This comprehensive text brings together in one volume both consideration of the core methods available for undertaking qualitative data collection and analysis, and discussion of current challenges faced by all researchers in conducting qualitative research Qualitative Organizational Research: Core Methods and Current Challenges contains 27 chapters, each written by an expert in the area The first part of the volume considers current challenges in the design and execution of qualitative research, examining key contemporary debates in each area as well as providing practical advice for those undertaking organizational research The second part of the volume looks at contemporary uses of core qualitative methods in organizational research, outlining each method and illustrating practical application through empirical examples Written by internationally renowned experts in qualitative research methods, this text is an accessible and essential resource for students and researchers in the areas of organization studies, business and management research and organizational psychology QUALITATIVE ORGANIZATIONAL RESEARCH “What every qualitative researcher needs! This handbook provides both breadth and depth Breadth is important because the range of qualitative methods and techniques keeps on growing - this text will help researchers make informed choices about which methods to use in their work Depth is important for researchers to move beyond the traditional qualitative/ quantitative divide and to learn more about the complexity of theoretical assumptions that underlie different qualitative work.” Cynthia Hardy, Laureate Professor of Management, University of Melbourne, Australia SYMON & CASSELL “Catherine Cassell and Gillian Symon have over the years pioneered a new way of writing about qualitative research methods In this volume they and their contributors offer an exciting array of resources, demonstrating that rigour is not incompatible with imagination and that research can indeed be fun Their collection is an invaluable aid to the craft of the qualitative researcher.” Yiannis Gabriel, Chair of Organizational Theory, University of Bath, UK GILLIAN SYMON & CATHERINE CASSELL QUALITATIVE ORGANIZATIONAL RESEARCH CORE METHODS AND CURRENT CHALLENGES KEY FEATURES: • Coverage of all the key topics in qualitative research • Chapters written by experts drawing on their personal experiences of using methods • Introductory chapters outlining the context for qualitative research and the philosophies which underpin it GILLIAN SYMON is Reader in Organizational Psychology at Birkbeck, University of London CATHERINE CASSELL is Professor of Organizational Psychology at Manchester Business School Cover image © iStockphoto | Cover design by Lisa Harper www.allitebooks.com symon&cassell_the practice of qual_aw.indd 1-3 27/02/2012 12:22 Qualitative OrganizatiOnal ReseaRch www.allitebooks.com 00-Symon and Cassell-4341-Prelims.indd 11/02/2012 4:45:39 PM SAGE has been part of the global academic community since 1965, supporting high quality research and learning that transforms society and our understanding of individuals, groups and cultures SAGE is the independent, innovative, natural home for authors, editors and societies who share our commitment and passion for the social sciences Find out more at: www.sagepublications.com www.allitebooks.com 00-Symon and Cassell-4341-Prelims.indd 11/02/2012 4:45:40 PM gillian SymOn & Catherine CaSSell Qualitative OrganizatiOnal ReseaRch Core Methods and Current Challenges www.allitebooks.com 00-Symon and Cassell-4341-Prelims.indd 11/02/2012 4:45:40 PM Editorial arrangement © Gillian Symon and Catherine Cassell 2012 Chapter © Catherine Cassell and Gillian Symon 2012 Chapter © Joanne Duberley, Phil Johnson and Catherine Cassell 2012 Chapter © Mark N.K Saunders 2012 Chapter © Susanne Tietze 2012 Chapter © Kathryn Haynes 2012 Chapter © Robin Holt 2012 Chapter © Rudolf R Sinkovics and Eva A Alfoldi 2012 Chapter © Katrina Pritchard 2012 Chapter © Ann Langley and Inger Stensaker 2012 Chapter 10 © Laurie Cohen and M.N Ravishankar 2012 Chapter 11 © Joep Cornelissen, Hanna Gajewska-de Mattos, Rebecca Piekkari and Catherine Welch 2012 Chapter 12 © Gillian Symon and Catherine Cassell 2012 Chapter 13 © Mark Learmonth and Michael Humphreys 2012 Chapter 14 © Mats Alvesson and Karen Lee Ashcraft 2012 Chapter 15 © Binna Kandola 2012 Chapter 16 © Russ Vince and Samantha Warren 2012 Chapter 17 © Matthew J Brannan and Teresa Oultram 2012 Chapter 18 © Michael Humphreys and Mark Learmonth 2012 Chapter 19 © Dvora Yanow, Sierk Ybema and Merlijn van Hulst 2012 Chapter 20 © David A Buchanan 2012 