and Rules o f Thumb are provided throughout this handy reference Some have been developed from recognized maintenance and energy authorities Others have been developed exclu sively for this book and cannot be found in any other source All will help you in establishing an energy maintenance program that will reduce the cost of energy, decrease the frequency of equipment breakdowns, improve the reliability of your energy using systems, and reduce the total cost of maintenance in your facility ix Energy Maintenance Program operating hours? What differences are there in weather-related energy use factors between the facilities? Are their energy using systems similar? Look at their energy management and maintenance processes Have they implemented programs to manage both? What is the status of those programs with respect to the programs in your facility? Once similar facilities have been identified, data will have to be collected on the operation of those organizations, including the energy accounting and maintenance efficiency measures identified earlier in this chapter Study the various performance measures and identify areas where gaps in performance exist For example, if two office buildings have been identified as being similar in operation, size, and construction, and weather factors not vary significantly between the two facilities, the two facilities should have similar Btu per square foot energy use values If there are differences, the other facility will have to be closely examined to determine the factors that result in the difference in performance If those factors can be applied to your facility, then new target values can be established for your energy management program Benchmarking is not an easy task that can be entered into lightly It is hard work It requires the development of an understanding of what makes practices efficient and it requires that you develop an understanding of which of those practices can be best adopted for your organization It also does not end with the identification of more efficient processes or the development of new efficiency targets Benchmarking in an ongoing process that must continually reassess the energy and maintenance efficiency of an operation Operations are assessed and benchmarked against others New pro cesses are adopted, and the results must once again be assessed and benchmarked against others Remember, facilities are always changing If their operations are to remain efficient, energy and maintenance managers must always be looking for ways to improve Benchmarking is one way to assess the operation and to identify ways in which improvements can be made through change SUMMARY Energy management efforts not end with the implementation of the program Energy management is a process that requires constant effort and attention Part of that effort must be directed to monitoring and evaluating the performance of the program Without feedback, it is impossible to develop programs that will achieve their maximum potential savings The effectiveness of energy and maintenance management programs is best moni tored and evaluated through the use of energy accounting and maintenance tracking systems Measures of operating efficiency are then calculated for the facility for comparison with historical data as well as with data from other, comparable facilities Benchmarking practices can be used to evaluate the performance of the programs with respect to programs in place in other facilities and to identify additional activities that can be employed to further improve operating efficiency The results of the energy accounting, maintenance tracking, and benchmarking efforts can then be used to establish new goals for the energy and maintenance program, and to track the program’s effectiveness in achieving those goals 330 Appendix Energy Conversion of Energy Terms Glossary of Energy Terms GLOSSARY OF ENERGY TERMS Absorption chiller A refrigeration unit that uses a source of heat to power the refrigeration cycle Typical heat sources include steam and hot water Active power The component of power in an alternating current circuit that is converted into useful work The ratio of the active power in a circuit to its apparent power is the power factor See also Power factor Average rated life (lamps) The number of hours that a large group of lamps can be operated before one half of them fail While the actual life varies between lamps of the same type and manufacturer, the average rated lamp life is used as a measure of the life expectancy of a particular lamp type Ballast A current limiting device used in the operation of electric