THE DEVELO PMENT OF BRITISH INDUST RY AND FOREIG N COMPE TITION 1875-1914 THE DEVELOPMENT OF BRITISH INDUSTRY AND FOREIGN COMPETITION 1875-1914 Studies in Industrial Enterprise EDITED BY DEREK H ALDCROFT University of Glasgow TORONTO: UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO PRESS FIR ST PUBLISHED IN 1968 This book is copyright under the Berne Convention Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright Act, 1956, no portion may be reproduced by any process without written permission Enquiries should be addressed to the publisher © George Allen & Unwin Ltd 1968 First published in Canada 1968 by University of Toronto Press Reprinted in 2018 ISBN 978-1-4875-7221-1 (paper) PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN in JO on 11 point Times Roman type SIMSON SHAND LTD LONDON, HERTFORD AND HARLOW PREFACE All the essays in this volume are original in the sense that they have not been published before I should like to thank all the contributors for their kind co-operation with this project I would also like to express my gratitude to Professor D J Robertson, the General Editor of the series in which this volume appears, for his kind advice and guidance during the course of preparing the book for publication D.H.A CONTENTS page PREFACE Introduction: British Industry and Foreign Competition, 1875-1914 11 by D H Aldcroft, Lecturer in Economic History, University of Glasgow 37 The Coal Industry by A J Taylor, Professor of History, University ofLeeds Iron and Steel Manufactures 71 by P L Payne, Senior Lecturer in Economic History, University of The Cotton Industry Glasgow 100 by R E Tyson, Lecturer in Economic History, University of Aberdeen The Woollen and Worsted Industries 128 by E M Sigsworth, Reader in Economic History, University of York and J M Blackman, Lecturer in Economic History, University of Hull Boots and Shoes 158 by P Head, Principal Planning Officer, Staffordshire County Council The Engineering Industry 186 by S B Saul, Professor ofEconomic History, University ofEdinburgh 238 Electrical Products by I C R Byatt, Lecturer in Economics, London School ofEconomic Chemicals and Political Science 274 by H W Richardson, Senior Lecturer in Economics, University of 10 The Glass Industry Aberdeen 307 by T C Barker, Professor ofEconomic History, University ofKent 11 The Mercantile Marine 326 by D H Aldcroft BIBLIOGRAPHIES 364 INDEX 373 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION: BRITISH INDUSTRY AND FOREIGN COMPETITION, 1875-1914 I IN the last few years the period 1870-1914 has become as popular as the classical industrial revolution as a field for scholarly study This has resulted in a flood of literature, more especially in article and monograph form, on various aspects of the late nineteenth century economy of Britain Much of the new work is quantitative and analytical rather than descriptive in character and it is devoted largely to examining movements in, and the interaction of, key economic variables In effect it provides a new or more dynamic approach to the study of economic history and to a large extent it has developed logically from the increasing attention devoted to problems of long-term growth in the past few years Yet although it has provided a much clearer picture, in aggregate terms, of the pattern or course of development of the British economy in these years, the studies themselves have thrown up many new problems as to the particular causes or factors which determined the pattern of development which took place In fact, most scholars would agree that we are now much better acquainted with the dimensions of Britain's growth in the later nineteenth and early twentieth centuries than we are with the factors which determined it There is no question that in absolute terms Britain's economic growth was quite substantial throughout this period Even during the so-called Great Depression most of the major economic indices moved upwards Moreover, in the service The literature is too extensive to list here and in any case many items will be cited later on in the text Though even in this respect there is still room for disagreement See D J Coppock, 'British Industrial Growth during the "Great Depression" (1873-96): a Pessimist's View', Economic History Review, December 1964, and ••.• a Balanced View' by A E Musson in the same issue • A E Musson, 'The Great Depression in Britain, 1873-1896: A Reappraisal', Journal of Economic History, June 1959, p 199 11 THE DEVELOPMENT OF BRITISH INDUSTRY Review There is no English language study of the German electrical industry Material on the us electrical industry has been taken mainly from Bright and Passer (see below) The following have proved to be the most helpful sources for this chapter Books and Articles: A.E.G., 50 Jahre A.E.G (Berlin, 1956) R Appleyard, Charles Parsons (1933) A A Bright, Jnr., The Electric Lamp Industry (New York, 1949) R E B Crompton, Reminiscences (1928) G Z Ferranti and R Ince, The Life and Letters of S Z de Ferranti (1934) J A Fleming, 50 Years of Electricity (1921) K Grossfield, Interaction of Scientific, Technical and Economic Factors in the Cable Industry (London M.Sc thesis 1956) P V Hunter and J T Hazell, The Development of Power Cables (1956) R H Parsons, The Early Days of the Power Station Industry (1939) H C Passer, The Electrical Manufacturers, 1875-1900 (Cambridge, Mass., 1953) S B Saul, 'The American Impact on British Industry, 1895-1914', Business History, (1960) J D Scott, Siemens Bros., 1858-1958 (1958) G Siemens (Tr A F Rodger), History of the House of Siemens (Freiburg/ Munich, 1957) CHEMICALS (CHAPTER 9) The following suggestions for further reading are intended for the general reader For the specialist by far the best sources are the proliferation of articles to be found in contemporary chemical journals, particularly the Journal of the Society of the Chemical Industry and Transactions of the Chemical