The evolution of the japanese developmental state institutions locked in by ideas

The Evolution of the Japanese Developmental State The Japanese economy underwent a fundamental transition from a liberal economy to a developmental state system during World War II, and despite efforts by the American occupation forces to dismantle them after 1945, these elements of the wartime economic system remained in place Through an historical institutionalist lens, this book examines the reasons why the key features of the Japanese developmental state, such as pilot agencies and industrial associations, continued to play key roles in the post-war Japanese economy Further, it locates the fundamental roots of the developmental state system in wartime Manchuria and thus highlights how decisions made in the context of war continued to influence the direction of the Japanese economy over the following decades Analysing the institutional origin and evolutionary path of developmental state system, The Evolution of the Japanese Developmental State extends existing scholarship on the institutions that were at the heart of the developmental state system by focusing on not just why they were important, but also how and why they were originally built Based on extensive archival research in both Japan and the USA, including Japanese-language collections not widely known in the West, it will be of great interest to students and scholars of political science, economic history, economics and Asian studies Hironori Sasada is Associate Professor at Ritsumeikan University in Kyoto, Japan Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia The Police in Occupation Japan Control, corruption and resistance to reform Christopher Aldous 12 Japan’s Postwar Economic Recovery and Anglo-Japanese Relations, 1948–62 Noriko Yokoi Chinese Workers A new history Jackie Sheehan The Aftermath of Partition in South Asia Tai Yong Tan and Gyanesh Kudaisya 13 Japanese Army Stragglers and Memories of the War in Japan, 1950–75 Beatrice Trefalt The Australia-Japan Political Alignment 1952 to the present Alan Rix Japan and Singapore in the World Economy Japan’s economic advance into Singapore, 1870–1965 Shimizu Hiroshi and Hirakawa Hitoshi The Triads as Business Yiu Kong Chu Contemporary Taiwanese Cultural Nationalism A-chin Hsiau Religion and Nationalism in India The case of the Punjab Harnik Deol Japanese Industrialisation Historical and cultural perspectives Ian Inkster 10 War and Nationalism in China 1925–45 Hans J van de Ven 11 Hong Kong in Transition One country, two systems Edited by Robert Ash, Peter Ferdinand, Brian Hook and Robin Porter 14 Ending the Vietnam War The Vietnamese communists’ perspective Ang Cheng Guan 15 The Development of the Japanese Nursing Profession Adopting and adapting Western influences Aya Takahashi 16 Women’s Suffrage in Asia Gender nationalism and democracy Louise Edwards and Mina Roces 17 The Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 1902–22 Phillips Payson O’Brien 18 The United States and Cambodia, 1870–1969 From curiosity to confrontation Kenton Clymer 19 Capitalist Restructuring and the Pacific Rim Ravi Arvind Palat 20 The United States and Cambodia, 1969–2000 A troubled relationship Kenton Clymer 21 British Business in Post-Colonial Malaysia, 1957–70 ‘Neo-colonialism’ or ‘disengagement’? Nicholas J White 22 The Rise and Decline of Thai Absolutism Kullada Kesboonchoo Mead 23 Russian Views of Japan, 1792–1913 An anthology of travel writing David N Wells 24 The Internment of Western Civilians under the Japanese, 1941–45 A patchwork of internment Bernice Archer 25 The British Empire and Tibet 1900–1922 Wendy Palace 26 Nationalism in Southeast Asia If the people are with us Nicholas Tarling 27 Women, Work and the Japanese Economic Miracle The case of the cotton textile industry, 1945–75 Helen Macnaughtan 28 A Colonial Economy in Crisis Burma’s rice cultivators and the world depression of the 1930s Ian Brown 29 A Vietnamese Royal Exile in Japan Prince Cuong De (1882–1951) Tran My-Van 30 Corruption and Good Governance in Asia Nicholas Tarling 31 US–China Cold War Collaboration, 1971–89 S Mahmud Ali 32 Rural Economic Development in Japan From the nineteenth century to the Pacific War Penelope Francks 33 Colonial Armies in Southeast Asia Edited by Karl Hack and Tobias Rettig 34 Intra Asian Trade and the World Market A.J.H Latham and Heita Kawakatsu 35 Japanese–German Relations, 1895–1945 War, diplomacy and public opinion Edited by Christian W Spang and Rolf-Harald Wippich 36 Britain’s Imperial Cornerstone in China The Chinese maritime customs service, 1854–1949 Donna Brunero 37 Colonial Cambodia’s ‘Bad Frenchmen’ The rise of