discharge lamps, including fluorescent, mercury vapor, metal-halide, and high pressure sodium Ballasts may be magnetic or electronic in design Base load The energy requirements of a facility that are independent of weather, occupancy, production, and other variations in operation Blowdown Water that is bled from boiler and cooling tower water systems to reduce the level of total dissolved solids Boiler, high pressure A boiler connected to a steam system that operates at pressures greater than 15 psi or one that is connected to a hot water system that operates at pressures greater than 160 psi or temperatures greater than 250° F Boiler horsepower A capacity rating for boilers One horsepower equals 33,475 Btu per hour Boiler, low pressure A boiler that is connected to a steam system that has a maximum 331 Figure A Energy Conversion Factors To Convert From Multiply By To Obtain Barrels of oil Btu Btu/hour CCF natural gas 42 0.000293 0.2928 103,000 Gallons Kilowatt hours Watts Btu Gallon #2 oil Gallon #5 oil Gallon #6 oil Horsepower (boiler) 138,690 6,287,000 6,286,980 33,475 Btu Btu Btu Btu/hour MCF natural gas Kilowatt hours Kilowatts Short ton coal 1,000 3,413 56.92 24,500,000 Cubic feet Btu Btu/minute Btu Therms natural gas Watts 100,000 3.413 332 Btu Btu/hour Appendix operating pressure of 15 psi or a hot water system that has a maximum operating pressure of 160 psi and a maximum operating temperature o f250° F British thermal unit (BTU) The heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit Building envelope All external surfaces of a building, including the roof, exterior walls, doors, windows, below grade walls, and floors Centrifugal chiller A refrigeration unit that uses mechanical energy to drive a centrifugal compressor to generate chilled water Typical drives include electric motors and steam turbines Chilled water The water that is circulated between the building’s chillers and its cooling loads Most building air conditioning systems operate with chilled water at approximately 44° F Chiller efficiency The ratio of the energy used by a chiller to the cooling produced when the chiller is being operated at design conditions It is generally expressed in kW/ton See also Coefficient of performance Coefficient of performance (COP) The ratio of the cooling produced by a chiller to its energy input when the chiller is being operated at design conditions See also Chiller efficiency Color rendering index (CRI) A measure of the quality of the light produced by a source, a lamp’s CRI indicates how well the light source renders colors Measured on a scale of zero to 100 with 100 being daylight, a CRI of 60 or better is generally considered to be good for most applications Color temperature A measure used to rate the relative color of the light produced by a source Expressed in degrees Kelvin, the color temperature provides a means for comparing the distribution of light produced by different types of light sources Lower color temperatures, particularly those below 3,000 Kproduce more reddish tones while color temperatures above 4,000 K produce bluer colors Combustion air The air supplied to natural gas, propane, oil, and coal fired boilers to support combustion To ensure complete combustion of the fuel and to limit smoking, the quantity of combustion air supplied is always greater than the minimum needed However, as the level of combustion air is increased, the combustion efficiency of the boiler decreases See also Excess combustion air Condensate The water that is formed when steam cools and changes from a gas to a liquid in a steam heating or distribution system Cooling tower A unit that is used to reject heat to the atmosphere from air conditioning and refrigeration systems Air passes by natural or forced flow through the tower, cooling the water by a combination of conduction and evaporation Curtailable load A building energy load that can be turned off when the demand for 333 Appendix energy becomes too high Most frequently associated with electricity use, the switching of curtailable loads can be an effective way to reduce the cost of electrical service See also Demand limiting Degree day The difference between the mean temperature for any day and 65° F, when the mean temperature is below 65° F Degree days are used to measure the relative severity of heating seasons Demand, electrical Electrical demand, measured in kilowatts, is a measure of the rate at which a facility is using electricity Electrical utilities charge users a demand charge based on their peak electrical demand for a given month measured over a set interval, typically 15 or 30 minutes