Society Books and Articles: J J Beer, The Emergence of the German Dye Industry (Urbana, Illinois, 1959) L F Haber, The Chemical Industry in the Nineteenth Century (1958) A J Idhe, 'Chemical Industry, 1780-1900', Journal of World History, (1957-58) A E Musson, Enterprise in Soap and Chemicals: Crosfield & Sons Ltd (1966) H W Richardson, 'The Development of the British Dyestuffs Industry before 1939', Scottish Journal of Political Economy, IX (1962) Sir Henry Roscoe, Autobiography (1906) C Singer et al., A History of Technology (1958), Vol V C.H Wilson, History of Unilever (1954), Vol 370 BIBLIOGRAPHIES Official Publications: Board of Trade, British and Foreign Trade and Industry, 1st Series, Cd 1761 (1903) and 2nd Series, Cd 2337 (1904) Board of Trade, Competition with Germany and Austria-Hungary in Neutral Markets (1914) THE GLASS INDUSTRY (CHAPTER 10) Very few of the books written about glass deal with the economic problems of the industry There is a particular dearth of printed material about the vicissitudes of flint glass manufacture in this period Books and Articles: T C Barker, Pilkington Brothers and the Glass Industry (1960) George E Barnett, Chapters on Machinery and Labor (Harvard, 1926) R S Biram, 'The Introduction of the Owens Machine into Europe', Journal of the Society of Glass Technology (JSGT), 42 (1958) John L Carvel, The Al/oa Glass Work (privately printed, 1953) James Frederick Chance, A History of the Firm of Chance Brothers & Co (privately printed, 1919) Pearce Davis, The Development of the American Glass Industry (Harvard, 1949) S English, 'The Ashley Bottle Machine: A Historical Note', JSGT, (1923) Edward Meigh, The Development of the Automatic Glass Bottle Machine (reprinted by the Glass Manufacturers' Federation from Glass Technology), (1960) Harry J Powell, Glassmaking in England (1923) Warren C Scoville, Revolution in Glassmaking, 1880-1920 (Harvard, 1948) W E S Turner, 'The Early Development of Bottle Making Machines in Europe', JSGT, 22 (1938) Unofficial Report: Report of the Tariff Commission, (1907) THE MERCANTILE MARINE (CHAPTER 11) There is no single study which covers fully the issues raised in this chapter However, the following publications contain some material on foreign competition and related topics and will prove useful to those wishing to pursue their studies further In addition, there are some useful articles from time to time in the shipping journals, notably Fairplay and The Shipping World, and occasional supplements on shipping in The Economist 371 THE DEVELOPMENT OF BRITISH INDUSTRY Books and Articles: D H Aldcroft, 'The Depression in British Shipping, 1901-1911', Journal of Transport History, (1965) K Brackmann, Fiinfzig Jahre deutscher Afrikaschiffahrt (Berlin, 1935) C E Fayle, A Short History of the World's Shipping Industry (1933) F B Herschel, Entwicklung und Bedeutung der Hamburg-Amerika Linie (Berlin, 1912) R S J Hoffman, Great Britain and the German Trade Rivalry, 1875-1914 (Philadelphia, 1933) B Huldermann, Albert Ballin (1922) A H John, A Liverpool Merchant House: Being the History of Alfred Booth and Company, 1863-1958 (1959) E R Johnson and G G Huebner, Principles of Ocean Transportation (New York, 1918) C Leubuscher, The West African Shipping Trade, 1909-1959 (1963) R Meeker, History of Shipping Subsidies (1905) E Murken, Die grossen transatlantischen Linienreederei Verbiinde, Pools und Interessentengemeinschaften bis zum Ausbruch des Weltkrieges lhre Entstehung, Organization und Wirksamkeit (Berlin, 1922) S Pollard, 'British and World Shipbuilding, 1890-1914: A Study in Comparative Costs', Journal of Economic History, 17 (1957) P F Stubmann, Albert Ballin: Ein Deutscher Reeder auf Internationalen Feld (Hamburg, 1957) S G Sturmey, British Shipping and World Competition (1962) Official Publications: Select Committee on Steamship Subsidies, H.C 385, 1902 Royal Commission on Shipping Rings, Reports and Evidence, 1909 Report on Bounties and Subsidies in respect of Shipbuilding, Shipping and Navigation in Foreign Countries, Cd 6899, 1913 Report of the Departmental Committee on Shipping and Shipbuilding after the War, Cd 9092, 1918 372 INDEX Accles, George, 213 Ackermann, A S E., 56, 59 Ackroyd, Stuart, 217 Adamsons, firm of, 205 Agricultural machinery, 188, 210-12 Ainsworth, George, 93 Alkali Act (1881), 283 Alkali production, 280-6 Allen, G C., 215 Allgemeine Elektrizitiits Gesellschaft, 240,244,253,255,257,258,266,268 America, 40; boot and shoe industry in, 167, 170; competition from, 158, 161-2; chemical industry in, 278-9, 280; coal industry in, 44 7; as competitor in trade, 18-21, 30; cotton industry in, 101-2, 113, 117, 119, 121-4, as rival to British cotton industry, 121-4; decline of American shipping, 326; electrical industry in, 239-40, 250 passim, competition from, 258 61, 265, 266-8, 273; engineering industry in, 228-30; footwear machinery, development of, 164-5; growth of economy, 1213; harvesting machinery, 211; iron and steel industry in, 72-4, 86-7; locomotives, 201-2; market for British cotton goods, 115; motor industry in, 224 5; plate glass industry in, 320; tariffs, 22, 31, 107, 115, 148, 194, 296, 320; textile machinery, 192 4, 212 American General Electric Company, 207,242-3 American Locomotive Company, 197 American Special Machine Company Limited, 165 American Window Glass Company, 319,324 Anchor Line, 356 Andrew, Samuel, 118 Anglo-American British Electric Light Corporation, 244 Arbogast, Philip, 314 Argentina, exports of British cottons to, 114; exports of British engineering products to, 228-9 Arkwright, Richard, 126 Armstrong, William, 189 Arnall, J C., 312 Ashley, H M., 312 Ashley (Machine Made) Bottle Company, 312 Austin, Herbert, 226 Australia, American and British competition in, 170-1 ; as market for boots and shoes, 160-1 Austrian Small Arms Factory, 214 Austro-Hungary, as exporter of wool textiles, 140 Automatic loom, 121-2 Babcock and