French rule and the life of Thomas Caraman, 1840–87 Gregor Muller 38 Japanese-American Civilian Prisoner Exchanges and Detention Camps, 1941–45 Bruce Elleman 39 Regionalism in Southeast Asia Nicholas Tarling 40 Changing Visions of East Asia, 1943–93 Transformations and continuities R.B Smith (Edited by Chad J Mitcham) 41 Christian Heretics in Late Imperial China Christian inculturation and state control, 1720–1850 Lars P Laamann 42 Beijing – A Concise History Stephen G Haw 43 The Impact of the Russo–Japanese War Edited by Rotem Kowner 44 Business–Government Relations in Prewar Japan Peter von Staden 45 India’s Princely States People, princes and colonialism Edited by Waltraud Ernst and Biswamoy Pati 46 Rethinking Gandhi and Nonviolent Relationality Global perspectives Edited by Debjani Ganguly and John Docker 47 The Quest for Gentility in China Negotiations beyond gender and class Edited by Daria Berg and Chloë Starr 48 Forgotten Captives in Japanese Occupied Asia Edited by Kevin Blackburn and Karl Hack 49 Japanese Diplomacy in the 1950s From isolation to integration Edited by Iokibe Makoto, Caroline Rose, Tomaru Junko and John Weste 50 The Limits of British Colonial Control in South Asia Spaces of disorder in the Indian Ocean region Edited by Ashwini Tambe and Harald Fischer-Tiné 51 On The Borders of State Power Frontiers in the greater Mekong sub-region Edited by Martin Gainsborough 52 Pre-Communist Indochina R.B Smith (Edited by Beryl Williams) 53 Communist Indochina R.B Smith (Edited by Beryl Williams) 54 Port Cities in Asia and Europe Edited by Arndt Graf and Chua Beng Huat 55 Moscow and the Emergence of Communist Power in China, 1925–30 The Nanchang Rising and the birth of the Red Army Bruce A Elleman 56 Colonialism, Violence and Muslims in Southeast Asia The Maria Hertogh controversy and its aftermath Syed Muhd Khairudin Aljunied 57 Japanese and Hong Kong Film Industries Understanding the origins of East Asian film networks Kinnia Shuk-ting 58 Provincial Life and the Military in Imperial Japan The phantom samurai Stewart Lone 59 Southeast Asia and the Vietnam War Ang Cheng Guan 60 Southeast Asia and the Great Powers Nicholas Tarling 61 The Cold War and National Assertion in Southeast Asia Britain, the United States and Burma, 1948–62 Matthew Foley 62 The International History of East Asia, 1900–1968 Trade, ideology and the quest for order Edited by Antony Best 63 Journalism and Politics in Indonesia A critical biography of Mochtar Lubis (1922–2004) as editor and author David T Hill 64 Atrocity and American Military Justice in Southeast Asia Trial by army Louise Barnett 65 The Japanese Occupation of Borneo, 1941–1945 Ooi Keat Gin 66 National Pasts in Europe and East Asia P.W Preston 67 Modern China’s Ethnic Frontiers A Journey to the West Hsiao-ting Lin 72 Russo-Japanese Relations, 1905–17 From enemies to allies Peter Berton 68 New Perspectives on the History and Historiography of Southeast Asia Continuing Explorations Michael Aung-Thwin and Kenneth R Hall 73 Reforming Public Health in Occupied Japan, 1945–52 Alien prescriptions? Christopher Aldous and Akihito Suzuki 69 Food Culture in Colonial Asia A taste of empire Cecilia Leong-Salobir 74 Trans-Colonial Modernities in South Asia Edited by Michael S Dodson and Brian A Hatcher 70 China’s Political Economy in Modern Times Changes and economic consequences, 1800–2000 Kent Deng 71 Science, Public Health and the State in Modern Asia Edited by Liping Bu, Darwin Stapleton and Ka-che Yip 75 The Evolution of the Japanese Developmental State Institutions locked in by ideas Hironori Sasada The Evolution of the Japanese Developmental State Institutions locked in by ideas Hironori Sasada First published 2013 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2013 Hironori Sasada The right of Hironori Sasada to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Sasada, Hironori The evolution of the Japanese developmental state : institutions locked in by ideas / Hironori Sasada p cm – (Routledge studies in the modern history of Asia) Includes bibliographical references and index Economic development–Japan–History–20th century Bureaucracy–Japan–History–20th century Business and politics–Japan– History–20th century Industrial policy–Japan–History–20th century Japan–Economic policy–1945- Japan–Politics and government–1945- I Title HC462.9.S2548 2012 338.952–dc23 2011050174 ISBN: 978-0-415-50346-4 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-203-11437-7 (ebk) Typeset in Times New Roman by Taylor & Francis Books Contents List of illustrations xi Introduction I Introduction II Core institutions of the postwar Japanese economy Pilot agencies Industrial associations (Gyo-kai dantai) III Alternative arguments The collective action theory A power-based rationalist theory IV Historical institutionalism Critical juncture Path dependency 10 Ideas in politics 11 V The evolution of the Japanese developmental state system and the legacy of a wartime idea – “to-sei keizai ron” 13 VI Points of contention 17 VII Existing literature on the Japanese economy 18 VIII Outline of the book 20 The early stages of Japan’s industrialization I Industrialization in the Meiji period (1868–1912) II Liberal market economy in the 1920s 25 III Zaibatsu dominance and party politicians 29 IV Conclusions 37 22 23 Institution-building in Manchuria (1932–45) I Historical background 40 II Institutions of the Manchurian developmental state system Pilot agency: the Planning Bureau 41 Special corporation (tokushu geisha) 45 39 41 198 Bibliography Kier, Elizabeth (1995) Imagining War: French and British Military Doctrine Between the Wars, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press Kikuchi, Kazue (1939) Manshu- Ju-yo- Sangyo- no Ko-sei, Tokyo: To-yo- Keizai Shimbun Sha Kindleberger, Charles (1973) The World in Depression 1929–1939, London: Penguin Press Kishi, Nobusuke (1942) Nihon Senji Keizai no Susumu Michi, Tokyo: Kenshin Sha Kishi, Nobusuke et al (1981) Kishi Nobusuke no Kaiso-, Tokyo: Bungei Shunju- Kita, Ikki (1923) Nihon Kaizo- Ho-an Taiko- (An Outline Plan for Reorganization of Japan); 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ideational guidance 16–17; leverage over private business (amakudari) 32– 33; military in Manchuria and 69–71, 75; policymaking influence in 1920s 30–31 Cabinet Planning Board in wartime Japan 78–83 Calder, Kent 174 cartels 28 Central Bank of Manchuria 46–47, 49 Chang Chin-hu, Prime Minister of Manchukuo 41 classical market economy 25 Clayton Anti-Trust Act (US, 1914) 141–42 collective action theory: aftermath of war and 135–36; argument for 136–38; economic institutions 6–8; pre-occupation conditions in Manchuria and 47–52; problems in Manchuria with 50–52; problems in postwar Japan with 138–39; wartime Japan 87–89 Collier, R.B and Collier, D 10 control associations (to-sei kai) 15; embeddedness of to-sei keizai ron in 115–17; wartime Japan 83–85 corporate conglomerates (zaibatsu) 24; Agriculture, commerce and Industry Council 36; dominance of, party politicians and 29–37, 38; Echigo Railway scandal (1927) 35–36; economic power of leadership 34; export surge during World War I 34; House of Peers 36–37; kinship ties and expansionist policies 34–35; opposition to state control 106–7; opposition to state control, continuation of 113–15, 117; policymaking process and laissez-faire economy 33–34; political influence of, factors in development of 34–35; political investments by leaders 35; political power of leadership 32 Corporate Rationalization Promotion Act of 1952 (Kigyo- Go-rika Sokushin Ho-) 128 critical junctures 9–10 Index Dan Takuma 36, 91 defense-related industries, prioritization for 66 Delbruck, Hans 56 Development Bank of Japan (DBJ) 127 developmental state system, evolution of: economic institutions and 12–17; effect in wartime Japan of 165–74; Manchuria under Japanese control 39–76, 165–74; in postwar Japan 134–63, 165–74; prototype state system 13; rise in wartime Japan 85–117, 118–19 Dodge, Josef 141 Doko- Toshio 155, 161 Douglas, Paul 168 Dower, John 135 Echigo Railway scandal (1927) 35–36 Economic General Staff Headquarters in Manchuria 66–67 economic institutions 1–2; bureaucratic experimentation in Manchuria 19–10; bureaucratic ideational guidance 16–17; collective action theory 6–8; core institutions of postwar economy 2–6; critical junctures 9–10; developmental state system, evolution of 12–17; developmental state system in postwar Japan, core institutions of 121–34; economic literature 18–20; Economic Stabilization Board (ESB, Keizai Antei Honbu) 4, 15; future study of, perspectives for 177–79; historical factors, significance in institutional evolution 174–76; historical institutionalism 9–12; ideas in politics 11–12; industrial associations (gyokai dantai) 4–6, 21; International Trade and Industry, Ministry of (MITI) 4; managed economy, theory of (to-sei keizai ron) 12–17; multicausality 17–18; path dependency 10–11; pilot agencies 3–4, 21; Planning Bureau 3–4; power-based rationalist theory 8–9; rationalist theory, power-based 8–9; self-interest, institutional maintenance and 17–18; state control and evolution of 176–77; wartime institutions 18–19, 93, 120, 134–35, 138, 140, 145, 148, 151, 153, 157, 163–64; see also industrialization, early stages of; 205 Manchuria under Japanese control; postwar Japan; wartime Japan economic literature 