Electrical demand can be a significant component of the overall electrical bill See also Demand limiting Demand limiting The practice of monitoring a facility’s demand for electricity and curtailing electrical loads when the demand approaches a predetermined value Demand limiting is an effective way of reducing the cost of electricity See also Demand, electrical Efficiency, boiler Although there are a number of ways to rate the efficiency of a boiler, the most meaningful measure is a boiler’s fuel-to-steam efficiency Fuel-to-steam efficiency rates the boiler’s ability to convert fuel energy into steam or hot water energy It includes all losses associated with operation of the boiler, including combustion, stack, heat transfer, radiation, and convection losses A well maintained and operated boiler will operate with a fuel-to-steam efficiency of between 75 and 85 percent Efficiency, motor The ratio of a motor’s power output to its input power is its efficiency Motor efficiency is a direct measure of how effectively a motor converts electrical energy to mechanical energy A motor’s efficiency varies with the load placed on it, generally decreasing with decreasing load Published motor efficiency ratings are for full-load operating conditions Energy use index (EUI) The energy use index is a measure of the relative energy efficiency of a facility It is calculated by converting all of the energy used by the facility to their Btu equivalents, summing them, and dividing by the total conditioned gross square footage of the facility It provides a means of comparing energy use in similar facilities Energy audit The energy audit is the systematic evaluation of energy use in a facility to determine how much energy is used where, when, and by what systems It is an important step in identifying opportunities for energy conservation Energy management system (EMS) A microprocessor based system connected to hundreds or thousands of monitoring and control points located throughout a facility The systems perform a number of functions including energy management, HVAC system controls, equipment monitoring, and fire and life safety Excess combustion air In order to ensure complete combustion of the fuel supplied to a boiler without the development of smoke or soot, the quantity of air supplied to support combustion is greater than what is theoretically required for complete combus- 334 Appendix tion This additional quantity of air is called excess combustion air The quantity of excess combustion air required varies with the type of boiler, its condition, and the type of fuel being burned Foot-candle (FC) The quantity of light produced by a light source or the quantity of light falling on a surface is measured in foot-candles One foot-candle is equal to one lumen of light distributed evenly over a one-square-foot surface It is approximately equal to the intensity of light at a distance of one foot from a standard candle See also Lumen Fouling Fouling is a process that takes place as solids that are in suspension in the circulating water drop out of suspension and accumulate on the surfaces of heat exchangers in boilers, chillers, and cooling towers The rate at which fouling occurs accelerates with increasing temperature differences and slower water flows Fouling is controlled through water treatment and regular cleaning of heat transfer surfaces Fouling factor A measure of the thermal resistance across heat transfer surfaces as the result of fouling New, clean surfaces have a typical fouling factor of 0.0002 or less As deposits build on the surface, the fouling factor increases, decreasing heat transfer efficiency Fuel adjustment charges Fuel adjustment charges appear in utility bills as a means for utility companies to recover changes in their cost of fuels When utility rate structures are set, they are based on an assumed cost of fuel to the utility company Often, particularly when fuel prices are rapidly changing, the estimated average cost is inaccurate The fuel adjustment charge is used to correct the estimated costs that were used to calculate the rate schedule for the actual fuel costs Since the original rates were estimated and could be higher or lower than the actual costs, the fuel adjustment charge could be a charge or a credit Group relamping The practice of replacing all lamps of a particular type in a given area of a facility at the same time to reduce labor costs and to reduce the effect of lamp lumen depreciation Most programs base their relamping intervals on the burnout rate of the existing lamps, typically ten to 15 percent See also Spot relamping Heat gain The