Wilcox, 205 Bagley and Company, 312 Ballin, Albert, 348, 349, 359 Barclay Curle and Company, 221 Bayer Company, 303 Belgium, coal industry in, 44 7; competitor in glass trade, 318; exports of wool textiles from, 140; iron and steel output of, 72 4; trade in iron and steel products, 76, 82-3, 85-7 Bessemer steel, 92, 93 Beyer Peacock, 197, 199,201 Bicycles, 213-16, 234; development of the industry, 213-14; employment in, 213-14; finance for, 234; producers of, 213-15; production of, 213-16, boom in, 214 15; slump in, 215; success of, 214 Birmingham Small Arms Company, 213 Black Country, coal output of, 38 Blake, Lyman, 164 Bolckow Vaughan, 89 Bombay and Lancashire Cotton Spinning Enquiry (1888), 120 Boot and shoe industry, 28, 30, 32, 33, 158-85; ability to compete, 180; availability of capital, 169; centralized production, 172, 175-7, 178; changes in geographical distribution of the industry, 172-3, 174 5; cheap labour, effects of, 168; employment in, 172, 173-5; exports of, 158-62, fluctuations in, 158-9, markets for, 159 60; factory system, development of, 166-8, 172, 175-8; foreign competition, 158-9, 161-2, 373 169-71, adaptation of industry to, 172 passim, 183 4; imports of boots and shoes, into Britain, 161, into Australia, 170 ; innovations in marketing, 182-3; mechanization of, 162-6, 167-8, factors determining, 168-9, 176-7, 183; methods of remuneration in, 178-9, disputes over, 178-80; number of factories and workshops in, 166-7; organization of, 162, 166 9, 172; putting-out system, 166 8, decline of, 176-8; relative decline of industry after first world war, 184; role and viability of small firm, 180 2; unions in, 172, 175-6, 178-80 Booth Line, 344-5 Borsig, firm of, 197 Bottlemaking machinery, 312-5, 316-7 Bowley, A L., 289 Brackmann, K., 335, 338 Bradbury's, firm of, 190 Bradford, Chamber of Commerce, 143, 144, 145, 148, 151; Dyers' Association, 151; Mechanics Institute, 146; Technical School, 146; wool trade, 142-3, 144-5 Bradford Observer, 132, 135, 155 Brazil, market for British cotton goods, 114; market for British engineering products, 228 Bremen Atlas Line, 339 British India Line, 334 British Insulated Wire Company, 263 British Northrop Loom Company, 195 British Plate Glass Company, ~21 British Thomson-Houston, 207, 244, 251,262,265,266,271 British United Shoe Machinery Company, 165,181 Brooks and Doxey, firm of, 192 Brotherhoods, firm of, 206 Brown-Boveri, firm of, 206,253, 254-5 Brown, Charles, 252 Brown, John and Company, 89, 220 Brown Marshalls, firm of, 203, 207 Brown and Sharpe, firm of, 212 Brown, T E F01,ter, 61 Brown, William, 214 Brunner Mond, 282, 286 Brush, C F., 244, 255 Brush Company, 244-5, 246,250,258 Buck and Hickman, firm of, 212 Burn,D., 81, 89,90,95, 96 Burnham and Hoskins, 91 Busch, Adolph, 218 Cables, manufacture of, 262-5, 268 Callenders, firm of, 263 Cammell Laird, 220 Campbell Machine Company, 165 Candlish, J J., 311 Candlish, Robert and Son Limited, 311 Cannington and Shaw, firm of, 312 Capital, availability of, in boot and shoe industry, 169, in engineering, 234; invested in coal industry, 37 Capital accumulation, 14; for industrial investment and finance see under separate industry headings Carnegie, Andrew, 79 Castle Line, 337 Castner, H Y., 280 Castner-Kellner Alkali Company, 285 Census of Production (1907), 129, 134, 295 Central London Railway, 242 Chamberlain, Joseph, 81,309 Chances, glass firm, 318 Chemical industry, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 274-306; alkali production, 280-6; Britain remains a net exporter of chemicals, 293; chemical production as proportion of total industrial production, 292; comparison of British and German chemical trade, 288 passim; dyestuffs, failure of in Britain, 286-7, reasons for, 286, success of German dyes, 286-7; employment in, 279-80; exports of chemical products, 285, 289-98; foreign competition in, 288 passim, 294-5; growth of, 279; imports of chemicals into Britain, 287, 289-98; lack of trained manpower in, 301-2; lag in certain products, 280; Leblanc soda, 281-6; markets for British chemicals, 294-5; narrow specialization in, 295, 297; neglect of research and development by, 302-6, contrast with Germany, 302-5; patent laws, effects of, 288, 299-300; production of chemicals, 278, international comparisons of, 278-9; profitability, 285; relative decline of 374 British chemical industry, 279-80, 293, reasons for, 288 passim; sensitivity of chemical exports and imports to changes in income and total trade, 290 2; soap industry, development of, 280 1; Solvay process, 281-3, competitor with Leblanc process, 281-6, effects of, on soda prices, 283 4, reasons for slow adoption of Solvay process in Britain, 284-5; tariffs, effects of, on British exports, 296; transport costs, 300 1; weighting of chemicals in overseas trade, 292-3, 298 China, market for British cotton goods, 107, 112-13 Churchill, Charles, 212 Civil War, American, 326 Clapham, J H., 135, 151, 154 Clarke, Chapman and Company, 206, 254 Clayton Aniline Company, 286 Clayton and Shuttleworth, 188, 207, 208 Climacteric, in growth, 12, causes of, 14, debate on, 14-15 Clothworkers' Company, 146 Clyde Locomotive Works, 197 Coal industry, 28, 30, 33, 34, 35, 37-70; absenteeism among miners, 52-3; attitude of miners, 51-5; capital invested in, 37, 65; coal consumption, 39, 40, 48; coal freight rates, 41; coal owners, 63, 67; costs in, 41, 47, 69; development of 37 42; efficiency of, 44, 48-50, 54, 56, 69; employment in, 47, 49, 50 1, 64; exports of, 39 41, 42, 44; fluctuations in prosperity, 37, 42-3, 67, 68; German coal industry, 40 1, 45, 49, 64-5; management in, 55, 57, 60 1, 62-3, comparison with Germany, 62, training of, 61, remuneration of, 63; mechanization in, 56 9, reasons for lag in, 57-9, effects of cheap labour on rate of, 59; output of, 38, 42, 48, 65, regional breakdown, 38, 48, 65; ownership of minerals, 66; position of industry by 1914, 37, 69; prices of coal, 