Model and Metaphor Books of Related Interest Geopolitics at the End of the Twentieth Century Nurit Kliot, Haifa University, Israel, and David Newman, Ben Gurion University of the Negev (eds) Boundaries, Territory and Postmodernity David Newman, Ben Gurion University of the Negev (ed.) Geopolitics: Geography and Strategy Colin S Gray, University of Hull, and Geoffrey Sloan, Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth (eds) Geoproperty Foreign Affairs, National Security and Property Rights Geoff Demarest, United States Army Land-Locked States of Africa and Asia Dick Hodder, Sarah J Lloyd and Keith McLachlan School of Oriental and African Studies, London (eds) From Geopolitics to Global Politics: A French Connection Jacques Lévy (ed.) The Changing Geopolitics of Eastern Europe Andrew H Dawson and Rick Fawn University of St Andrews (eds) THE MARSHALL PLAN TODAY Model and Metaphor Editors JOHN AGNEW J NICHOLAS ENTRIKIN University of California, Los Angeles First published in 2004 in Great Britain by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane London EC4P 4EE and in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street New York, NY 1001 Copyright in collection © 2004 Routledge Copyright in chapters © 2004 individual contributors Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2004 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from The British Library ISBN 0-203-50307-4 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-58233-0 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 7146-5514-7 (cloth) ISSN 1466-7940 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher of this book Contents List of illustrations Contributors Foreword: The Marshall Plan Speech Preface List of Abbreviations Introduction: The Marshall Plan as Model and Metaphor John Agnew and J Nicholas Entrikin vii ix xiii xvii xix Part I: European Recovery Post-World War II western European Exceptionalism: The Economic Dimension J Bradford DeLong 25 Europe and the Marshall Plan: 50 Years On Alan S Milward 58 The Economic Effects of the Marshall Plan Revisited Dafne C Reymen 82 The Marshall Plan and European Integration: Limits of an Ambition Gérard Bossuat 127 Part II: Markets and National Policy As the Twig is Bent: The Marshall Plan in Europe’s Industrial Structure Raymond Vernon 155 Confronting the Marshall Plan: US Business and European Recovery Jacqueline McGlade 171 The Marshall Plan: Searching for ‘Creative Peace’ Then and Now Paul Bernd Spahn 191 vi Part III: International Cooperation and Globalization The Marshall Plan and European Unification: Impulses and Restraints Wilfried Loth The Marshall Plan: a Model for What? Thomas C Schelling 217 234 10 From Marshall Plan to Washington Consensus? Globalization, Democratization, and ‘National’ Economic Planning 241 Stuart Corbridge Index 270 Illustrations The following plates appear between pp 140 and 141 Plates ‘All Our Colours to the Mast’ ‘Western Europe’s Recovery’ President Harry Truman signs the Foreign Assistance Act of 1948, setting into motion the ‘Marshall Plan’ for European Recovery The central figures of the Marshall Plan were (left to right) President Harry Truman, Secretary of State George Marshall, Will Clayton and Paul Hoffman ‘Without the Marshall Plan Your Bread Would Be Bare ’ ‘England: Something for Everybody’ Miner’s Homes in Holland ‘The American Bludgeon’ was Russia’s interpretation of America intruding on the sovereignty of west European economies ‘Can He Block It?’ Figures 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 3.1 3.2 7.1 10.1 Germany: GDP per capita, 1870–1994 France: GDP per capita, 1870–1994 Italy: GDP per capita, 1870–1994 Britain: GDP per capita, 1870–1994 GDP per capita since 1900 Exports plus imports divided by national product Real investment as a share of GDP US transfers abroad as a share of GDP German unemployment, 1949–70 Western European inflation, 1950–96 Days lost to strikes Allotments and aid received per country Contribution by Marshal Plan in GNP growth European Recovery Program recipients Diagram of the world system during (A) and after (B) the Cold War 27 28 29 30 35 40 44 46 47 47 49 113 115 197 261 viii Tables 1.1 Effect of international trade on Western European post-WWII development 2.1 Net ERP aid received, after trading settlements made with ‘conditional’ aid 2.2 Net total ERP aid received, after trading settlements made with ‘conditional’ aid and drawing rights 2.3 Additional output growth attributable to the Marshall Plan, allowing for interaction effects 3.1 Comparison between aid requiring counterpart deposits and allotments 3.2 Aid requiring counterpart deposits and loans compared to allotments 3.3 Deposits in counterpart funds and loans compared to allotments 3.4 Regression equations used for the simulations 3.5a Contribution to growth by the Marshall Plan through the three traditional channels 3.5b Contribution to growth by the Marshall Plan allowing all channels to operate 3.6 Impact of aid on investment, current account and government spending 3.7 Growth equations (1948–1955) 5.1 Foreign manufacturing subsidiaries established by multinational enterprises in selected areas 5.2 Number of mergers, acquisitions, and joint ventures in manufacturing industries, 1982/83 to 1992/93 7.1 Funds made available to ECA for European economic recovery 7.2 European recovery program recipients 41 61 61 63 116 117 118 119 119 120 