18–20 Economic Planning Agency (EPA) 86, 121–22, 125, 135–36, 141, 142, 150, 167, 189–90n7 Economic Stabilization Board (ESB, Keizai Antei Honbu) 4, 15, 120–21, 122–23, 124, 126, 130, 136, 140–41, 142, 148, 150, 151, 158, 162, 166–67, 170, 171, 180n8, 190n8 Economic Stabilization Board Establishment Act of 1947 (Keizai Antei Honbu Secchi Ho-) 121–22 economic systems, comparative analysis of 20, 22–38 economy: in early 1930s 85–87; in Manchuria, building principles for 64–66; in Manchuria, establishment of 64–74; planning policies in postwar Japan 124–26 Edo period (1603–1867) 23, 28 Edwards, Corwin D 118 equity market finance 26–28 Evans, Peter 3, 4, 178 Excessive Profit-Seeking Action Prevention Act of 1939 (Bo-ri Ko-i Nado Torishimari Kisoku) 194n2 On the Final War (Ishiwara Kanji) 55 final war theory 55–57; to-sei keizai ron and 57–58, 75 Fine, Sherwood 146 Foreign Affairs, Ministry of (MOFA) 142–43, 154, 158, 189n6, 193n54 foreign technology, acquisition of 24–25 free market liberalism 14 Fujii Heigo 162 Fujisawa Jiro- 162 Fujita Teiichiro- 28 Fujiwara Ginjiro- 114–15, 189n52 Fukuda Tokuzo- 95 Fulcher, James 31 “Fundamental Reconsideration of Manchurian Special Corporation” 74 Gao Bai 18, 19–20 Gereffi, G and Wyman, D 2, 3, 4, 178 Germany, industrial rationalization policies in 104–5 Goldstein, J and Keohane, R 11 Goldstein, Judith 11 206 Index Great Depression 12, 13, 65; wartime Japan and 85, 86, 88, 90, 91, 95, 96, 118 guilds 28 Haas, Peter 11 Haavelmo, Trygve 168 Hadley, Eleanor M 142 Hadley, John O 145, 192n43 Hagen, Everett 168 Hall, John W 28, 34, 119 Hall, Peter A 10–11, 95 Halpern, Nina 11 Hamaguchi Osachi, Prime Minister 91 “han-clique politicians” 29–30 Hara Takashi, Prime Minister 32, 33– 34, 35, 36–37 Harrod, Roy 168 Hata Ikuhiko 55, 60, 97, 111, 184n22, 185n30, 188n37, 188n41 Hatch, W and Yamamura, K 3, 22, 179, 189n5 Hatoyama Ichiro-, Prime Minister 125, 156–57 Hayao Kanji 176 Hayasaka Tadashi 95, 102, 187n20 Hayashi Senjuro-, General and Prime Minister 79, 107, 108 Hayes, Louis 26, 30, 31, 118 Henderson, J McI 142 Hirai Ko-ichi 162 Hiranuma Kiichiro- 113 Hirota Cabinet 106 historical factors, significance in institutional evolution 174–76 historical institutionalism 9–12, 20, 179 Hitler, Adolf 55 Hoashi Kei 88, 115, 116–17, 151 Ho-chi Shimbun 106 Holding Company Liquidation Committee Act of 1946 (Mochikabu Kaisha Seiri Iinkai Rei) 140 Hoshi, T and Kashyap, A 25, 26, 27, 181n19 Hoshino Naoki 51, 69, 70, 72, 79, 108, 113 Hosokawa Ryuichiro- 106, 113 House of Peers 36–37 hypotheses: actors build institutions to overcome collective action problems 8; collective action 47–52, 87–89, 136–49; ideational 54–64, 93–117, 152–63; institutional arrangements reflect the power balance among actors 9; policymakers rely on their ideational guidance when building institutions 17; power-based rationalism 52–54, 89–93, 149–52 ideas in politics 11–12; feedback cycles 11–12 ideational competition in postwar Japan 153–57 ideational linkage, path dependency and 157–63 ideational theory: policy entrepreneurs in Manchuria under Japanese control 54–55; postwar Japan 152–63; wartime Japan 85, 93–95, 98–99, 118 Ikeda Hayato, Prime Minister 156, 157, 159–60, 162, 191n27, 193n68, 194n72; Cabinet of 125, 133, 188n43 Ikeda Shigeaki 60, 107 Imada Shintaro- 107 Imai Takeo 59 Imperial Diet 5, 29, 33–34, 36, 60, 98, 108, 110, 144, 155, 156, 169, 176, 177; establishment of 30 Inaba Shu-zo- 150 Inayama Yoshihiro 155, 161 industrial associations (gyo-kai dantai): economic institutions 4–6, 21; Manchuria under Japanese control 172–74; postwar Japan 130–34, 172– 74; wartime Japan 172–74 Industrial Bank of Japan (IBJ) 127 industrial policies: Gao’s view of 19; in postwar Japan 123–24; rationalization policies in postwar Japan 127–28 industrial production in Manchuria 48 industrialization, early stages of 22–38; business practices 22; cartels 28; classical market economy 25; corporate conglomerates (zaibatsu) 24; direct management by government 24; Edo period (1603–1867) 23, 28; empirical puzzles 38; equity market finance 26–28; financial sector, investment in 23–24; foreign technology, acquisition of 24–25; guilds 28; “han-clique politicians” 29–30; Japan Cotton Spinners Association 28–29; labor-management conditions 25–26; liberal market economy (1920s) 25–29, 38; Meiji period (1868–1912) 22–23, 23–25, 37; meritocratic state elites 22; Pig Iron Cooperative Association (Sentetsu Index Kyo-do- Kumiai) 28; political merchants (seisho-) 24; production promotion (shokusan ko-gyo-) 23; protectionism 28; “Shidehara Diplomacy” 37; state-business relations 22; state-owned enterprises, establishment of 24; “Taishodemocracy” 30, 36–37; zaibatsu