amount of heat gained by a space from all sources, including conduc tion, ventilation, the sun, lighting, people, and equipment In order to maintain comfortable conditions within a facility during the cooling season, the heat gain represents the quantity of energy that must be removed from the facility by the air conditioning system Heat loss The amount of heat lost by a space due to conduction, infiltration, and ventilation during the heating season It represents the amount of heat that must be added to the space by the heating system in order to maintain comfortable conditions Hertz (Hz) The unit measure of frequency in cycles per second For alternating current in the U.S., the standard line frequency is 60 Hz HVAC Standard abbreviation for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning 335 Appendix Illuminance The quantity of light that strikes a surface, usually measured in foot-candles Also commonly known as lighting level Infiltration Air that leaks into a building through cracks and gaps in the exterior surfaces, particularly around doors and windows Infiltration contributes to both heating and cooling loads Kelvin (K) A unit of measure of temperature measured above absolute zero Degrees Centigrade can be converted to degrees Kelvin by adding 273 In lighting systems, it is used to measure the color of the light produced by a source Kilowatt (kW) A unit of measure for active power in an electrical system equal to 1,000 Watts Kilowatt-hour (kWh) A unit of measure for electrical energy determined by multi plying the load in kilowatts by the time it is operated in hours Lamp lumen depreciation factor As lamps age, their light output declines as a result of the deterioration of the lamp’s components The lamp lumen depreciation factor is the percentage of initial lumen output that is produced by a particular lamp after a set period of time It is used by lighting system designers to account for lower lumen output as the system ages Life cycle cost Life cycle cost is a tool used to evaluate the total cost of owning and operating a system or building component over its expected life It is particularly useful when evaluating options that have significantly different first costs Load factor The ratio of a facility’s average electrical load to its peak load It is often used as an element in a utility’s electrical rate structure Load profile The variation in the electrical energy use for a facility over a set period of time, typically a day, week, month, or year Lumen A measure of light output from a light source Make-up water Water that is supplied to a cooling tower or boiler system to replace water lost through blowdown, leakage, or evaporation Mean light output The light produced by a lamp when it reaches 40 percent of its rated life In most cases it is significantly less than the initial light output of the source Mean light output is often called design light output Occupancy sensor A control used in lighting systems to limit the operation of the lighting system to only those periods of time when a person is present in the area Occupied hours The regularly scheduled time when a facility is open for business or occupied It is used in scheduling the operation of building HVAC and lighting systems Payback, simple The time required for an energy conservation measure to recover its implementation costs through energy savings It is calculated by dividing the total cost of implementation by the monthly or annual energy savings Simple payback can also be used to calculate the time required to recover implementation costs for changes in maintenance practices 336 Appendix Peak shaving A method for reducing the costs of electrical demand in a facility by temporarily turning off selected electrical loads when the electrical demand approaches a preset level Loads are typically turned off for five to 15 minutes See also Demand limiting Power factor Power factor is the relationship between active power measured in Watts to the reactive power measured in volt-amps in an alternating current circuit It is a measure of how efficiently power is being used Most utilities impose a penalty when a facility’s power factor falls below a set value, typically 0.80 See also Reactive power R-value A measure of a material’s resistance to heat flow expressed in square feet— hour—degree Fahrenheit per Btu The overall R-value for a building component such as a window is the sum of all of the component R-values R-value is the reciprocal of the material’s thermal conductance See also U-value Ratchet clause Utility companies must install sufficient capacity to meet the peak power