Chapter 21 © Julie Wolfram Cox 2012 Chapter 22 © Bill Lee 2012 Chapter 23 © Graham J.J Kenealy 2012 Chapter 24 © Nigel King 2012 Chapter 25 © David Greatbatch and Timothy Clark 2012 Chapter 26 © Cliff Oswick 2012 Chapter 27 © Sally Maitlis 2012 First published 2012 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form, or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers SAGE Publications Ltd Oliver’s Yard 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP SAGE Publications Inc 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd B 1/I Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area Mathura Road New Delhi 110 044 SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte Ltd Church Street #10-04 Samsung Hub Singapore 049483 Library of Congress Control Number: 2011936798 British Library Cataloguing in Publication data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-0-85702-410-7 ISBN 978-0-85702-411-4 (pbk) Typeset by C&M Digitals (P) Ltd, Chennai, India Printed by MPG Books Group, Bodmin, Cornwall Printed on paper from sustainable resources www.allitebooks.com 00-Symon and Cassell-4341-Prelims.indd 11/02/2012 4:45:41 PM Contents Notes on Contributors viii Introduction: the context of qualitative organizational research Catherine Cassell and Gillian Symon Part I: The Issues and Challenges of Qualitative Inquiry in Organizational Research 13 Philosophies underpinning qualitative research Joanne Duberley, Phil Johnson and Catherine Cassell 15 Choosing research participants Mark N.K Saunders 35 Researching your own organization Susanne Tietze 53 Reflexivity in qualitative research Kathryn Haynes 72 Ethical research practice Robin Holt 90 www.allitebooks.com 00-Symon and Cassell-4341-Prelims.indd 11/02/2012 4:45:41 PM vi Qualitative Organizational Research Facilitating the interaction between theory and data in qualitative research using CAQDAS Rudolf R Sinkovics and Eva A Alfoldi 109 Combining qualitative methods Katrina Pritchard 132 Longitudinal research and analysis Ann Langley and Inger Stensaker 149 10 Doing qualitative business and management research in international and intercultural contexts Laurie Cohen and M.N Ravishankar 11 Writing up as a legitimacy seeking process: alternative publishing recipes for qualitative research Joep Cornelissen, Hanna Gajewska-de Mattos, Rebecca Piekkari and Catherine Welch 168 185 12 Assessing qualitative research Gillian Symon and Catherine Cassell 204 13 Teaching qualitative research in the business school Mark Learmonth and Michael Humphreys 224 Part II: Core Methods of Qualitative Inquiry in Organizational Research 237 14 Interviews Mats Alvesson and Karen Lee Ashcraft 239 15 Focus groups Binna Kandola 258 16 Participatory visual methods Russ Vince and Samantha Warren 275 www.allitebooks.com 00-Symon and Cassell-4341-Prelims.indd 11/02/2012 4:45:41 PM Contents 17 Participant observation Matthew J Brannan and Teresa Oultram 18 Autoethnography in organizational research: two tales of two cities Michael Humphreys and Mark Learmonth vii 296 314 19 Practising organizational ethnography Dvora Yanow, Sierk Ybema and Merlijn van Hulst 331 20 Case studies in organizational research David A Buchanan 351 21 Action research Julie Wolfram Cox 371 22 Using documents in organizational research Bill Lee 389 23 Grounded theory: a theory building approach Graham J.J Kenealy 408 24 Doing template analysis Nigel King 426 25 Conversation analysis in management research David Greatbatch and Timothy Clark 451 26 Discourse analysis and discursive research Cliff Oswick 473 27 Narrative analysis Sally Maitlis 492 Index 512 www.allitebooks.com 00-Symon and Cassell-4341-Prelims.indd 11/02/2012 4:45:41 PM Notes on Contributors Eva A Alfoldi is a Lecturer in International Business at Manchester Business School, University of Manchester Her research focuses on multinational subsidiary management, knowledge transfer and research methods in international business She received her PhD from the University of Leeds where she was the recipient of a Society for the Advancement of Management Studies (SAMS) scholarship She is currently working on publications from her thesis as well as on new projects, targeting journals such as the Journal of Management Studies, Management International Review, the Journal of World Business and the British Educational Research Journal She has a strong focus on developing and delivering innovative materials for qualitative research methods teaching She was born in Hungary and now lives and works in Manchester Mats Alvesson is Professor of Business Administration at the University of Lund, Sweden, and at the University of