42, 44; productivity in, 45-6, 49, relative decline in, 47, 49, 50 1, causes of, 50 passim; scale economies in, 67; scope for investment, 67; size of undertakings, 63 4, comparison with abroad, 64-5; integration of, 66, 67; structural defects, 63-6, 67; transport costs, 66; wages in, 43, 45 Coatalen, Louis, 226 Coats, J and P., 126 Colliery Guardian, 56 Colville, David, 93 Competition, foreign, general: ch 1, dimensions of, 17-26; main competitors, 17-26; reaction of British industrialists to, 31-3, 142-52; summary of impact on various industries, 28-31, 35-6; specific: in boot and shoe industry, 158-9, 161-2, 169-71; in chemicals, 288 passim, 294-5; in coal industry, 39, 40, 48; in cotton industry, 101, 1034, 106 8, 111-15, 118, 125; in electrical industry, 255-61; in engineering, 227-37; in glass industry, 310, 311, 318, 320 1, 325; in iron and steel, 72-6, 79, 84-6; in wool textiles, 134, 139, 140, 143-5; in shipping, 328, 329, 330 1, 334-6, 337-8, 343 4, 345, 347-57, 360, 362-3 Conference system, see under Shipping Consett, iron company, 89, 93; reconstruction of, 93 Consolidated Diesel Engine Manufacturers Limited, 220 Convention Internationale des Glaceries, 321 Co-operative Wholesale Society, 165 Coppock, D J., 14 Corliss, engine, 207,220; valve, 205 Cotton Famine, 103 Cotton industry, 28, 30, 33, 34, 100 27; automatic loom, 121-2, neglect of, in Britain, 121-2; Britain's share of world trade in cotton goods, 118, 126; continued predominance of British cotton industry, 125; costs of production in, 120, 123 4, 126; demand for protection by, 116; development of industry abroad, 101-8, 116 17; efficiency of, 118, 120 1, 123-6; exports of (piece-goods), 108-15, (yarns), 104-8; foreign competition in, 101, 103 4, 106 8, 111-15, 118, 125; geographical 375 concentration of, 119; growth of, 100-1 passim; home consumption of cotton textiles, 103 ; imports of cotton goods, 104; main competitors of, 116 -17; markets for British cottons, 104-15, 126; merchant system in, 124-5, efficiency of, 125; mule, use of, 121-2; overproduction, 118; profitability of, 102, 127; position of prior to first world war, 100; raw cotton supply, 102-3; reliance on export trade, 100; ring spindle, use of, 121-2; specialization in, 119-20, 126; superior skill of British cotton operative, 120; tariffs, effects of, 108, 116, 117-18, 126; technology in, 121-3, 126 Coventry Machinists Company, 213, 214 Coventry Sewing Machine Company, 190 Cravens, machine tool firm, 208 Crimean War, 67 Crompton and Company, 245,250,271 Crompton, R E B., 245, 249, 255, 270,271 Crosfields and Sons, 280 Crossley, Francis, 216 Cunard Company, 351, 352-3, 354-6' relationships with foreign shipping lines, 352-5 Curtis and Sons, 187, 192 De la Vergne Company, 217 Dick, Kerr and Company, 255, 258, 260 Diesel Engine Company, 218,220 Diesel, Rudolph, 217,220 Dingley tariff, 31, 148,194,296, 320 Dobson and Barlow, 187, 192 Domestic market, for coal, 39; for cotton textiles, 101-3; foreign competition in, 25-6; slow growth of, 25, 34, effects of, on industry, 34-5, 75, 77, on engineering, 235, on steel, 77, 97; for woollen goods, 135; see also under separate industry headings Dorman Long, 89, 95 Dowlais, 89 Dubs, firm of, 186 Dubs, Henry, 197 Duisberg, Carl, 303 Dumping, in iron and steel, 79, 90 Dyer, H J., 282 Dyestuffs industry, 286 -7 East Africa, competition in shipping, 337; establishment of shipping lines to, 334-5 Economic history, approach to, 11 ; quantitative, 11; study of, 11 Economic growth, dimensions of, 11 ; international comparisons, 12-13; retardation in (1870-1914), 12-14; statistics on, 13 Economist, The, 183, 332 Edison General Electric, 239, 240 Efficiency, see u.1der productivity and separate industry headings Egypt, market for cotton goods, 107, 114 Eight-Hours Act (1908), 54 Electric Construction Corporation, 249,250,255,256,262,270 Electric lamps, manufacture of, 265-6 Electrical industry, 25-6, 29, 33, 35, 238-73; cable manufacture, 262-5, success of, 263 4, trade in cables, 264, 268; competition of foreign suppliers, 255-61 ; demand for tariffs, 273; depression in,246; development of electrical manufacturing firms, 244-6, 248-9, 250 4, 255-6, 269; development of electricity supply in Britain, 248-50; entry of foreign firms into Britain, 250-6; exports of electrical products, 246 -7, 257, 258-61, 264, 267-8; favourable balance of trade in electrical products, 239,267; imports of electrical products, 247,250, 2558, 259-61, 264, 266, 267-8; an international industry, 239 40, 266 7, 268, dominated by American and German firms, 240, 244, 265-6, 268, 273; investment in, 239, 242, 255; lack of co-operation between manufacturer and consumer, 272; lag in power station equipment by British firms, 253 4, 255; management in, 271, friction between management and engineers, 270-1 ; marketing system of, 269; markets for electrical products, 246 -7, 25861, 267-8; organization of the 376 British electrical industry compared with abroad, 268-73; output of electrical products in 1907, 241 ; position of heavy electrical manufacturing in early 1890s, 250; pricefixing agreements in, 265; production of heavy electrical machinery and power station equipment, 2524; production of electric lamps and dominance of foreign firms in, 265-6; profitability of, 261-2, 263; use of electricity in Britain before 1914, 238, 240 44, for communications, 242-3, 249-50, in factories, 243, for lighting, 241-2, 248 Electricity supply, see under electrical industry Elliot, Sir George, 65 Employment, in boot and shoe industry, 172, 173-5; in chemical industry, 279-80; in coal industry, 47, 49, 50-1, 64; in cotton industry, 100; in engineering, 186 88, 196, 203-4, 213-4; in iron and steel, 71 Engineering industry, 29, 30, 32-3, 34, 186 237; agricultural machinery, 188, 210-2; bicycles, 213-6, 234; competitive position of, 227-37, compared with America and Germany, 228-32; effects of slow economic growth on, 