dominance, party politicians and 29–37, 38 Inoue Junnosuke 91 Inoue Kaoru 35 institution building: in Manchuria under Japanese control 39–76; by reformist bureaucrats in wartime Japan 112–13 institutional continuity, discontinuity of security policies and 163–64 institutional evolution in postwar Japan 120–64 institutional origin, political economy and institutions of wartime developmental state system 78–85, 118 intellectual discourse in wartime Japan, competing ideas and 94 International Trade and Industry, Ministry of (MITI) 4, 128, 143, 145, 179; postwar Japan 120, 121, 122, 123, 127, 128, 129, 130, 133–34, 138, 143, 145, 148, 150, 156, 159, 161; White Paper on International Trade (1959) 160 Inukai Tsuyoshi, Prime Minister 91, 93 Ishikawa Ichiro- 161 Ishiwara Kanji, Lieutenant-Colonel 41, 53, 64, 65, 66, 68, 72, 75, 79, 99, 100, 101, 152, 158, 172; downfall of 110–11; early days 54–55; final war theory 55–57; Kwantung Army in Manchuria and 60–61; Miyazaki and the Planning Board 108–10; Planning Bureau, creation of 14–15; seizure of power by 107–8; spread of idea of 58–60; state-building in Manchuria and 13–15; worldview development 54–55 Ishizaka Taizo- 155, 161–62 Itagaki Seishiro-, Colonel, later General 52–53, 59, 70–71, 107, 108 Ito- Takashi 114 Iwasaki Yataro 34 Izumiyama Sanroku 109 207 Japan Cotton Spinners Association 28–29 Japan Economic Statistics Research Institute (Nihon Keizai To-kei Kenkyu-jo) 26 Japan Iron and Steel Federation (JISF) 126, 128, 131–32, 150, 151, 156, 161, 172; History of Steel in the Postwar Period (1959) 172–73; industrial policies, roles in 132–34 Japanese Manchuria Economic Research Association (JMERA) 79, 109–10, 111 Johnson, Chalmers 2, 3, 18, 19–20, 22, 31, 33, 92, 93, 123, 128, 149, 156, 176 Junsenji To-sei Keizai (Semi-Wartime Managed Economy, Ryu Shintaro-, 1937) 102 Kades, Charles 142 Kanamori Hisao 168 Kanemitsu Tsuneo 113 Kanto- Kyoku Kanbo- Bunshoka 47–48, 50, 184n11 Katakura Tadashi 59, 101, 107 Katayama Tetsu, Prime Minister 154; Cabinet of 151, 154 Kato- Junko 10, 91, 99, 100 Kato- Takaaki, Prime Minister 34–35 Katsumada Seiichi 114 Kawakami Hajime 97, 98–99 Keck, M and Sikkink, K 11 Keohane, Robert 7, 10 Kido Ko-ichi 104 Kier, Elizabeth 11 Kikuchi Kazue 68, 74 Kishi N et al 71 Kishi Nobusuke, Prime Minister 15, 69, 70, 72, 97, 103–7, 108, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119, 132, 150, 152, 156–57, 160, 162, 172, 178 Kita Ikki 99–100, 101, 104 Kiuchi Jushiro- 34 Knight, Jack 8, 149, 181n11, 181n12, 182n26 Kobayashi H et al 18, 26, 146, 149, 162, 177 Kobayashi Hideo 62, 63–64 Kobayashi Ichizo- 113, 114 Kobayashi T, and Shimada T 184n19 Kobe Shimbun 95 Kobe Yu-shin Nippo- 87 Koga Hidemasa 109 Koiso Kuniaki, General 67 208 Index Koizumi Shinzo- 95 Kojima Tsunehisa 135 Kokumin Shimbun 35–36, 96 Kokusaku Kenkyukai 189n54 Konoe Fumimaro, Prince and Prime Minister 60, 107, 108, 112, 113, 114 Krasner, Stephen 181n13 Krauss, E and Pekkanen, R 10 Kurzman, Dan 113, 114, 115 Kwantung Army 13; Economic General Staff Headquarters 66–67; industrialization of Manchuria, objective of 70–71; “one-industry-onecountry” (ichigyo issha), principle of 71–72, 74; policymaking process, influence on 51; power-based rationalist theory and intentions of 52–54; private entrepreneurs and 71– 74; public goods, provision by 49; seizure of control in Manchuria 47, 48–49; see also Ishiwara Kanji, Lieutenant-Colonel Labor Relations Act of 1946 (Ro-doKankei Ho-) 140 Labor Standard Act of 1947 (Ro-doKijun Ho-) 140 Leontif, Wassily 168 liberal economic market theory 94–97; implementation in liberal market economy (1920s) 25–29, 38; problems in Manchuria under Japanese control 65 Lipset, S.M and Rokkan, S 181n15 Lu, David 99, 188n22, 188n29 Ludendorff, Erich von 56 Lynn, L.H and McKeown, T.J 2, 5, 28–29, 149, 150–51 MacArthur, General Douglas 139–40, 142 Machida Chu-ji 106 McNamara, Kathleen 11 Mahoney, James 10, 179, 182n29 Mahony, J and Rueschemeyer, D Maki, John M 31 managed economy, theory of (to-sei keizai ron): economic institutions 12– 17; final war theory and 57–58, 75; postwar Japan 153, 157, 159, 163, 164; practice in wartime Japan of 103; spread of final war theory and 58–60, 75; wartime Japan 101–3 Manchukuo, establishment of 41 Manchuria: Central Bank 46–47, 49; development plans in, implementation of 68–69; Economic General Staff Headquarters 66–67; Economic Research Association (MERA) 63–64; education levels in 48; “Fundamental Reconsideration of Manchurian Special Corporation” 74; Heavy Industry Company 46–47; industrial production in 48; Legislation Bureau 51; Outline of Manchukuo Economy Building (1932 and 1934) 45, 46, 64– 66, 68; Petroleum Company 46–47; social