120 121 161 165 193 196 Contributors John Agnew is Professor of Geography at UCLA He served as the Associate Director of the UCLA Center for European and Russian Studies He is author of numerous books and articles on geopolitics including Political Geography (Arnold), The United States and the World Economy (Cambridge), and Mastering Space (Routledge) with Stuart Corbridge Gérard Bossuat holds the Jean Monnet Chair of Contemporary History at the University of Cergy-Pontoise (France) He also chairs the Department of History and directs a Master ‘Manager of Europe’ project Professor Bossuat is a member of the Liaison Group of the Historians within the European Community and of the administrative staff of the Jean Monnet Foundation in Lausanne, and of the Institut Pierre Mendes in Paris He is on the editorial boards of Matériaux pour l’Histoire de notre temps, Recherche socialiste, and Journal of European Intégration History Professor Bossuat’s recent books are Les aides américaines économiques et militaires la France, 1938–1960 (Paris), Comité pour l’histoire économique et financière de la France (2001); Les fondateurs de l’Europe unie (Paris, 2001); and (with Georges Saunier) Inventer l’Europe, histoire nouvelle des groupes d’influence et des acteurs de l’unité européenne, actes du colloque de Cergy-Pontoise des 8–10 November 2001, PIE Peter Lang, 2003 Stuart Corbridge is Professor of Geography at the London School of Economics and at the University of Miami He works mainly on India and is the author of Reinventing India: Liberalization, Hindu Nationalism and Popular Democracy (Polity, 2000, with John Harriss) His next book, with Glyn Williams, Manoj Srivastava and Rene Veron, will be published by Cambridge University Press in 2004 under the title Seeing the State: How the Rural Poor Experience Governance and Democracy in India Besides India, his main interests are in development studies and international political economy J Bradford DeLong is Professor of Economics at the University of California, Berkeley, Co-Editor of the Journal of Economic Perspectives, and a Research Associate of the National Bureau of Economic 260 other words, a concern for ‘development ethics’ would have resort to a modified Rawlsianism that begins by denying the ‘talents effect’ beloved by some on the Right.65 Instead of assuming that we are the authors of our own fortunes, a social contract theory of justice would point out that many talented people are born each day to parents who lack land and work – or capabilities and entitlements – in countries like Bangladesh or Nepal By the same token, many less talented people are born to affluent parents in high-income neighborhoods in Los Angeles and London Given these starting conditions, it hardly makes sense to condemn one set of individuals for doing poorly in monetary terms while commending another for ‘making something of themselves’ Moreover, because such individuals could have been born in radically different circumstances – could have traded places – it behoves us to consider what responsibilities we might have, as affluent individuals or countries, to poorer individuals far away who we are unlikely to meet; to our distant strangers Further, to the extent that globalization (through telecommunications in a shrinking world) makes us more aware of these (less?) distant strangers, it is possible that globalization could lend weight to those calling for a new internationalism born as much of moral concern as from enlightened self-interest.66 Conclusion These last remarks are inevitably partial and speculative, and are not intended to serve as a guide to detailed policies in the post-Cold War era Nevertheless, they begin to map out a policy menu that is at some remove from the policies that we associate with the Marshall Plan and which some commentators would like to see reinvented as Marshall II The policy menu to which I have alluded differs from the Marshall Plan menu in three key respects It differs, first, in terms of geographical scale In the late 1940s and early 1950s, it was understandable that the United States would concentrate its energies on the rebuilding of western Europe and Japan The United States has strong geopolitical reasons for doing so, and the ‘Third World’ had yet to make much of an impression upon US economic or security concerns Matters are different today Parts of the ‘Third World’ matter rather less to the United States in the 1990s than in the 1980s – for example, the Horn of Africa following the end of the Cold War – and this gives us cause for concern Regions such as this, along with parts of the ex-socialist bloc and some inner city areas in the First World, are unable to access the world market on anything like favorable terms and are very often treated as sites of contagion or sites for dumping the unwanted byproducts of market-led development.67 New cores and new peripheries 261 are emerging in a global political economy no longer dominated by a single, or even straightforwardly territorial, hegemonic power (see Figure 10.1) Away from these wild or excluded zones, however, we find newly industrialized countries and city-regions (including New Delhi or Shanghai) that patently ‘matter’, and which cannot be disregarded in the way that they were fifty years ago.68 The very success of the Marshall Plan for European Recovery paved the way for a globalizing world economy in which power is