235; exports of, 193-5, 198-203, 227-9, market distribution of, 228-30; finance for 234-5; gas and oil engines, 216 22; grain milling and harvesting machinery, 210-12; hydraulic machinery, 189; labour in, 232-3; machine tools, 208-9; mass production techniques, 209, 212,224-6, 231, 235-6; motor cars, 222-6; new sector, 209 passim; organization of industry in 1860s, 186 91; output of, in 1907, 192; overcommitment to certain branches, 230-1 ; railway locomotives and rolling stock, 186, 187, 195-205; role of enterprise in, 2334; sewing machines, 163-4, 189-90, 212; size of firms, 187-8, 196 7, 201-3, 206 8; steam engines and turbines, 205-8, 219; technical shortcomings in, 191, 231, 236; textile machinery, 191-5; weaknesses of industry in general, 230-3, 235-6; see also under separate branches, e.g bicycles, machine tools, textile machinery English Edison Company, 246 Enterprise, British, 14-16; criteria of entrepreneurial progressiveness, 275-7; contemporary criticism of, 15-16, 17; constraints on, 276; in boot and shoe industry, 172 passim, 183-4; in coal industry, 55 passim; in engineering, 233-4; in glass industry, 307, 318-20; in iron and steel, 93-4,95, 98; inshipping,359,361; see also under separate industry headings Erickson, C J., 129 Europaischer Verband der Flaschenfabriken, 316,317,318 Europe, imports of boots and shoes into Britain from, 161-2, imports into, from America and Britain, 171 ; market for British cotton goods, ll5; market for British exports, 19-20; market for engineering products, 228-9; market for iron and steel products, 81-6 Exports, general: 14, 17; country shares of world exports, 21 ; growth in British, 13, 17-20, 23; international comparisons, 13, 18-21; markets for, 19-21, 23; structure of trade in, 23; trade losses of Britain, 22; of specific industries: boots and shoes, 158-62; chemicals, 285, 28998; coal, 39-41, 42, 44; cotton textiles, 100, 104-15; electrical products, 246 7, 257, 258-61, 264, 267-68; engineering, 193-5, 198203, 227-9; glass, 308,310,313,319, 321; iron and steel, 75-6, 77, 82-6; wool textiles, 134-8, 140-1, 153-7 Factory system, development of, in boot and shoe industry, 166 8, 172, 175-8 Fairbairn, W., firm of, 197 Fairplay, 341 Feinstein, C H., 289 Ferranti, S Z., 248-9, 252, 253, 271 Fife Coal Company, 65 Finance, availability of, in boot and shoe industry, 169; in engineering, 234; see also under Capital and separate industry headings 377 Ford, Edward, 320 Foreign competition, see under Competition and separate industry headings Forster, John, 314 Foster, John and Son, 137 Fourcault Company, 324 Fourcault, Emile, 318 France, 40; chemical industry in, 278; coal industry in, 45, 49; cotton industry in, 104, 115, 117, 119; exports of wool goods from, 140-1; failure of shipping subsidy policy, 336; French competition, 30, 35; French superiority in all wool worsteds, 143, 144 5; market for British cotton goods, 115; motor car industry in, 222-3 Franco-Prussian War, 67 Freight rates, for coal, 41; in shipping, 343,344,345-6 Fresnel, A J., 282 Friedrich, Carl, 271 Gamble, J.C and Sons, 286 Garforth, W E., 59 Garretts, firm of, 188 Gas and oil engines, 216-22; development of new types, 216-17; diesel engine, 219, antagonism towards, 219, slow adoption of, by shipbuilders and shipowners, 219-20; heavy oil engines, 218; producers of, 217; use of, 221 General Electric Company, 244, 253, 255, 262, 265, 266, 268,271; formed by amalgamation, 239 German East African Company, 333-4, 335, 337-8, 340; competitor with English shipping lines, 334, 337-8, 344; prosperity of, 338; resources of 338; subsidies to, 334 German Edison Company, 240; later the Allgemeine Elektrizitii.ts Gesellschaft German Levant Line, 358 Germany, chemical industry in, 278, 281 passim; coal industry in, 40-1, 45, 49, 64 5; competition from, 1821, 30, in chemicals, 278-9, 294 5, in cotton textiles, 116-17, in electrical products, 255-6, 258-61, 265, 266-8, 273, in engineering, 228-9, in iron and steel, 72 passim, in shipping, 330 1, 334 5, 337-8, 340, 342-6, 348-57, 360; cotton industry in, 119; electrical industry in, 339-40; engineering industry in, 228-30; exports of wool goods, 140; growth of the economy, 12-13; iron and steel industry in, 72-4, 86-7; locomotives, 202-3; market for British cotton textiles, 115; preferential railway rates, 336-7; shipbuilding, duty free raw materials for, 339-40; shipping industry, competition from, 330 1, 334-5, 337-8, 340, 342-6, 348-57, 360, and conference system, 342-6, enterprise in, 359, organization of, 342, 358-9, and pooling agreements on North Atlantic, 348-57, subsidies to, 33342 Giffen, Sir Robert, 332 Glass Bottle Makers' Society, 314 Glass industry, 28-9, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 307-25; bottle glass, 311-18, adoption of bottlemaking machinery, 312-15, competition from abroad, 311, development of new machinery for, 312-13, 315, international agreement to control output, 316-17, licensing arrangements for bottlemaking machinery, 315-17, trade in, 313; competitive position of British glass industry, 324 5; criticism of enterprise in, 307; different branches of, 308; exports of, 308, 310, 313, 319, 321; flint glass, 309-10, impact of foreign competition on, 310, relative importance of labour costs in, 309; foreign competition in glass products, 310, 311, 318, 320 1, 325; imports of glass into Britain, 308, 310, 313, 319, 321; output of, 308, 322; weaknesses of, 308, 325; window glass, 318-23, attitude of Pilkingtons to control of output, 322-3, competition in, 320 1, hit by tariffs, 320, international control of output, 321-2, mechanization in, 320, revival of window glass sector under Pilkingtons, 318-19, weaknesses of, in 1870, 318 Gloucester Company, 204 Goodyear, Charles, 164 378 Goodyear Company, 164, 165 Grain milling and harvesting machinery, 210-2; comparison with United States, 211; development of, 210 Great Depression (1873-96), 11 Great