Queensland Business School, Australia He is also a Visiting Professor at Exeter University His research interests include critical theory, gender, power, management of professional service (knowledge intensive) organizations, leadership, identity, organizational image, organizational culture and symbolism, qualitative methods and philosophy of science Recent books include Theory Development and Qualitative Research (Sage, 2011, with Dan Kärreman), Interpreting Interviews (Sage, 2011), Metaphors We Lead By: Understanding Leadership in the Real World (Routledge, 2011, edited with Andre Spicer), Oxford Handbook of Critical Management Studies (Oxford University Press, 2009, edited with Todd Bridgman and Hugh Willmott), Understanding Gender and Organizations (Sage, 2009, 2nd edn, with Yvonne Billing), Reflexive Methodology (Sage, 2009, 2nd edn, with Kaj Sköldberg), Changing Organizational Culture (Routledge, 2008, with Stefan Sveningsson), and Knowledge Work and Knowledge-Intensive Firms (Oxford University Press, 2004) Karen Lee Ashcraft is a Professor in the Department of Communication at the University of Colorado at Boulder, USA, and an Associate Editor for Human Relations Her research examines organizational forms and occupational identities, with a particular emphasis on gender and race relations Her work has appeared in such venues as Administrative Science Quarterly, the Academy of Management Journal, Communication Theory and Communication Monographs Her co-authored book with Dennis Mumby, Reworking Gender, received the 2004 Book of the Year Award from the Organizational Communication Division of the National Communication Association www.allitebooks.com 00-Symon and Cassell-4341-Prelims.indd 11/02/2012 4:45:41 PM Notes on Contributors ix Matthew J Brannan is a lecturer in Management at the School of Management at Keele University He has also held a post at the Centre for Labour Market Studies, University of Leicester His research focuses upon the growth of the service sector and the contemporary experience of work using ethnographic techniques to gain an immersive insight into the world of work His work has included the use of role play in call centre recruitment and selection processes, the engagement of workers’ sexuality in customer service environments, the career path of female junior managers and employee branding David A Buchanan is Professor of Organizational Behaviour at Cranfield University School of Management, specializing in change management, change agency and organization politics He has a Doctorate in Organizational Behaviour from Edinburgh University and is the author/co-author of over two dozen books, one of which has been a bestseller since 1985: Organizational Behaviour (FT Prentice Hall, 2010, 7th edn, with Andrzej Huczynski) He is co-editor (with Alan Bryman) of The Sage Handbook of Organizational Research Methods (2009) and has written numerous book chapters, papers and articles on organizational behaviour, change and research methods Current projects include a study of the realities of management in healthcare and managing change in extreme contexts – including incidents that adversely affect patient safety in hospital Catherine Cassell is Professor of Organizational Psychology at Manchester Business School, University of Manchester, where she heads up the School’s People, Management and Organizations Division Catherine has spent many years working with Gillian Symon on promoting the use of qualitative methods in organizational, management and work psychology research, and this is their fourth edited book for Sage on this topic They also jointly edit Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal Catherine’s research interests are in the areas of organizational learning, change and fairness at work She is an Associate Editor of the British Journal of Management and also edits their Methodology Corner Timothy Clark is Professor of Organizational Behaviour at Durham Business School, Durham University In the last decade he has conducted a series of research projects into consultancy work and speaker–audience interaction during management guru lectures The publications emanating from these projects include Critical Consulting: New Perspectives on the Management Advice Industry (Blackwell, 2002, with Robin Fincham), Management Speak (Routledge, 2005, with David Greatbatch) and most recently Management Consultancy: Knowledge and Boundaries in Action (Oxford, 2008, with Andrew Sturdy, Robin Fincham and Karen Handley) He is currently working on a multidisciplinary project examining the emergence and nature of ‘Tipping Points’ www.allitebooks.com 00-Symon