more widely diffused and shared by states, global institutions, and market-makers Plans for a second Marshall Plan would have to recognize these developments and acknowledge the relative decline of the United States in a postwar world economy Figure 10.1 Diagram of the world system during (A) and after (B) the Cold War 262 A second difference returns us to questions of design and intentionality In the 1940s and 1950s, it was possible to conceive of economic and geopolitical problems in mechanical terms Problems in one part of the world could be diagnosed by an economic power in another part of the world, and faulty parts or systems could be repaired using local resources and kick-started by a leading economic power This is probably not the case today The world economy in the 1990s is more open and interdependent than the nationally-oriented world economy of the 1940s and 1950s The possibility that intentional actions in one part of the world economy will have unintended and undesirable consequences elsewhere is accordingly greater, and the benefits of dirigisme (as opposed to precautionary regulation) are less clear-cut There is also less confidence today in the capacity of states to discipline international markets or to coordinate international policy actions A third point of difference concerns the politics of aid and assistance In the 1940s and 1950s, the United States was able to mobilize political support for massive aid programs, and the recipients of foreign assistance tended to be governments or elites who paid little heed to the voices of those who they governed (Or, more positively, modernizing governments made the assumption that their dream of development was shared by the people.) In the 1990s it is difficult to generate support for large aid budgets in the west, and newer discourses of participatory development warn against a vision of development where people are made the supplicants of the state rather than the sources of their own development.69 These discourses not have to generate a strong anti-aid rhetoric (although some do), because Real Aid can prime the pump of local empowerment schemes and provide funds for investment in social capital Nevertheless, the thrust of such discourses, and of the Right’s counter-revolution in development theory and policy,70 has been to focus attention on human capital development, empowerment, and even market-access, and rightly so None of this means that we should not welcome a second Marshall Plan for the 1990s My argument, rather, is that a second Marshall Plan would want to address itself to non-European problems (most notably debt reduction and development problems), and should be phrased in less ‘executive’ terms than its acclaimed predecessor I would also want to argue that a longing for Marshall II is misplaced to the extent that we define the Marshall Plan for European Recovery in terms of what it planned for, as much as what it sought the planning of For good or ill, the open world economy of the 1990s is very much a product of the Marshall Plan years, and deliberately so 263 References Adepoju, A (ed.) 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Lindert, by contrast, claimed in 1989 that ‘most debtor countries have not been repaying significantly since 1982’ (Lindert, 1989, p.250) On the definitional and data problems involved, see Corbridge (1993a) and Cline (1995) Corbridge and Agnew (1991), p.71 Friedman (1987), p.5 For an interesting discussion, see Helleiner (1992) Hogan (1987), p.2 267 On the Golden Age of Capitalism, see Glyn et al (1991) On the US as a benevolent hegemon or benevolent despot, see Gilpin (1987) and Parboni (1981) For an account of embedded liberalism in the postwar world order, see Ruggie (1983) The enlightened internationalism of Brandt and Brundtland refers to their accounts of the common actions needed to deal with debt and development (Brandt, 1993) and global environment problems (Brundtland, 1987) Hegemonic stability theories come in two main guises One version has been developed by realists in the international relations camp Realists hold that anarchy is the natural state of international relations and that an open or ‘liberal’ international economic system is only ever secured, transiently, by the disciplinary actions of the hegemonic power committed to this goal (Bull, 1977; Waltz, 1979) A second version has been developed by neoKeynesians like Charles Kindleberger, himself a player in the Marshall Plan negotiations Kindleberger suggests that the main source of instability in international affairs is capitalism itself Strong state actions by a hegemonic power are necessary to dampen down the tendency to boom and bust that capitalism promotes (Kindleberger, 1978, 1984) Keynes (1971) 10 Others have come to a broadly similar conclusion In a recent review of John Gaddis’s book, We Now Know (Gaddis, 1997), Neal Ascherson writes as follows: ‘Stalin quite failed to see the commitment to free-trading capitalism implicit in the [Marshall] Plan and prepared to join it, mistaking it for a benevolent offer of American financial aid Only later, after warnings from his diplomats and agents, did he change his mind’ (Ascherson, 1997, p.26) 11 For an elaboration and defense of this term, see Agnew and Corbridge (1995), Chapter 12 Maier (1977) 13 See Gimbel (1976) 14 Chenery (1989), p.137 15 Lundestad (1984), quoted in Hogan (1987) 16 Hogan (1987), p.23 