demand of their customers, even though that peak may be reached only for a few minutes during one month of the year To help recover the costs of this required capacity, utility companies install a ratchet clause in their rate schedule The ratchet clause allows them to charge a customer the peak demand for that month or a percentage of the peak demand for the entire year, typically between 60 and 80 percent Reciprocating chiller A positive displacement compressor that uses one or more pistons to compress a refrigerant gas Capacity is controlled by regulating the flow of refrigerant gas to the compressor They are widely used in facilities with cooling loads of 100 tons or less Reactive power Also known as magnetizing power, this is the power required to produce the magnetic flux in induction devices such as motors Measured in kilovoltamperes (kVa), it contributes to a facility’s low power factor See also Power factor Rotary chiller A positive displacement compressor that uses two machined rotors to compress a refrigerant gas between their lobes Capacity is controlled by regulating the flow of refrigerant to the compressor Smaller in size than centrifugal chillers, most units have operating capacities between 175 and 750 tons Scale A type of fouling that occurs on heat transfer surfaces in chillers and boilers It occurs when soluble salts found in the water precipitate out and become attached to heat transfer surfaces These salts, including calcium sulfate, calcium phosphate, and calcium carbonate form a hard layer that is difficult to remove and decreases the heat transfer efficiency of the chiller or boiler See also Fouling factor Service factor, motor A multiplier that can be applied to a motor’s full-load horse power rating to determine what temporary overload conditions that the motor can operate under Most motor service factors fall in the range of 1.0 to 1.4 Shading coefficient A multiplier used to adjust the quantity of solar gain through clear glass for tinted and reflective glass Spot relamping The practice of replacing lamps one at a time when they bum out See also Group relamping 337 Appendix Steam trap A device used to remove condensate, air, and non-condensable gasses from steam systems while preventing the loss of steam Time-of-day rates An metering system used by some electrical utilities that charges different rates for electricity use based on when it was used during the day There generally are three different time periods and rates; peak, intermediate, and off-peak Rates can vary by as much as a factor of five between peak and off-peak times Tons of refrigeration The standard unit of measure for cooling capacity A ton of refrigeration is equal to 12,000 Btu per hour of cooling U-value The heat transfer coefficient of a building component expressed in Btu per hour—square foot—degree Fahrenheit temperature difference It is the reciprocal of the sum of the all of the individual resistances for composite components See also R-value Ventilation air The portion of the air supplied to an area within a facility that comes from outside the facility Used to control indoor air quality, ventilation air rates have a significant impact on facility energy use Water treatment The process of adding chemicals to circulating water systems including boiler, chilled, heating, and condenser water systems to control the buildup of scale on heat transfer surfaces See also Scale Watt A unit of measure for electrical power One Watt equals the product of one Volt and one ampere 338 Index A Absorption chiller, 54—5 ,6 -6 Accounting, energy See Energy use Acoustic testing, 106 A ge o f facility, and energy use, 3 ,3 Age-related factors, in energy use, 3 ,3 ,1 , 153 Air conditioning, 13, 14, 126, 157 See also Chiller system; Chiller system m ainte nance Air handling system maintenance, 109-126 conservation practices in, 124—126 day-night setback, 125-126 econom izer cycle, 126 optimum start-stop timing, 125 scheduled operation, 124—125 controls, 118—119 cost effectiveness of, 110 dampers, 119 ductwork, 119-120 fans, 111-112 filters, 116— 118 heating/cooling coils, 116 impact o f poor maintenance, 109-110 implementation of, 120-124 and indoor air quality (IAQ) problems, 112—113 and ventilation rates, 112—115 Alignment, motor, 181—182 Alligatoring, -2 ,2 American Society o f Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers, 113 A m ines, in water treatment, 89 A ssociation o f Physical Plant Administrators (APPA), 30 Availability factor, ,3 , 327 B Backup system , 291 Ballast, 143, 149 Bearings, lubrication of, 76 Benchmarking, 326, -3 Bitumen roof, 218, ,2 —242 