and Cassell-4341-Prelims.indd 11/02/2012 4:45:41 PM Index Figure and Tables are indicated by page numbers in bold Academy of Management Journal, 186, 190, 191, 193, 194, 198 Academy of Management Learning and Education, 326 Academy of Management Perspectives, 326 access for research, 36–7, 46, 120 and changed circumstances during research, 156 accounting and new technology, research on, 399–400 action research, 371–84 definition, 372 participation and, 373–4 and science, 377–9 scope, 373 sources, 373 transformational, 380 as worldview, 380 action science, 379 Adler, P and Adler, P., 172–3, 298, 299 Agar, M., 60, 69 Alazewski, A., 406 Allen, G., 481, 489 Allison, G.T., 162, 354 Altinay, L., 46 Alvesson, M., 20, 256 Alvesson, M et al, 76, 77 28-Symon and Cassell-4341-Index.indd 512 Alvesson, M and Kärreman, D., 476, 489 Alvesson, M and Sköldberg, K., 21, 30, 73 analytical coding, 123 Andersen, P.H and Skaates, M.A., 121 Anderson, L., 315, 325 anecdotalism, 122 anthropology, 333 appreciative inquiry, 380 archives, 394–5 Archives Hub, 394 Arendell, T., 55 Arendt, H., 106 Argyris, C and Schön, D.A., 379 Arribas-Ayllon, M and Walkerdine, V., 489 assessment of qualitative research, 204–21 criteria, 206–17 contingent criteriology (Johnson et al), 210, 212 discipline specific, 210–11 empirically derived, 213–14 parallel quality criteria (Guba and Lincoln), 206–8, 207 Spencer et al’s framework, 209 standards (Lincoln and Guba), 208–9 ‘universal’ (Tracy), 209–10, 211 11/02/2012 12:46:32 PM Index assessment of qualitative research cont criteria, arguments against, 217–20, 220–1 criteria, reasons for (Tracy), 205 and diversity of qualitative research, 221 guiding ideals (Schwandt), 219–20 and quantitative research, 204–5 Atkinson, P., 69 Atkinson, P et al, 347 Atkinson, P and Heritage, J., 452 autoethnography, 314–27 analysis, 316–17 as story-telling, 315–16 theories of self and identity, 315 writing and publishing, 324–7 Balogun, J et al, 150, 158 Balogun, J and Johnson, G., 165 Banner, J.M and Cannon, H.C., 225 Bansal, P and Corley, K., 193, 197, 199–200 Barley, S.R., 165 Barry, D., 382 Bartunek, J., 165 Bazeley, P., 127 Becker, H., 55, 69 Belova, O., 285 Bengtsson, L et al, 196, 197 Berelson, B., 396 Berger, P.L and Luckman, T., 55 Berliner, P.F., 227 Berreman, G., 300 Birkinshaw, J., 195, 201 Bitektine, A., 158–9, 363, 367 Bluhm, D.J et al, 201 Boje, D., 27, 509 Bourdieu, P., 98 Bourdieu, P and Wacquant, L., 88 Brannan, M.J., 311 Brannan, M.J and Hawkins, B., 311 Brannan, M.J and Priola, V., 311 Braun, V and Clarke, V., 429, 448 28-Symon and Cassell-4341-Index.indd 513 513 Brewer, J.D., 300 Bridge, K and Baxter, L.A., 69 British Library, 393, 394 Broadfoot, K et al, 132–3 Broussine, M., 290 Brown, A.D and Humphreys, M., 496 Brown, L.D and Tandon, R., 374 Bryant, J and Lasky, B., 496 Bryman, A., 135, 145 Buchanan, D and Dawson, P., 364 Buchanan, D et al, 362, 363 Buchanan, D.A and Badham, R., 351 Caelli, K et al, 29 Calás, M and Smircich, L., 82–3 Campbell, D., 356–7 Campbell, D and Stanley, J., 357 CAQDAS (Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software), 109–27 choosing a title, 117–18 context of research, 120–1 data analysis, 122–5, 124 data collection, 121–2 literature review, 118–19 negotiating access, 120 progressive focusing, 110–12, 111 research design, 119–20 role in qualitative research, 113–14 write-up, 125–6 Cardinal, L et al, 165 case studies, 197, 351–67 analysis, 362–3 case description, 362 techniques (Yin), 362–63 case selection, 361–2 critiques of, 357 definition, 353 document based, 401–2 generalizability, 364–5 and positivist/contructivist debate, 358 research design, 353, 355, 357 11/02/2012 12:46:32 PM 514 case studies cont theory testing, 363–4 triangulation, 364 see also autoethnography Cassell, C and Johnson, P., 379, 382 Certeau, M de, 97 Charmaz, K., 428 Chreim, S., 190, 193, 194, 198 Chreim, S et al, 190 Christensen, C and Carlile, P., 364 Clandinin, D.J., 509 Clayman, S., 459 Clegg, S and Hardy, C., 72–3 coding, 193, 199 analytical, 123 descriptive, 118 in grounded theory, 413–14 hierarchical, 48, 431 inter-rater reliability checks, 193 parallel, 432 in template analysis, 429 topic, 123, 124 Coetzee, J.M., 324 Cohen, L., 175–6 Cohen, L et al, 57 Coleman, O., 228 Collier, M., 289 combining methods, 132–46 and choice of methods, 136 dialogic approach, 133, 134, 140–1 instrumental approach, 133, 134, 136–8 integrative approach, 133, 134, 138–40 and mixed-methods (quantitativequalitative) research, 132, 134–5 stages of research, 141–44 confidentiality, 263–4 constancy of language and behaviour, 103 constant comparison of data with literature, 112 28-Symon