and economic instability in 48; South Manchuria Railway Company 40; State Affairs Board 41, 51; Strategic Industry Control Law (1937) 45, 46; Telecommunications Company 47; transformation into industrial region 49–50; warlords in, competition between 48, 49 Manchuria Daily 41–42 ‘Manchuria faction,’ influence in wartime Japan of 107–8 Manchuria under Japanese control 20, 39–76; bureaucrats and military 69– 71, 75; collective action theory, preoccupation conditions and 47–52; collective action theory, problems of 50–52; defense-related industries, prioritization for 66; development plans, implementation of 68–69; development state system, evolution of 165–74; economy in Manchuria, building principles 64–66; economy in Manchuria, establishment of 64–74; final war theory 55–57; final war theory, to-sei keizai ron and 57–58, 75; ideational theory, policy entrepreneurs 54–55; industrial associations 172–74; institution building 39–76; Ishiwara, early developments 54–55; Ishiwara, final war theory 55–57; Ishiwara, Kwantung Army in Manchuria and 60–61; Ishiwara, spread of idea of 58– 60; Ishiwara, worldview development 54–55; Japan’s advance into Manchuria 40; Kwantung Army, power-based rationalist theory and intentions of 52–54; liberal economy, problems of 65; managed economy, theory of (to-sei keizai ron), final war theory and 57–58, 75; managed economy, theory of (to-sei keizai ron), Index spread of final war theory and 58–60, 75; Manchukuo, establishment of 41; military and bureaucrats 69–71, 75; military and private entrepreneurs 71– 74, 75; Miyazaki and 61–64; pilot agencies 66–67, 75, 166–71; pilot agency 41–45; Planning Bureau 41– 45; Planning Bureau, economic planning 43–44; Planning Bureau, industrial policies 42–45; Planning Bureau, Manchurian Industry FiveYear Development Plan 43–44, 69; Planning Bureau, operations 42; Planning Bureau, organization 41; Planning Bureau, rationalization of industry, policy of 44–45; policy entrepreneurs and ideational theory 54–55; power-based rationalist theory, Kwantung Army intentions and 52– 54; power-based rationalist theory, problems of 53–54; pre-occupation conditions, collective action theory and 47–52; private entrepreneurs and military 71–74, 75; public benefits, prioritization over private 65–66; special corporation system 67–68; special corporation (tokushu geisha) 45–47; state control, goals of 66 Manshu- Nichinichi Shimbun 74 Manshu- Nippo- 96 market-stabilization policies in postwar Japan 129–30 Marxism 14, 97–99; ideology of 30 Matsumura Shu-itsu 59 Matsuoka Yo-suke 60 Matsusaka Yoshihisa T 40 Meiji period (1868–1912) 22–23, 23–25, 37; financial sector, investment in 23– 24; foreign technology, acquisition of 24–25; industrialization, early stages of 23–25; meritocratic state elites 22; political merchants (seisho-) 24; production promotion (shokusan kogyo-) 23; state-business relations 22; state-owned enterprises, establishment of 24 meritocratic state elites 22 Merrill, Dennis 189n55 Miki Takeo 159 military: bureaucrats in Manchuria and 69–71, 75; private entrepreneurs in Manchuria and 71–74, 75; rise of, end of party politics and 89–90, 118; weakness in 1920s of 33 209 Minazu Risuke 150 Minobe Tatsukichi 103 Minobe Yo-ji 112 Misonou Hitoshi 145, 156 Mitsukawa Kametaro- 99 Miwa, Y and Ramseyer, J.M 25, 26, 28 Miwa Ryo-ichi 148 Miyamoto Yoshio 159, 193n67 Miyazaki Isamu 167–68, 192n51 Miyazaki Masayoshi 54, 65, 66, 67, 68, 75, 79, 99, 107, 111, 158, 172; Ishiwara and the Planning Board 108–10; Manchuria under Japanese control 61–64; Planning Bureau, creation of 14; state-building in Manchuria and 13–14 Miyazawa Kiichi 162 Mizutani Cho-saburo- 154 Morikawa Hidemasa 35 Mouri Hideo 112 multi-causality 17–18 Muto- Akira 111 Muto- Tomio 48, 49 Mutsu Munemitsu 35 Nabeyama Sadachika 98 Nagano Shigeo 162 Nagata Tetsuzan 59 Naigai Industrial Report 44 Nakamura T and Hara A 79, 81, 154 Nakamura Takafusa 23–25, 34, 135 Nakano Seigo- 60 Nakayama Ichiro- 95 Naniwada Haruo 102 Napoleon Buonaparte 57 National Mobilization Act (1938) 78, 79, 108 national socialism (kokka shakai shugi) 14, 99–101 Nihon Kaizo- Ho-an Taiko- (An Outline Plan for the Reorganization of Japan, Kita Ikki, 1919) 99–100, 104 Nihon Keizai no Saihensei (Restructuring the Japanese Economy, Ryu Shintaro-, 1938) 102 Nihon Keizai Shimbun 143 Nihon Ko-gyo- Shimbun 82, 85 Nihon Shakai Seisaku Gakkai (Japan Social Policy Association) 94–95 Nihon To-kei Kenkyu-jo 48, 86, 87, 187n11 Noguchi Yukio 18, 26, 177 Nomura Otojiro- 59 Noro Eitaro- 97 210 Index North, Douglass 10, 11, 181n16 North D and Weingast, B 181n10 Ogawa Go-taro- 106, 113 Okawa Shumei 99 Okazaki T and Okuno M 18, 25, 26, 27, 177 Okimoto, Daniel 