Blowdown, ,9 -9 Boiler system maintenance, -1 blowdown requirements in, -9 burner, ,9 combustion air controls, 93, ,9 conservation practices in, 107-108 load management, 107—108 lower operating pressure, 108 cost savings through, 84, 85 efficiency rating for, 84, 86 operating log in, -8 preventive activities in, -1 0 water treatment program, 8 -9 See also Steam distribution maintenance Breakdown frequency, 296, -3 ,3 Breakdown maintenance, ,5 ,1 ,2 ,3 0 for doors and w indow s, 190-191 overtime hours for, 2 ,3 , 325 Breakdown torque, 171 Btu See Energy use Budgets, 20 Building type, and energy use, -3 ,3 Burner, boiler, ,9 C Carbon dioxide, 24, 93, 95 Carbonic acid, 88 Centrifugal chiller, 53 Chiller system, - ,2 -2 absorption, 54—55, 6 -6 centrifugal, 53 reciprocating, 53—54 rotary, 54 Chiller system maintenance, -8 absorption chiller, 6 -6 and backup system , 291 and corrosion, -6 , 69 for energy management, -7 chilled water reset, 71—72 condenser water temperature reset, 71 indirect free cooling, 72 339 Index Chiller system maintenance (continued) load allocation, 70 pilot program, 278 and fouling, 57—60 impact o f poor maintenance, 52 implementation of, 79, 82 leak monitoring, 62, 65 oil testing, 66 refrigerant testing, 66 and scale, -6 scheduled inspections in, 5 - ,6 ,6 - tube testing, -6 See also Cooling tower maintenance Clarification, in water treatment, 88 Climate, and energy use, 30, 33, 34, 37, 39 Cogeneration equipment, C olleges and universities, energy use of, 30 Color renderings index (CRI), 147 Color temperature, ,1 Core sampling, -2 Corrosion in boiler system, 89 in chiller system, -6 , 69 metal cladding, 258 metal roof, 243 in service hot water system , 134 Crystallization, 69 Curtailable service rider, 46 Customer charges, 43 D Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption and Expenditures 2012, 276 Computer operations, and energy use, -3 Conservation projects decline in interest, 7, 16 and electrical rate structure, 44 focus on, 6, 7, vs maintenance activities, -4 , maintenance role in, -9 , 16 air handling system, 124—126 boiler system , 107-108 service hot water system , 135, 137 See also Energy maintenance program payback measurement for, 14—15 quick fixes, 13-14, 30 Construction factors, in energy use, 33, 36, 37, 38 Contracted energy maintenance program, 297, 0 -3 Contractor, selecting, 303—304, 305 Contracts, maintenance, 302, 304 Controls air handler, 118-119 lighting, 155, 157-159 C ooling coils, air handler, 116 C ooling tower maintenance, ,7 —79 centrifugal pumps, ,7 ,8 ,8 drift eliminators, 74 fans, 75 fill material, 73—74 inspection programs, -7 requirements for, 73 for structural problems, -7 water distribution system, 74—75 340 Dampers, air handler, 119 Day-night setback, 5-126 Deaeration, in water treatment, 89 D em and charges, 42 Demineralization, in water treatment, 8 -8 Doors and w indow s, -2 and energy losses, 189, 93-198 glazings, 193, 194, 196, 197 hardware, 191—192 impact o f poor maintenance, 190-191 maintenance program, 198—206 door, 199, 201, 202 implementation of, 204, 206 inventory for, 9 ,2 0 ,2 , 203 repair vs replacement, 206 window, 201, ,2 overhead doors, 198 types o f construction, 191, 192-193 Drift eliminator, 74 Ductwork, in air handler, 119 -1 E Eddy current testing, -6 Efficacy, 145, 146 Efflorescence, 258 Electrical capacitance testing, 216 Electric motor maintenance, 6 -1 alignment check, 181—182 cost effectiveness of, 6 -1 efficiency considerations for, 167—170 historical record for, 172, 174 impact o f poor m aintenance, 170 implementation of, 182—183 inspection program, 180 insulation testing, 180-181 inventory data for, 172, 173 lubrication, 180 and oversized motors, 177—178 Index Electric motor maintenance (continued) and part-load operation, ,1 ,1 7 replacement program, 177-178, 183—184 shutdown/start-up, 184—185 vibration measurement, 182 voltage testing o f system, 17 ,1 Electric motors high-efficiency m odels, 168-170, 184 induction-motor operation, 171, 174 losses in, 167-168 testing, 174, 175 Electric power bill components, -4 generating capacity margin for, 23 rate structure for, -4 See also Electric motor maintenance; Electric motors; Lighting system maintenance Energy demand, ,2 imports, 22 shortages, ,1 , 7,23 supply, 17, -2 See also Electric power; Natural gas; Oil Energy audit, ,4 Energy budget, 28, 37, 39 Energy Conservation and Production Act o f 19 ,2 Energy Information Administration (EIA), 30, 3 ,3 Energy maintenance program contracted program, ,3 0 -3 , 305 cost effectiveness of, -1 , ,2 ,2 goal setting for, 287—289 hybrid program, ,3 -3 implementation options for, 