and Cassell-4341-Index.indd 514 Index content analysis, 396–8, 473 conversation analysis, 22, 451–66 audiovisual data, 452, 453–4 context, 452–3, 454 deviant case analysis, 453 ethnographic information, 45–6 role-based activities, 455 talk-in-interaction, 453, 454 transcription notation, 471–2 video-based studies, 455 Cook, B and Wolfram Cox, J., 383 Cook, T and Campbell, D., 357 Cooperrider, D and Srivasta, S., 380, 381 Corbett, J., 229 Corbin, J and Strauss, A., 42 Cotterill, P., 55 Cresswell, J., 45 criteria for assessment, 206–17 critical discourse analysis, 133, 480–1 critical incident technique (CIT), 268–9 Critical Perspectives on Accounting, 327 critical theory, 22–5, 401–3 Crossan, M and Sorrenti, M., 227 Culture and Organization, 327 Cunliffe, A.L., 15, 73, 75, 76, 473, 479 cyclical nature of qualitative research, 109, 123 Czarniawska, B., 311, 494, 509 Dale, K and Burrell, G., 285 database management, 158 Dawson, P., 150 deconstruction, 26–7, 479 Delamont, S., 225, 226 deliberative conversation, 103 Denis, J.-L et al, 164 Denzin, N.K., 315, 317, 320 Denzin, N.K and Lincoln, Y.S., 30, 205 Derrida, Jacques, 228 descriptive coding, 118 destabilizing practices, 77 deVaus, D.A., 50 11/02/2012 12:46:32 PM Index DeWalt, K., 311 diaries, 121, 158 Dick, B., 384 DiGregorio, S., 127 Dilthey, W., 21 Dingwall, R., 242 discourse analysis, 27, 403–5, 473–89 approaches, 478–82 critical discourse analysis, 480–1 deconstruction, 479 Foucauldian analyses, 479–80 intertextual, 481–2 choice of text, 482–3 combined with ethnography, 140–1, 143, 144 levels of analysis, 476–7 micro/macro levels, 476 positivist, 477 poststructuralist, 477–8 uses and limitations, 475–6 Discourse and Communication, 406 discursive research, 473–89 focus of discursive engagement, 475–6 levels of engagement, 476–7 modes of engagement, 477–8 diversity of qualitative research, 221 documents, 389–406 analysis, 395–405, 396 authenticity/reliability, 395–6 constructivist approaches, 403–5 critical theory, 401–3 interpretive approaches, 399–400 positivist approach, 396–8 availability, 389–90 collecting, 392–5 archives, 394–5 British Library, 393, 394 government-sponsored websites, 394 internet, 393 newspapers, 393–4 definitions, 390–1 28-Symon and Cassell-4341-Index.indd 515 515 Douglas, J., 300 Downs, S., 264 Easterby-Smith, M and Malina, D., 182, 218 Eisenhardt, K.M., 197, 361, 362 Eisenhardt, K.M and Graebner, M.E., 197, 358, 367 Ellis, C.S., 327 Ellis, C.S and Bochner, A.P., 315 Ellis, J and Kiely, J., 379 Ely, R.J., 27 emergent research, 408–9 Emerson, Ralph, 93–4 Endnote, 119 enlightenment, 94 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), 150 epistemic coloniality, 28 epistemology, 16–17 erklaren, 19 ethics in research consent of participants, 38, 90, 286–7 Kantian ethics and, 91–4 and methodological commitment, 94–6 and participant observation, 299–301 and phases of change, 97–8 and pursuit of goods, 99–100 and relationship with researched, 57–9, 103–4 standards of practice, 100 virtues of research practice, 102–6 ethnographic content analysis, 399–400 ethnography, 331–47 and anthropology, 333 combined with discourse analysis, 140–1, 143, 144 constructivist-interpretivist approaches, 332–3, 342–3 development of organizational ethnography, 333–5 location-based positionality, 343–4 meanings of term, 331–2 11/02/2012 12:46:32 PM 516 ethnography cont multi-sited, 342 realist-objectivist, 332–3, 342–3 reasons for use of, 345–6 reflexive, 342–3 relational, 344–5 research techniques, 335–6 see also autoethnography ethnomethodology, 22 evidence-based management, 366 Fairclough, N., 140, 480, 489 Fals-Borda, O., 374 Feldman, M.S., 165 feminism, 24–5 Ferner, A., 190–1, 194 Ferner, A et al, 190–1 fieldwork, 58, 59 Fine, G.A et al, 347 Fitzgerald, L and Dopson, S., 367 Flanagan, John C., 268 focus groups, 258–74 analysis, 271 appreciative inquiry, 270–1 approaches, 258–9 in clinical psychology, 258, 259 confidentiality, 263–4 critical incident technique (CIT), 268–9 facilitator skills, 272–3 information given to participants, 262 in market research, 258, 259 method of working in pairs, 264–7 number of groups, 260–1 participation, forms of, 264–7 and repertory grid (RG) technique, 269–70 sampling, 260–1 and social network media, 273–4 in sociology, 258, 259 sponsorship, 262 folk tales, 497 Fontana, A and Frey, J., 256 28-Symon and Cassell-4341-Index.indd 516 Index Forrester, J., 24 Foucault, M., 105, 479–80 Fournier, V and Grey, C., 76 Fox, R., 299 framework analysis, 430 Frayn, Michael, 105 French, W.L and Bell, C.H., 372 Frenkel, M., 182 Gabriel, Y., 509 Gage, N.L., 225–6 Gallop, R et al, 448 Garfinkel, H., 22, 451–2 