3, 123, 128, 180n1, 189n5, 192n39 Okita S et al 159 Okuma Cabinet 34–35, 36 Okuma Nobuyuki 102 Okuma Shigenobu, Prime Minister 183n8 Olson, Mancur Osaka Asahi Shimbun 46, 83, 97 Osaka Jiji Shinpo- 67, 96 Osaka Mainichi Shimbun 96 Ouchi Hyo-e 97 Outline of Manchukuo Economy Building (1932 and 1934) 45, 46, 64–66, 68 Park Chung-hee 178 party politics, end of 89–90 path dependency 10–11; ideational linkage and 157–63 Peace Preservation Law (1925) 30 Peattie, Mark R 58, 59, 61 Pekkanen, Robert 2, Pempel, T.J 31, 33, 119 personal linkage in postwar Japan 149–51 Pierson, Paul 10, 11, 179 Pig Iron Cooperative Association (Sentetsu Kyo-do- Kumiai) 28 pilot agencies 3–4, 21; Manchuria under Japanese control 41–45, 66–67, 75, 166–71; postwar Japan 166–71; wartime Japan 78–83, 166–71 Planning Board, Ishiwara, Miyazaki and the 108–10 Planning Bureau 3–4, 41–45; economic planning in Manchuria 43–44; industrial policies 42–45; Manchurian Industry Five-Year Development Plan 43–44; operations 42; organization 41; rationalization of industry, policy of 44–45 policy entrepreneurs and ideational theory 54–55 policymaker reactions to plans for economic liberalization 142–45 political economy, scholarly attention to 1–2 postwar Japan 20, 120–64; collective action argument 136–38; collective action theory, aftermath of war and 135–36; collective action theory, problems of 138–39; core institutions of developmental state system 121–34; development state system, evolution of 165–74; economic planning policies 124–26; Economic Stabilization Board (ESB, Keizai Antei Honbu) 120–21, 122–23, 124, 126, 130, 136, 140–41, 142, 148, 150, 151, 158, 162, 166–67, 170, 171, 180n8, 190n8; evolution of developmental state system 134–63; ideational competition 153–57; ideational linkage, path dependency and 157–63; ideational theory 152–63; industrial associations 172–74; industrial associations (gyo-kai dantai) 130–34; industrial policies 123–24; industrial rationalization policies 127–28; institutional continuity, discontinuity of security policies and 163–64; institutional evolution in 120–64; Japan Iron and Steel Federation (JISF), role in industrial policies 132–34; maintenance of wartime systems in 16; managed economy, theory of (to-sei keizai ron) 153, 157, 159, 163, 164; market-stabilization policies 129– 30; Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) 120, 121, 122, 123, 127, 128, 129, 130, 133–34, 138, 143, 145, 148, 150, 156, 159, 161; path dependency, ideational linkage and 157–63; personal linkage 149–51; pilot agencies 166–71; policymaker reactions to plans for economic liberalization 142–45; power-based rationalist theory 149–52; powerbased rationalist theory, problems of 151–52; rationalist theory, powerbased 149–52; Self-Defense Forces (SDF) 148, 164, 192n44; Supreme Commander for Allied Powers (SCAP), failed reforms in context 145–49; Supreme Commander for Allied Powers (SCAP), plans for economic liberalization 139–42, 164; Yoshida Doctrine 164 Index power-based rationalist theory: economic institutions 8–9; Kwantung Army intentions and 52–54; postwar Japan 149–52; problems in Manchuria with 53–54; problems in postwar Japan with 151–52; wartime Japan 89–93 power transition in the 1930s 90–92 private entrepreneurs and military in Manchuria 71–74, 75 Production Expansion Four-Year Plan (1938) 79–82 prototype of developmental state system 13 Pu-Yi, Emperor of China and Manchukuo 41 public benefits in Manchuria, prioritization over private 65–66 public interest prioritization in wartime Japan 84, 112, 115, 116–17 Pyle, Kenneth 164 Ramseyer, J.M and Rosenbluth, F.M 8, 181n14, 187n14 rationalist theory, power-based: economic institutions 8–9; postwar Japan 149–52; wartime Japan 89–93 rationalization of industry in wartime Japan, policies for 82–83 reformist bureaucrats: institution building by 112–13; rise in wartime Japan of 92–93 Ricardo, David 95 Robinson-Putman Act (US, 1936) 141–42 Russian Revolution 30 Russo-Japanese War (1904–5) 40 Ryu Shintaro- 102 Saeki Kiichi 150 Saionji Kinmochi 35 Saito- Makoto 91 Sakai Tadamasa 35, 36 Sakomizu Hisatsune 112 Samuels, Richard 2, 3, 5, 18, 177 Sano Manabu 98 Sasaki Yoshitake 150, 162 Sata Tadataka 150 Schaede, Ulrike 2, 6, 18, 28, 29, 177, 179 Self-Defense Forces (SDF) 148, 164, 192n44 self-interest, institutional maintenance and 17–18 Sherman Anti-Trust Act (US, 1890) 141 211 Shidehara Kijuro-, Prime Minister 34; “Shidehara Diplomacy” 37 Shigemitsu Mamoru 159 Shiina Etsusaburo- 69, 108, 112, 115, 116, 150, 162, 178 Shimanuki Takeharu, Lieutenant 96–97 Shimizu Yuichiro- 31–32 Shirasu Jiro- 143 Shiseki Ihei 150 Sikkink, Katheryn 11 Silberman, Bernard S 9, 31 Smith, Adam 95 Sogo- Shinji 63, 