293—307 with in-house personnel, 294—2 ,2 -2 9 inventory o f equipment, -2 man-hour requirements in, 289, 297 measuring effectiveness of, -3 benchmarking in, ,3 -3 energy accounting in See Energy use performance tracking in, -3 phasing schedule for, 287 pilot, 7 -2 planning process, -2 selection o f equipment/components, -2 selling management on, -2 status reports on, 28 -2 tool and training requirements for, ,2 workforce allocation for, -2 ,2 -2 ,3 Energy management elem ents of, 11—12 Energy management (continued) vs energy conservation, 11 impact on energy use, 37 incentives for, 19-25 maintenance requirements for, 3—10 oil embargo impact on, 12—13 performance measurement, 276-277 phases of, 13—18 See also Conservation projects; Energy mainte nance program; Maintenance Energy performance See Performance measure ment Energy Policy Act o f 2012 (EPACT), 168 Energy use, 309-318 per heating degree day, 314, 316 per square foot, ,3 ,2 -2 7 , 311-312,313 per unit o f production, 312, 314, 315 statistical m odels of, 314, 317-318 Energy use index (EUI), 276-277 Environment, impact o f energy use, 23—24 Exterior w alls See Foundation and exterior walls F Fans air handler, 111-112 cooling tower, 75 Fastener failure, 227-22 ,2 ,2 Feedback, 12 Felts, in built-up roofs, 218 Filters, air handler, 116-118 Fishmouths, 219 Flashing failure, 220, 22 ,2 -2 ,2 Flow regulators, in service hot water system, 137 Fluorescent lamps, 150,161, 162 Fouling, 57-60 Foundation and exterior w alls, 254—269 causes o f problems, 254, 259-261 impact o f poor maintenance, 255 maintenance program, 261—269 implementation of, 264, 269 inspection, 261, 264, 265-268 inventory, 252-263, 261 testing, 264 thermal conductivity of, 254—255, 256,257 types o f construction, 257-259 Fuel adjustment charges, 43 G Galvanic corrosion, 61 General service rate, 43—44 Global warming, 24 341 Index Lighting system maintenance (continued) implementation of, 164-165 inspection program, 164 relamping program, 159-161 Lim e-soda softening, 8 -8 Lithium bromide, 69 Load factor, and electrical rates, 43 Load management, boiler, 107—108 Locked-rotor torque, 171 Log maintenance, 55, 56, 75 operating, -8 , 102 Lubrication, motor, 180 Lumen, 145 Goal setting, 287—292 Group relamping, 160-161 H Hardware, door, 191—192 Heat exchanger tubes, testing, -6 Heating coils, air handler, 116 Heating degree day (H D D ), 314, 316 Heat and radiation in roof problems, - ,2 -2 ,2 in w all problems, -2 High intensity discharge (HID) light sources, 151—152 H inges, 192 Hot water See Service hot water system HVAC system s, 13, 4,112 Hydrogen gas, 69 M M agnetizing current, 42 Maintenance breakdown, 16, ,1 , -1 ,2 , 300, 322, 324, 325 o f building components See Doors and w in dows; Foundation and exterior walls; R oofs vs conservation projects, -4 , o f conservation projects, 8—9, 16 deferred and neglected, -6 lack o f understanding about, -8 negative attitude toward, -5 See also Air handling system maintenance; B oiler system maintenance; Chiller system maintenance; Electric motor maintenance; Lighting system maintenance; Service hot water system maintenance Maintenance program See Energy maintenance program Manhole inspection, 101—102 Masonry construction, 257—258 M egohm m eter test, 181 Mercury vapor lamps, 149-150 M etal cladding, 258 Metal doors, 191, 195 Metal framed windows, 193 Metal halide lamps, 151 Meters, 12 Motors See Electric motor maintenance; Electric motors I Incandescent lamps, ,1 Indoor air quality (IAQ), 112—113 Infrared surveys, 101, 102 Insulation air handler, 120 motor, 180-181, 185 roof, 208 service hot water distribution, 134-135 steam distribution, 100-101 w all, 258, 260, 264 Ion-exchange, 89 K Kelvin (K), ,1 Kilovars (kvar), 42 K ilovolt amps (kVa), ,4 Kilowatt hours (kW h), ,4 Kilowatts (kW), ,4 L Lighting system efficiency of, 147 fluorescent, 150, 16 ,1 incandescent, 147, 149 levels o f illumination, 152—155 mercury vapor, 9-150 metal halide, 151 sodium, 151—152 terminology, 145-147 Lighting system maintenance, 143—165 automated controls in, 155—159 cleaning program, 161, 163—164 goal of, 144 impact o f poor maintenance, 143—144 N National Electrical Manufacturers A ssociation (NEM A ), 6 ,1 Natural gas rate structure for, -4 342 Index Natural gas (continued) supply and demand, 22—23 Natural gas-fired boilers, 93, 96 Nuclear detection testing, 216 R Ratchet clause, 42 Reciprocating chiller, 53—54 Reduced voltage starter, 185 Refrigerant testing, 66 O Rem otely programmed controls, 158—159 Replacement Occupancy patterns, and energy use, 30, 32 door and window, 206 Occupancy sensors, 158 roof, -2 Oil