Genette, G., 482 Gersick, C.J.G et al, 497 Gilbert, L.S., 127 Gill, J., 381 Gill, J and Johnson, P., 372, 381, 383–4 Glaser, B., 411, 412, 413, 422, 424 Glaser, B and Holton, J., 424 Glaser, B and Strauss, A.L., 408, 424, 428 Gold, R., 297 Goldsher, A., 327 Goodwin, C., 454 Goulding, C., 417 Gramsci, A., 402 Grant et al, 489 Greene, J.C and Caracelli, V.J., 134 Greenwood, D.J., 382 grounded theory, 155, 408–24 access to organizations, 421–2 duration of access, 421 sample size, 421–2 coding, 413–15, 418–19 comparisons, 409 criteria, 417 data collection and analysis, 412 field notes, 415 ‘hypotheses’/‘propositions’, 414 influence of positivism, 411 interviews, 412, 414, 418, 421 11/02/2012 12:46:32 PM Index grounded theory cont memoing, 414–15 schools of thought, 422–3 scientific rigour, 416–17 and template analysis, 428–9 theoretical sampling, 409, 412, 415, 419 training in, 420–1 uses in organizational research, 409–10 writing up, 416 Guba, E.G and Lincoln, Y.S., 206–8 Gubrium, J.F and Holstein, J.A., 509 Guest, G et al, 44–5, 50 Gustaven, B., 379 Habermas, J., 23 Hammersley, M and Atkinson, P., 20, 296, 300 Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods for International Business, 169, 182 Hansen, H., 140 Hardy, C and Maguire, S., 495, 496 Harlow, H., 90 Hartley, J.F., 227 Harvard Business Review, 361 Hassard, J and Pentland, D., 363 Hatch, M.J., 226, 228 Heidegger, M., 21 Heritage, J., 453 Heritage, J and Clayman, S., 466 hermeneutics, 21–2 Hibbert, P et al, 73, 75, 85 Hines, R.D., 88 Hodder, I., 390 Holliday, A., 187 Holman Jones, S., 315 Holsti, O.M., 397 honesty, 104 Huang, B., 381 Hulst, Merlijn van, 338–9 Humphreys, M et al, 233 28-Symon and Cassell-4341-Index.indd 517 517 Humphreys, M and Learmonth, M., 318–24 Humphries, L., 90 ‘impartiality’ in research, 55 Individual Learning Accounts (ILAs), 401–2 inference, 232 inter-rater reliability checks, 193 international and cross-cultural research access, 177 between more and less developed countries, 170–1 collaboration, 170–1, 176–7 cultures, 173–4 dominance of positivist methods, 169 English, use of, 171–2, 177–8, 179 language, 171–2, 177–8, 179 methods in use, 169–70 offshore outsourcing, 174–81 researchers: ‘insiders’ or ‘outsiders’, 173, 175, 176 researchers and context, 120–1, 172–4 International Network for Visual Studies of Organization (inVisio), 276, 291 internet as source of documents, 393 interpretivism, 20–2, 73 intertextual analysis, 474, 481–2 interviews, 121, 239–56 analysis, 250–1 approaches to structuring, 240–1 balance of respondents, 122 collaborative task, 242–3 in grounded theory, 412 neo-positivist, 20, 241–2, 247 participant selection, 246–7 quality of responses, 247 reflexivist, 244, 247–8 reporting, 255 representativeness, 256–7 11/02/2012 12:46:32 PM 518 Index interviews cont structure of interview, 248–50 structure of questions, 247–8 technique, 245–6 irony, 105–6 Kreuger, R.A and Casey, M.A., 274 Krippendorff, K., 406 Kunda, G, 346 Kvale, S., 246 Kvale, S and Brinkman, S., 256 Jackall, R., 24 Jarzabkowski, P., 191–2, 193, 197 Jarzabkowski, P and Wilson, D.C., 197 Jaworski, A and Coupland, N., 489 Johnson, P and Duberley, J., 88 Johnson, P et al, 187, 210, 212 Jorgensen, 311 Journal of Business Ethics, 327 Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 315, 327 Journal of Documentation, 406 Journal of International Business Studies, 190–1, 194 Journal of Management Studies, 186, 187, 191, 198 Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 134 Jullien, Franỗois, 93 Labov, W., 497 Lamberg, J and Pajunen, K., 497 Langley, A., 150, 151, 162, 163, 363 language constructing truth, 25–6 language in international and cross-cultural research, 171–2, 177–8, 179 Law, John, 106 Lee, B., 401–2 Lee, B and Cassell, C., 397–8 Leonard-Barton, D., 149 Lewin, K., 373 Lieblich, A et al, 494, 509 Lincoln, Y.S and Guba, E.G., 208–9 Lindlof, T.R and Taylor, B.C., 240–1 Linstead, S., 27 literary criticism, 26 literature reviews, 118–19 descriptive coding, 118 in grounded theory, 409 narrative reviews, 118 systematic reviews, 118 Little, J.D.C., 114 Llewellyn, N and Hindmarsh, J., 466 Locke, K and Velamuri, R., 354 longitudinal research, 149–65 access, 156–7 ambiguity and sensitivity, 152–3 data analysis in, 161–4 data collection in, 157–60 design, 153–7 real-time, 152–3 Lynch, M., 76 Lyotard, J.