107 Soviet Union, Five-Year Plan (1928–33) in 13 special corporation (tokushu geisha) system in Manchuria 45–47, 67–68 Stalin, Josef 55 state control: early attempts at 103–6; evolution of economic institutions and 176–77; goals of 66; state-owned enterprises, establishment of 24; zaibatsu opposition to 106–7 Steinmo, S., Thelen, K and Longstreth, F Streeck, W and Thelen, K Suekawa Hiroshi 83–84, 116, 172 Sugaya Juhei 162 Sugihara S et al 188n28 Supreme Commander for Allied Powers (SCAP) 15, 130–31, 143, 144–45, 153, 154, 164, 190n15, 191n31, 192n41; failed reforms in context 145–49; Instructions from (SCAP-IN) 130, 131, 141, 143, 144–45, 192n40; plans for economic liberalization 139–42, 164 Suzuki Takashi 50, 73, 86, 91 Suzuki Teiichi 59 Taisho- period (1912–26) 30; “Taishodemocracy” 36–37 Takahashi Kamekichi 35, 88, 95 Takahashi Korekiyo, Prime Minister 33, 37, 91 Takemae Eiji 140–42, 147 Taki Masao 79 Tejima Yu-ji 150 Thelen, K and Kume I 10, 179 Thelen, Kathleen 10, 179 Tilton, Mark 2, 5, To-jo- Hideki 59, 73, 111, 113, 114, 115 Tokugawa shogunate 28 Tokyo Asahi Shimbun 87 212 Index Tokyo Nichinichi Shimbun 62, 67–68 total war, concerns about possibility of 13 Trade Union Act of 1946 (Ro-do- Kumiai Ho-) 140 Truman, President Harry S 118 Tsuda Shingo 60, 107 Tsushima Juichi 109 Ueda Kenkichi 73 Uemura Ko-goro- 79, 151–52 Uesugi Shinkichi 103 Ugaki Kazushige, General (retired) 108 Umetsu Yoshijiro- 111 Vogel, Steven 177, 179 Wada Hiroo 79, 114, 150, 151 Wade, Robert 2, 3, 4, 22, 178, 180n1 Waldner, David 1, 3, 4, 178, 180n1, 180n7 wartime institutions 18–19, 93, 120, 134–35, 138, 140, 145, 148, 151, 153, 157, 163–64 wartime Japan 20, 77–119; Cabinet Planning Board 78–83; collective action theory 87–89; control associations, to-sei keizai ron embedded in 115–17; control associations (to-sei kai) 83–85; development state system, evolution of 165–74; developmental state system, rise of 85–117, 118–19; economy in early 1930s 85–87; Germany, industrial rationalization policies in 104–5; Great Depression and 85, 86, 88, 90, 91, 95, 96, 118; ideational theory 85, 93–95, 98–99, 118; industrial associations 172–74; institution building by reformist bureaucrats 112–13; institutions of wartime developmental state system 78–85, 118; intellectual discourse, competing ideas and 94; Ishiwara, downfall of 110–11; Ishiwara, Miyazaki and the Planning Board 108–10; Ishiwara, seizure of power by 107–8; liberal economic market theory 94–97; managed economy, theory of (to-sei keizai ron) 101–3; managed economy, theory of (to-sei keizai ron), practice of 103; ‘Manchuria faction,’ influence of 107– 8; Marxism 97–99; military, end of party politics and rise of 89–90, 118; Miyazaki, Ishiwara and the Planning Board 108–10; national socialism (kokka shakai shugi) 99–101; party politics, end of 89–90; pilot agencies 78–83, 166–71; Planning Board, Ishiwara, Miyazaki and the 108–10; power-based rationalist theory 89–93; power transition in the 1930s 90–92; Production Expansion Four-Year Plan (1938) 79–82; public interest prioritization 84, 112, 115, 116–17; rationalist theory, power-based 89–93; rationalization of industry, policies for 82–83; reformist bureaucrats, institution building by 112–13; reformist bureaucrats, rise of 92–93; state control, early attempts at 103–6; state control, zaibatsu opposition to 106–7; wartime economy, rise of 77–119; zaibatsu opposition, continuation of 113–15, 117 Washington Naval Conference (1922) 33 Watanabe Tsuneo 31, 183n8 Watanabe Yoshisuke 150 Weingast, Barry R 7, 181n10 Weir, Margaret 11 Welsh, Edward C 142 Werner, Richard A 25, 86, 92 Woo-Cumings, Meredith 180n1 Woo Jung-en 2, 3, 4, 178, 179 Yamamoto Cabinet 32 Yamamoto Takayuki 150 Yamanaka Shiro- 150 Yasuhara Kazuo 155, 161, 162 Yomiuri Shimbun 130–31 Yonekura Seiichiro- 2, 5, 18, 84, 149–50, 180n4, 186n7 Yoshida Shigeru, Prime Minister 143, 156–57, 193n55, 193n60; Cabinet of 125–26, 154, 185n38; Yoshida Doctrine 164 Yoshimoto Shigeyoshi 104, 163 Yoshino Shinji 104, 105, 106–7, 172 Yoshiue Satoru 150 Yuan Shih-kai 40 Zhang Xue-liang 60 Zhang Zou-lin 48 ... and the State in Modern Asia Edited by Liping Bu, Darwin Stapleton and Ka-che Yip 75 The Evolution of the Japanese Developmental State Institutions locked in by ideas Hironori Sasada The Evolution. .. Explaining the evolution of the postwar Japanese developmental state system 134 III Conclusions 163 The evolution of the Japanese developmental state I Evolution of developmental state systems in. .. economy over the following decades Analysing the institutional origin and evolutionary path of developmental state system, The Evolution of the Japanese Developmental State extends existing scholarship