Eastern, 189 Great Exhibition (1851), 191 Greens, firm of, 205 Greenwood and Batley, 186 Growth, of British economy, 12-13; retardation in, 12-14, reasons for, 14 15 Guest, Keen and Nettlefolds, 65 Gulbenkian, Calouste, 221 Gwynne, James S., 189 Habakkuk, H J., 222 Hall and Stells, 194 Halske-Siemens Schuckertwerke, 244, 266,271 Hamburg-American Line, 344 5, 347, 348-9,355,357 Hamburg-South American Line, 344, 345 Hansa Company, 343 Hawks Crawshay, firm of, 187 Hawthorns, firm of, 199 Harland and Wolff, 220 Hemming, J., 282 Herbert, Alfred, 213 Herbert, Alfred and Company, 213 Hetheringtons, firm of, 192 Hick Hargreaves, firm of, 197, 222, 206 Higgins, C F., 253 Hinrichsen, S., 116 Hodges, Frank, 53 Hodges, Isaac, 62 Holland-American Line, 349 Holt, John, 360 Hooker, R H., 52 Hooley, Ernest T., 214 Hopkinson, Edward, 249 Hornsby, Richard, firm of, 188,217 Horrockes, Crewdsen and Company, 127 Howard and Bullough, firm of, 122, 192,193 Howden, James, 207 Hydraulic machinery, manufacture of, 189 Illinois Steel Company, 96 Imlah, A H., 289 Imports, into Britain, general, 25-6; of boots and shoes, 161-2; of chemicals, 287, 289-98; of cotton textiles, 104; of electrical products, 247, 250, 255-8, 259-61, 264, 266, 267-8; of engineering products, 229; of glass, 308, 310 313, 319, 321; of iron and steel, 75, 87; of wool textiles, 139; see also under separate industry headings India, 118; competitor in cotton trade, 124; exporter of cotton goods, 106; as market for British cotton textiles, 106, 111-12; rise of cotton industry in, 111 ; shipping competition in, 343 India Rubber and Gutta Percha Company, 245,263 Industrial production, growth of, 12-13 Industry, general: efficiency of, 24, 33-5; factors affecting British industry's ability to compete, 24 5; overcommitment in, 23-4; reaction of industrialists to foreign competition, 31-3; structure of, 23-4; techniques in, 32; see also under separate industry headings Investment, rate of, 14; see also under Capital and separate industry headings Iron and Coal Trades Review, 92 Iron and Steel industry, 23, 24, 28, 30, 32, 33, 34, 71-99; competition in, 72-6, 79, 84; consumption of iron and steel, 77-8; costs in, 88, comparison with other countries, 88-9, 90, 97; dumping, 79, 90; efficiency of, 24, 81, 96; exports of, 75-6, 77, 82-6, international comparisons of, 84-6; growth of, 24; importance of iron and steel industry to British economy, 71; imports of iron and steel, 75, 87; integration, 95-6; lack of enterprise in, 93-4, 95, 98; lack of trained recruits in, 90-1 ; markets for iron and steel products, 77, 82-5; neglect of basic ores, 89; output statistics, 72-5; relative decline in Britain, 72, 75, 87, reasons for, 97, 98; slow growth in domestic market, effect of, 77, 97; tariffs, impact of, 98; technical Jag in, 89-90, 92-3; Thomas process of steelmaking, 89 379 Italy, competitor in cotton trade, 114, 117 Japan, 30; competitor in cotton trade, 106 7, 111, 113, 117, 124, 125; cotton industry, employment in, 120; development of cotton industry 106 7, 112; self-sufficiency of, 62 Jevons, H S., 44, 67 Johnson, Claude, 226 Jones, Sir Alfred, 360 Jones and Potts, firm of, 197 Journal of the Chemical Society, 303 Kaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaft Institute, 305 Kendrick, J W., 17 Kelvin, Lord, 218 Kendal, boot and shoe industry of, 172 Kettering, boot and shoe industry in, 172 Kilner Brothers, firm of, 314 Kindleberger, C P., 14, 23 Kirtley, Matthew, 196 Labour disputes, in boot and shoe industry, 178-9 Labour force, in boot and shoe industry, 172, 173-5; in chemical industry, 279-80; in coal industry, 47, 49, 50-1, 64; in cotton industry, 100; in erg'neering, 186 88, 196, 203-4, 213-14; in iron and steel industry, 71 Lancashire Dynamo and Motor Company, 262 Langs, firm of, 209 Lawson, Harry J., 214 Leblanc process, 281 Lee, J C., 125 Leeds, boot and shoe industry in, 172 Leeds Forge Company, 204 Leeds Mercury, 312 Lees, Asa, firm of, 192 Leicester, boot and shoe industry in, 172, 174, 175 Levinstein, Ivan, 286, 287, 302, 303 Lever Brothers, 280 Libbey, E D., 315 Liverpool Overhead Railway, 242 London, boot and shoe industry in, 173 London Electric Supply Corporation, 248,249 London and Manchester Plate Glass Company, 321 Lubbers, John H., 319 Lubin and Everett, remarks on coal industry by, 37, 70 Lumb, John and Company, 314 Machine tools, 26, 186, 191, 192, 208-9, 235 6; firms in, 208-9; and mass production techniques, 235 6; position of industry, 209 Mckenzie, F A., American Invaders (1902), 16 Mckinley tariff, 22, 31, 107, 115, 148, 194,320 Maidstone Agricultural Exhibition (1899), 211 Manchester, role of merchant in cotton trade, 125 Manchester Chamber of Commerce, 116 Manufacturers, world trade in, 18-21; see also under Exports and separate industry headings Markel, Karl, 300 Marketing, in cotton industry, 124-5; innovations in, 182-3; weaknesses of, in iron and steel industry, 80-1 Marshall, A., 16, 41; Industry and Trade (1919), 16 Marshall Field and Company, 125 Marshalls, firm of, 188,207 Mass production, techniques of, 209, 212,224 6, 231,235 Massey, B & S., firm of, 208, 233, 236 Massey, Leonard, 236 Mather and Platt, 207, 233, 246, 249, 250 Mather, Sir W., 246 Maudsley Sons and Field, 188, 208 Mechanization, see under separate industry headings Mediterranean Steerage Conference, 350 Meeker, R., 335 Meline tariff, 118 Mertz, Charles, 231,254,272 Metropolitan Railway Carriage and Wagon Company, 187,203,204 Metropolitan Vickers Electrical Company, 207 Meyer, J R., 14 Midland Company, 204 380 North British DieselEngine Works, 221 North British Railway, 196 North Eastern Steel Company, 90 North German Lloyd, 332, 333, 335, 347, 349, 357, 359 Northampton, boot and shoe industry in, 172, 174 Norwich, boot and shoe industry in, 172 Migration, to United States, 348 Miners' Federation, 51 Mirrlees Bickerton and Day, firm of, 220 Mirrlees, Watson and Yaryan, firm of, 218 