-F., 25 Kant, Immanuel, 91–2 Karra, N and Phillips, N., 182 Kauffman, B., 244 Keenoy, T and Oswick, C., 481 Kelle, U et al, 127 Kelly, G., 269 Kent, G., 426 Kilduff, M., 489 Kilduff, M and Keleman, M., 479 King, N et al, 448 King, N and Horrocks, C., 448 Kisfalvi, V., 159 knowledge constructed through language, 26 in Kant, 93 and science, 93–4 Kondo, D., 27 Kostera, M., 347 28-Symon and Cassell-4341-Index.indd 518 11/02/2012 12:46:32 PM Index MacIntyre, A., 99, 100 Maitlis, S., 190, 194, 197, 501 Maitlis, S and Lawrence, T.B., 190, 197 Malinowski, B., 20 Management Learning, 327 Maori epistemology, 28–9 market research, 258, 259 Marschan-Piekkari, R and Welch, C., 169 Marshall, C., 30 Marx, Karl, 401, 402 matrix analysis, 430 maturity of researcher, 104–5 Maurer, M and Githins, R.P., 380 McAdams, 509 McDowall, A and Saunders, M.N.K., 47 McGaughey, S., 182, 201 McTaggart, R., 378 Mengelberg, M., 228–9 Merton, R.K., 95 Miles, M and Huberman, A., 50 Mintzberg, H., 336 Mitchell, J., 288 mixed-methods (quantitative-qualitative) research, 132, 134–5 modernism, 25 Moon, J., 69 Morgan, D.L., 274 Morse, J., 44 multi-perspective practices, 76–7 multi-voicing practices, 77, 87 Nachmanovitch, S., 234 Nadin, S and Cassell, C., 448 narrative analysis, 27, 492–509 definition of narrative, 492–3 dialogic/performance analysis, 498–500 forms of narrative analysis, 494 forms of narratives, 493–4 life stories, 493 narrator and audience relationship, 498–9 28-Symon and Cassell-4341-Index.indd 519 519 narrative analysis cont progressive and regressive narratives, 498 structural analysis, 497–8 thematic analyis, 494–6 Naturalistic Inquiry, 206 Neumann, M., 317 New York Times, 393 NewsBank, 393 Neyland, D., 347 Nietzsche, F., 96 NVivo, 117, 119, 120, 122, 123, 271 objectivist/subjectivist assumptions, 17–18, 81–2 occupational stress, 17–18 Ochs, E and Capps, L., 509 offshore outsourcing, 174–81 Ong, A., 173 ontology, 17–18 open viewing, 289 Organization, 327 Organization Science, 165, 278 Organizational Research Methods, 326 Orr, J., 342, 347 Oswick, C., 484–5 otherness, 91–2, 96 outsourcing see offshore outsourcing parallel coding, 432 Parker, M., 29 Parlett, M and Hamilton, D., 110 Parry, K and Boyle, M., 315 participant observation, 139, 296–311, 299–301 consent of participants, 300 ethics: covertness or openness, 299–301 and ethnography, 297 focus on lived experience, 301 objectivity, 302 political nature of, 302–3 11/02/2012 12:46:32 PM 520 participant observation cont of specific cultures, 301 time commitment, 302 variations of 297–299 participants access for research, 36–7, 46, 120 choice of, 35–6, 49 for interviews, 246–7 consent of, 38 key attributes, 121, 122 sampling, 38–48, 49, 260–1 participatory action research (PAR), 374 participatory research, 273–4 Patton, M.Q., 41, 42, 50 Pentland, B., 363 Perec, G., 96, 97 Perrow, C., 355 Peshkin, A., 117 Pettigrew, A., 149, 165, 354, 361 Phillips, N and Di Domenico, M., 404 Plowman, D., 354 Popper, K., 19 Poppleton, S et al, 448 positioning practices, 77 postcolonialism, 28 postmodernism, 25–8, 187 poststructuralism, 25–8 Potter, J and Wetherell, M., 476 Prasad, A., 182 Prasad, P., 20–1, 28, 30, 182 Prasad, P and Caproni, P., 23 Pratt, M.G., 186, 201, 221 Pratt, M.G et al, 165 preliminary discussions, 37 Prior, L., 390, 391, 406 professional doctorates, 53 progressive focusing, 110–12, 111 project memos, 118 Propp, V., 497 Prosser, J and Loxley, A., 287 purposive sampling, 41–2 28-Symon and Cassell-4341-Index.indd 520 Index Qualitative Inquiry, 134, 146 qualitative neo-positivism, 19–20 Qualitative Research in Organization and Management, 277, 326 queer theory, 29 Raelin, J.A., 379 Rapoport, R.N., 373, 377 Ravishankar, M.N., 174–6, 179–80 real-time studies, 149–50, 152–3 realist assumptions, 17, 19–20 Reason, P and Torbert, W., 380, 381 Reed-Danahay, D., 69 reflection, 73 reflexivity, 24, 57, 72–87, 83, 215–16 as change in researcher, 86 critical, 86 criticisms of, 76–7 definitions, 72–3 four steps (Hibbert et al), 75–6, 85–7 methodological, 82 and motivations for research, 78–9 multi-voicing, 77, 87 and objectivist/subjectivist views, 74 ontological, 82–3 in practice, 77–81 processes, 75 radical, 75 recursion/return, 75, 85 and reflection, 73 self-critique, 76 strategies, 79–81 theoretical, 81–2 Regehr, A., 382 Reinharz, S., 300 research design, 35–6, 37, 119–20 and access, 156–7 and changes in organizations, 156–7 context-driven, 154–5 emergent, 155–6 real-time studies, 153–7 11/02/2012 12:46:32 PM Index researchers ‘impartiality’ of, 55–7 insider/outsider, 345 and research context, 120–1, 172–4 self-identity, 57, 78–9 researcher’s own organization, 53–69 dual identities, 68 emotions, 68 familiarity and strangeness, 59–60 field roles, 59–60 researcher-researched relationship, 54, 55–7 ethics, 57–9 objectifying participants, 58–9 with peers, 63–5 with senior management, 62–3 shared meaning, 57–8 written accounts, 67–8 Rheinberger, H., 94–5 Rhodes, C., 88 