domestic production decline, 17, 21—22 See also Scheduled replacement embargo, ,1 R oofs, -2 causes o f problems, -2 , -2 , 2 imports, 22 228, -2 prices, 16 reserves, ,2 —22 alligatoring, -2 , 228 blistering, 219 Oil-fired boilers, 96 Oil testing, 66 chem ical, 210-211 corrosion, 243 O n-off control, 157—159 Optimum start-stop timing, 125 fastener failure, 2 -2 ,2 Organization o f Petroleum Exporting Countries fishmouths, 219 flashing failure, 2 ,2 ,2 -2 , 248 (OPEC), oil embargo of, 13, 19 Overtime hours, for breakdown maintenance, foot traffic, 211 322, 324, 325 heat/radiation, -2 , -2 ,2 Oxidation, roof damage from, ,2 -2 ponding, 21 -2 , 219, 2 ,2 punctures, ,2 P seam failure, 2 ,2 thermal/structural movement, 212—213 Payback, sim ple, 14-15 wind, 2 ,2 Performance measurement incidence o f problems, 208 comparisons to other facilities, ,3 ,3 , - maintenance program, 213—253 330 for built-up roofs, -2 2 ,2 constant evaluation in, 27 cost-effectiveness of, 213—2 ,2 o f energy budget, 28, 37, 39 implementation of, 249, 252 factors influencing, 28—39 inspection, -2 , 220, 2 ,2 ,2 , building age, 33, 35 241, 243, -2 ,2 , 251 building type, 29—30, 31 inventory, 214, 220, 2 -2 ,2 -2 ,2 , climate, 30, 33, 34, 37, 39 -2 , ,2 4 -2 ,2 ,2 construction, 33, 36, 37, 38 for metal roof, 242—247 occupancy, 30, 32 for m odified bitumen roofs, ,2 -2 people, 29 repair materials, 225 standards and codes in, 26 repair, recover, replacement decision, 252—253 tracking system s, -3 for shingle/tile roof, -2 ,2 —251 availability factor, 324, ,3 for single-ply roof, 2 -2 , 2 -2 , breakdown frequency, 296, -3 ,3 234 breakdown maintenance overtime, 322, 324, testing, -2 , 225, ,2 ,2 325 Rotary chiller, 54 maintenance requests, 2 ,3 Polarization test, 181 S Ponding, roof damage from, 211—212, 2 ,2 Power factor, 45 Scale Power-producing current, 42 in boiler system s, 8 ,9 Pull-up torque, 171 in chiller system s, -6 , 74 343 Index Scale (continued) in steam traps, 105 Scheduled operation, 124—125 Scheduled replacement lamp, 159—161 motor, 177-178, 183-184 Seam failure, roof, 227, 235 Service hot water system requirements for, 128-131, 135, 136 storage, 131-132 tankless, 132 Service hot water system maintenance, 127—140 conservation practices in, 135, 137 distribution, 134-135 impact o f poor maintenance, 127-128 implementation of, 137—138 storage tanks, 133—134 water heaters, 133 Shingle roofs, -2 ,2 -2 Single-ply roofs, 2 - 2 ,2 - ,2 - Sodium lamps high-pressure, 151-152 low-pressure, 152 Spot relamping, 159-160 Status reports, 281—282 Steam distribution maintenance condensate system s, 102—1 ,1 piping, 100-102 traps, 103, 105-107 underground lines, 101—102 Structural m ovem ent and roof damage, 213 and w all damage, 260 Surge comparison test, 181 T Thermal imaging, -2 Thermal m ovem ent and roof damage, 212—213 and w all damage, -2 Thermographic scans, ,2 , 242, 264 Thermoplastic single-ply membranes, 227 Thermoset single-ply membranes, 2 -2 Tile roofs, -2 ,2 -2 Time clocks, 158 Time-of-day (TOD) rate structure, 44 Torque ratings, 171 Trees and shrubs, w all damage from, 260 -2 344 U Ultraviolet light, - ,2 ,2 U tility bill analysis, -4 electrical, -4 natural gas, -4 U -values, 194, -197, 255 V Variable lighting control, 159 Ventilation air, rate of, 112—115 Vibration, motor, 182 Vinyl framed w indow s, 193 Volatilization, roof damage from, 210-211 Voltage testing, system , 178, 180 W Walls See Foundation and exterior w alls Water alkalinity/acidity, 62, 88 bleed off, ,9 -9 roof penetration, 211—212, 220, 2 ,2 ,2 , 243, 252 w all penetration, 260, 264 See also Chiller system; Service hot water sys tem Water treatment boiler, 8 -9 chiller, -6 cooling tower, 73 elem ents in, 8 -8 Weather-stripping, 192 Wind and ro o f damage, 2 ,2 , 243 and w all damage, 260 W indows See Doors and w indow s Wood doors, 191, 195 Wood frame construction, 257 Wood framed w indow s, 193 Workforce allocation of, -2 , -2 ,2 -2 9 , 306 flexibility, 300 in-house, - ,2 S -2 9 , 306 man-hour requirements, ,2 planning input of, 284—285 training, ,2 .. .Operations and Maintenance Manual forEnergy Management This page intentionally left blank Operations and Maintenance Manual ^Energy Management James E Piper O Routledge... Facility Management v This page intentionally left blank What This Manual Will Do for You Operations and Maintenance Manualfor Energy Management is a complete reference that you can use to evaluate and. .. the fields of energy management and facilities maintenance He is a licensed professional engineer who has developed and implemented both energy and maintenance management programs for facilities