Mitchell, Henry, 142, 146 Morday, W M., 253 Motor car industry, 222-6; comparison with France and United States, 223-5; development of petrol engine, 222-3; finance for, 234-5; firms in, 222-4, origins of, 224; in France, 223; new manufacturing techniques, slow adoption of, in Britain, 224, reasons for, 225-6; output, 223-4 Murken, E., 354 Oerlikon Company, 252, 253 Oil engines, see under gas and oil engines Oldham, limited liability companies, 126 Oldham Master Cotton Spinners' Association, 118 Oldknow, Samuel, 126 Orsagh, T G., 92, 93 Otto, Dr, 216 Output, see under separate industry headings Owens, M J., 315, 324 Owens Bottle Machine Company, 316 National Association of Colliery Managers, 56, 61 National Gas Engine Company, 217 National income, contribution of iron and steel industry to, 71 National Institute of Mining Engineers, 56,62 National output, contribution of iron and steel industry to, 71 ; statistics relating to, 13 National Union of Boot and Shoe Operatives, 172, 175, 176, 178-80; attitudes to centralized production in boot and shoe industry, 175-6; disputes over wage rates, 178-80; reactions to mechanization, 178-9 Neilson and Company, 186, 197 Neilson, Walter, 197 Nettlefold and Chamberlain, firm of, 190 Paris Exhibition (1855), 211 Parker, Thomas, 253 Parsons, Charles, 206,207,219, 254-5, 271 Nettlefold, John S., 190 New Premier Company, 214 New York Times, 208-9 New Zealand, market for British boots and shoes, 160-1 North Atlantic, competition between British and German shipping on, 347-57; passenger traffic on, 347-8, 352-7, division of traffic between various lines, 356 7; pooling agreements in passenger trade, 348-50, breakdown of, 352, 355; rates wars on, 352-3, 354, 355, and effects of, 355-7 Passenger trade, see under North Atlantic and Shipping Patent Law Amendment Act (1907), 299,316 Patent Shaft and Axle-Tree Company, 187,203,205 Patent Jaws, and chemical industry, 288,299-300 Patents, Designs and Trade Marks Act (1883), 299 Peninsular and Orient, 334, 353; competition with German shipping, 343 Penn, John, firm of, 188 Petrol engine, development of, 222-3 Philadelphia Exhibition (1876), 208 Philippi, E., 126 Pilkington Brothers, 318-23; and control of glass output, 321-3; enterprise of, 318-20; output of, 322 Pirrie, W J., 340 Platts, firm of, 186, 191, 192, 193; see also under Mather and Platt Pollard, S., 361 381 Pooling agreements, see under North Atlantic and Shipping Powell Duffryn Company, 65 Powell, H J., 307, 309, 323; criticism of glass industry by, 307, 323 Prince Smith and Son, 194 Productivity, 13, 14; in coal industry, 45-6, 47, 49, 50 1, causes of decline in passim; see also under separate industry headings Protection, see under Tariffs Pullinger, Thomas, 226 Putting-out system, in boot and shoe industry, 166 8, decline of, 176 Railway locomotives and rolling stock, 186, 187, 195-205; amalgamation of firms in, 204-5; competition in, 2013; employment in, 196; 203-4; exports of, 198-203; firms producing, 196 7, 203-4; output of, 197-8, 199-200; structure of industry, 195-6, 203 Railway rates, preferential in Germany, 336 7,338-9 Railways, electrification of, 242, 249, 250,251 Raleigh Company, 214 Ransomes, firm of, 207; Ransomes and Rapier, 188 Raw cotton, supply of, 102-3 Read Holliday and Sons, 286 Red Star Line, 349 Redmayne, Sir Richard, 52 Regulations, Board of Trade relating to shipping, 340 Reid, James, 197 Renold Chains, 233 Rheederei-Vereinigung, 359 Rhenish Westphalian Coal Syndicate, 65 Richardson, Thomas and Sons, 253 Ring spindles, 121-2 Robinsons, Thomas, firm of, 188, 210 Rolls Royce, 226 Royal Commission on Coal Supplies (1901-5), 58 Royal Commission on Depression of Trade and Industry (1886), 116, 125, 134,142 Royal Commission on Labour (1892), 152 Royal Commission on Shipping Rings (1909), 337, 339, 360 Royal Commission on Technical Instruction (1882), 303 Rudge, Dan, 214 Ruhr, the, coal industry of, 64 Russia,40 Russian Diesel Motor Company, 220 Ruston and Proctor, firm of, 186, 188, 207 St Gobain Company, 318 Salt, Sir Titus, 143 Samuel Commission (1919), 53, 59 Sankey Commission (1926), 52, 63 Saul, S B., 25, 294 Schlote, W., 289 Select Committee on Steamship Subsidies (1902), 337, 340 Sewing machines, 163-4, 189-90, 212; in boot and shoe industry, 163-4; firms producing, 212; manufacture of, 189-90, 212 Sexton, Professor, 94; comments on iron and steel industry, 94 Shadwell, A., Industrial Efficiency (1906), 16 Sharp Roberts, firm of, 208 Sharp Stewart, firm of, 197, 201 Shaw, Savill and Albion Line, 346 Sherman Act, 265 Shipbuilding industry, and adoption of diesel propulsion, 219; enterprise in, 361 ; German, 339; importance of, in Britain, 328; preferential tariffs for shipbuilding materials in Germany, 339-40 Shipping, 28, 34, 326-63; Board of Trade regulations relating to, 340 ; British shipowners' reaction to competition, 346, 355; conference system, 342-7, effects of, 342, 3434, 345-6; enterprise in, 359, 361; foreign competition in, 328, 329, 334-6, 337-8, 343-5, 347-57, 360; Germany as chief competitor, 330 1, 334 5, 341-2; organization of British and German shipping, 3589; passenger traffic on North Atlantic, 347-8, 352-7; preferential railway rates and German shipping, 336 7, 338-9; preferential tariffs for shipbuilding materials in Germany, 382 339-40; pooling agreements in passenger trade, 348-50, breakdown of, 352, 355, effects of, 355-7, rate wars in, 352-3, 354, 355; rate wars in, 343, 344, 345 6, 352, 353, 354, 355; relative position of British shipping, 326-7; reluctance to adopt diesel propulsion, 219; services to East Africa, 334 5; statistics on entrances and clearances, 329, 3623 ; strength of British shipping, 3268, 361; subsidies to, 331-42, effects of, 335, 340-1; wages costs in, 341 Shipping World, 330, 351 Ships, sale of, to foreigners, 326 Short, S H., 255, 271 Siemens, 244, 245, 250, 255, 258, 262, 266, 268; Brothers, 252, 255 6, 263, 273 ; Halske-Siemens Schuckertwerke, 244,266,271 Siemens, Alexander, 253 Siemens, Sir William, 244, 249 Singer Sewing Machine Company, 164, 190,212 Skelton, H J., 81 Smith and Coventry, firm of, 212 Snow, Lord, 206 Soap industry, 280-1 Society of Chemical Industry, membership of, 306 Solvay process, 281-6 South Africa, 337; market for boots and shoes, 160-1; shipping competition in, 337-8, 344 South America, market for boots and shoes, 160-1, for cotton goods, 114, for engineering products, 228-9; shipping competition in, 344 South Wales, coal output, 38 Stafford, boot and shoe industry in, 172, 173 Steam engines and turbines, 205-8, 219; firms producing, 206-8; manufacture of, 206-8; position of industry, 205 Steam power, used in iron and steel industry, 71 Stockholm Enskilda Bank, 220, 235 Stringer, George, 59 Sturmey, S G., 359 Subsidies, to shipping, 331-42 Swan Company, 246 Swift Cycle Company, 214 Sykes, Alfred, 150 Tangye, Richard,233 Tangyes, firm of, 189, 233 Tariff Commission, 72, 79, 88, 90, 91, 96, 103, 116, 134, 140, 147, 149, 309, 311 Tariffs, 31, 77; demand for, by cotton industry, 116; Dingley tariff, 31, 148, 194, 296, 320; duty free materials for shipbuilding in Germany, 33940; effects of protection, 22, 30-1, 98, on chemicals, 296, on cotton industry, 108, 116, 117-8, 126, on engineering industry, 235, on wool textile industry, 148-50, 156; German tariff of 1885, 339; Mckinley tariff, 22, 31, 107, 115, 148, 194,320 Technical education, in chemical industry, 303; in iron and steel industry, 90; in wool textile industry, 146-7, 147-8 Technical progress, 14, 32; in cotton industry, 121-3, 126; in glass industry, 312-15, 318-20, criticism of, 307; in shipping, 326, 361; in wool textile industry, 145, 150; lag of, in engineering, 191, 231, 236, in iron and steel, 32, 89-90, 92-3; see also under separate industry headings Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company, 245,262 Temin,P., 77,97,98,205 Tertiary sector, 12 Textile machinery, 191-5; British superiority in, 191; employment in, 191-2; exports of, 193, 195, to us market, 193; manufacturing techniques, 194 5; production of ring spindles, 193, 195; output of, 191-3; worsted machinery, 194 Textile Manufacturer, 145, 147 Thom, J., 282 Thomas, D A., 44, 65 Thomas process, 89 Thomson-Houston, 240; British Thomson-Houston, 244, 251, 262, 265,266,271 Tootal, Broadhurst, Lee and Company, 127 Trade, Britain's trade difficulties, 20-1, 383 causes of, 22-3, 24; structure of, 23; see also under Exports, Imports and separate industry headings Trade unions, 172, 175, 176, 178-80; in boot and shoe industry, 172, 1756, 178-80 Transport, costs of, in coal industry, 66, in chemical industry, 300-1 Turbines, see under Steam engines and turbines Turkey, market for cotton goods, 105, 107, 114 Turner, E R and F., firm of, 210 Turner, W E S., 307, 324 Tweedale and Smalley, firm of, 193 Tyser Line, 346 Union Boot and Shoe Company, 165 Union-Castle Company, 338, 344; formerly the Union and Castle companies Union Electric Company, 240 Union Line, 337 United Alkali Company, 282,285 United States of America, see under America United States Tariff Board, 124 Veblen, T., Imperial Germany and the Industrial Revolution (1915), 16 Vickers, Armstrong Whitworth, 218 Vulcan Foundry, 196, 199 Wages, cost of, in coal industry, 43, 45, in shipping industry, 341 Walker, Sidney F., 56 Ward, H W., 213 Webb, F W., 196 Well Line, 343 West Africa, competition in shipping, 360; tonnage of shipping employed in West African trade, 360 West Indies, 160 Westinghouse, firm of, 239, 244, 255, 266; British Westinghouse, 262, 268 Westinghouse, George, 251, 271 White Star Line, 346, 356, 357 Whitworth, Sir J., 208 Wiegand, H., 359 Wilcox and Gibbs, firm of, 212 Willan and Robinson, firm of, 206 Willans, Peter, 246 Williams, E E., Made in Germany (1896), 16 Wilson, E B., firm of, 197 Wilson tariff, 148 Windmill, J R., 315 WoermannLine, 360 Wool textile industry, 28-9, 32, 33, 35, 128-57; adaptation of woollen sector to foreign competition, 154-6; 'adulteration' of raw materials, 154-5; bankruptcies in, 132; British and foreign exports compared, 140-2; combination in, 151 ; competition in home market, 139, 143-4; contrast between woollen and worsted sectors, 153-4, 157; establishment of British firms abroad, 14950; exports of, 134-8, 140-1, 156, contrast between woollen and worsted exports, 135-7, revival of woollen exports, 153-7; fashion, effects of changes in, 143-5; foreign competition, 134, 140-1, 140-5, from France, 143, 144-5, in home market, 139-42, reactions to, 14252; growth of, 133 passim; Imperial markets, importance of, 156-7; importance of domestic market for wool textiles, 135; imports, 135,139; number of firms in, 130-1, with limited liability, 152; predominance of family firms in, 152; price-fixing agreements in, 151; problems of innovation, 143-4, 145; raw materials used by, 132-4, 154, 155, statistics of, 133; search for new products, 150-1; structure of, 12831; survival of firms in, 128-34; tariffs, effects of, 148-50, 156, resolutions on, 149; technical education, 146-7, lack of, 147-8; technological adaptation in, 145, 150 Woollens, see under Wool textile industry Worsteds, see under Wool textile industry Wright, Joseph, 203 Wrightson, Sir Thomas, 90 Yerkes, Charles T., 242 Younger, George and Sons, 314 384 ... then the decline in the rate of growth of exports explains a decline in the rate of production and in the required rate of investment And given a reduction in the rate of investment, a decline in. . .THE DEVELO PMENT OF BRITISH INDUST RY AND FOREIG N COMPE TITION 1875- 1914 THE DEVELOPMENT OF BRITISH INDUSTRY AND FOREIGN COMPETITION 1875- 1914 Studies in Industrial Enterprise EDITED... largely in terms of industry and trade, and as a result British businessmen and traders bore the brunt of the critical attacks made by writers in the national press, in the trade journals and in the