Richards, L., 127 Riessman, 494, 499, 508–9 Riordan, K., 46 Rose, G., 290–1 Rosen, M., 24 Russell, R., 327 sampling, 38–48 ‘appropriate’, 38–9 convenience, 43–4 for focus groups, 260–1 in grounded theory, 421–2 heterogeneous, 42 non-probability, 41–4 probability and non-probability: differences, 39–40 purposive, 41–2, 45–7, 49 self-selective, 43, 47–8 size, 44–5, 49–50 snowball, 43 theoretical, 42–3 Sanford, N., 377 28-Symon and Cassell-4341-Index.indd 521 521 saturation, 44, 48 Saunders, M.N.K et al, 42, 50 Savall, H et al, 217 Scandinavian Journal of Management, 165 Scandura, T and Williams, E., 358 Scarles, C., 285 Schegloff, E.A and Sacks, H., 452 Schein, 381 Schriffin, D et al, 489 Schwandt, T., 219–20 scientism, 23 Seale, C., 222 self-identity and others, 92 of researchers, 57, 78–9 self-reflexivity, 86 self-selective sampling, 43 sensemaking, 22 Séror, J., 127 Shehata, S., 344 Smith, J.K and Deemer, D., 220 Smith, J.K and Hodkinson, P., 218 Snook, S., 355–6 Social Science Citation Index, 485 Soderberg, A., 171, 182 software see CAQDAS (Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software) Sonenschein, S., 497–8 Sparkes, A.C., 320–1 Spencer, L et al, 209, 222 Spradley, J., 311 Stablein, R and Panoho, J., 28–9 Stake, R.E., 110, 365, 366 Stebbins and Shani, 381 Stensaker, Inger, 150 Stern, P.N., 424 Stewart, D.W et al, 258, 274 story-telling, 315–16 Strauss, A and Corbin, J., 410, 422 ‘structured observation’, 336 subjectivity, 19–20 substantive coding, 413 11/02/2012 12:46:32 PM 522 Sudnow, D., 327 Susman, G and Evered, R., 378 Sutton, R.I., 195 Tashakkori, A and Teddlie, C., 145 Taylor, C., 106 teaching qualitative research, 224–34 dialogue between lecturers and students, 228 improvisation, 226–9 preparedness, 228 session structure, 230–32 template analysis, 426–48 coding, 429, 431–2, 447 a priori themes, 434–5 hierarchical, 431 parallel, 432 description of, 426–7 displaying, 432–3 epistemological perspectives, 427–8 modifying the template, 436, 438–9, 443–44 flexibility, 428–9, 447 and grounded theory, 428 initial template, 430 integrative themes, 432 interpretation, 444–6 and IPA, 429 presentation, 446–7 quality, 433 thematic analysis, 429, 430 themes, 430–1 texts, 26 thematic analysis, 429, 430 theoretical coding, 414, 415 theoretical sampling, 409, 412, 415 theoretical saturation, 112 theoretical assumptions, 81, 82 Tietze, S., 182 Toft, B and Reynolds, S., 366 topic coding, 123, 124 tracer study, 138–40 28-Symon and Cassell-4341-Index.indd 522 Index Tracy, S., 205, 208–9, 211, 217, 220 ‘transferability’ of findings, 40 Treleaven, L., 382 Trouw, 336 truth, 16–17 twenty statements test (TST), 137–8 Vail, K., 327 validity, 204, 205 Van de Ven, A.H and Poole, M.S., 150 Van Maanen, J., 69–70, 334 Vaughan, D., 355 verstehen, 21 Vince, R and Broussine, M., 275, 278, 279–81 Vince, R and Warren, S., 406 visual methods, 275–91 analysis, 287–8 content analysis, 288 hybrid analysis, 289 thematic analysis, 288 collective emotional experience, 278, 286–7 consent of participants, 286–7 drawings, 277–81, 280, 286 participant-led photography, 281–5, 283, 284, 286, 287 publishing images, 290 Volkskrant, de, 337 Walker, S., 406 Wang, C and Burris, M.A., 281 Waring, T and Wainwright, D., 448 Warren, S., 275, 277, 282–5, 288, 291 Warren, S and Parker, L., 285 Watkins, J.M and Mohr, B., 270 Watson, T.J., 55–6, 70, 301 Weitzman, E.A and Miles, M.B., 113, 127 Welch, D.E and Welch, L.S., 201 Westwood, R., 173, 176 Whetton, D.A., 414 11/02/2012 12:46:32 PM Index Whyte, W.F., 374 Wickham, M and Woods, M., 127 Williams, M., 365 Willmott, H., 23 Wilson, A.T.M., 382 Wilson, E., 170, 173 Wolcott, H.F., 336 Woofitt, R., 466 Woolgar, S., 88 writing and publishing appropriate conventions, 187 autoethnography, 324–7 European compared with N American journals, 185–6, 192–5, 200 28-Symon and Cassell-4341-Index.indd 523 523 writing and publishing cont grounded theory, 416 guides, 186 interviews, 255 publishing recipes, 195–9 seeking publication, 199 Yanow, D., 340–1 Ybema, S., 336–8 Ybema, S et al, 347 Yin, R., 353–6, 362–3, 366, 367 Zalan, T and Lewis, G., 201 Zuboff, S., 277–8 11/02/2012 12:46:32 PM Research Methods Books from SAGE Rea d cha sampl onl pters e ine now ! www.sagepub.co.uk 28-Symon and Cassell-4341-Index.indd 524 23/02/2012 1:06:55 PM Research Methods Books from SAGE Rea d cha sampl onl pters e ine now ! www.sagepub.co.uk 28-Symon and Cassell-4341-Index.indd 525 23/02/2012 1:06:55 PM The Qualitative Research Kit Edited by Uwe Flick Read sample chapters online now! www.sagepub.co.uk NDM 1020 Research Ad QRK.indd 28-Symon and Cassell-4341-Index.indd 526 23/6/08 12:01:26 23/02/2012 1:06:55 PM