17 Escobar (1995), p.3 18 For example, the Harrod–Domar growth model, or the Rostow stages of growth model (Rostow, 1960) Rostow, like Kindleberger (footnote 9), was a significant player in the Marshall Plan deliberations (see Rostow, 1981) 19 The editors of the first major journal of development studies, Economic Development and Cultural Change (first published in 1952) chose its name very carefully and long promoted this ideology 20 For an account of US postwar assault on national capitalisms, see Wood (1986) 21 Quoted in Moggridge (1992), p.692 22 For example, Henry Hazlitt and Robert Taft: see Hitchens (1968) 23 Hogan (1987), pp.82–3, referring to the 1946 Anglo-American loan agreement 24 Hogan (1987), p.445 25 Williamson (1993) summarizes the economic aspects of the Washington Consensus It should be noted that Williamson is less concerned with the merits of different political systems than he is with silencing what he calls ‘economic nonsense’ (p.1330) 26 Washington’s (or the World Bank’s) insistence on the virtues of democratization came rather late in the day, and not until its attention was switched from the East Asian miracle (where some see democratization as a luxury that must follow development: see Leftwich, 1996) to sub-Saharan Africa (World Bank, 1989a, 1992) For a skeptical view see Moore (1996) 27 Triffin (1960) 28 Brett (1985) 29 In the early 1990s, daily turnover in the world’s major foreign exchange markets was worth more than $1 trillion, and the ‘great majority of these transactions, perhaps 90 percent or more, are unrelated to current account flows’ (Walter, 1993, p.197) 30 Hogan (1987), pp.91–4; see also Arkes (1972) 31 World Bank (1995, 1996); see also Dooley et al (1996) 268 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 For a cogent discussion see Van der Pilj (1984) and Arrighi (1994) See Corbridge (1994) Dicken (1992) For interesting discussions of planning as the new Godhead in Independent India, see Inden (1995) and Zachariah (1997) Chomsky (1992) Robert Bates is perhaps the best known exponent of this thesis (Bates, 1981, 1988), which was also argued by the so-called Berg Report of the World Bank (1981) The World Bank has recently claimed that ‘adjustment’ is working in Africa and that its reforms are securing improved economic growth and social equity (World Bank, 1994) Although many academic commentators are less sanguine (Adepoju, 1993, Mosley et al., 1995, Simon et al., 1995), in a recent review of published surveys, data-sets and economic models, Howard White offers qualified support for the Bank’s position (White, 1996) In practice, liberalization enjoys the support of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) in the West Bengal, under the leadership of Jyoti Basu Bardhan (1984) presents a classic statement of this ‘intermediate regime’ thesis World Bank (1989b); see also Corbridge (1991) A phrase associated with Raj Krishna Singh (1991) offers a thorough review of the evidence Singh also makes the important point that poverty and inequality are not one and the same thing It is perfectly reasonable to expect the reform process in India to reduce poverty while increasing inequalities See World Bank (1993), and not withstanding the 1997 financial crises in the region we must suppose The Bretton Woods system in its pure form lasted from about 1958–1966 For a searching revisionist account of the so-called Bretton Woods system, see Walter (1993) In some respects, Walter’s work on Bretton Woods parallels the revisionist, and similarly less UScentered account of the Marshall Plan offered by Alan Milward (Milward, 1984) See also the contrasting contributions of Milward and DeLong to this volume Hirst and Thompson (1995), Chapter For a broad ranging discussion of ‘governance without government’ see the collection of essays edited by Rosenau and Czempiel (1992) This view owes as much to Hayek as Darwin See Hayek (1960, 1976); see also Kirzner (1989) A fine recent account of Hayek’s work and legacy is Gamble (1996) For a discussion, see Hutton (1995); see also Atkinson and Mogenson (1993) Mike Davis’s account of Los Angeles as a city of quartz remains a classic in this genre (Davis, 1990), but the security industry is hardly confined to the United States or affluent OECD countries The front cover of one of India’s leading weekly magazines, India Today, ran the following story on October 1997: ‘Extortion nightmare – with the state failing to protect its citizens and criminals discovering easy money in kidnapping, the rich take cover behind armed guards and bullet-proof cars.’ Critiques of India’s liberalization programs include Breman (1996) and ASG (1997) For a more cautious assessment see Bhaduri and Nayyar (1996) Amsden (1989, 1994); see also Wade (1990) For accounts of strategic trade theory, see Krugman (1986), and Auty (1995) Latouche (1996) provides an alarming, indeed alarmist, account of the ‘Westernization of the world’ Michael Mann writes that: ‘I conceive of human societies as always formed of multiple, overlapping and intersecting networks of interaction Globalism is unlikely to change this Human interaction networks are now penetrating the globe, but in multiple, variable and uneven fashion’ (Mann, 1997, p.495) This is very much my view Globalization is changing some networks and relationships, but it is not creating a new world that is radically at odds with previous worlds Further, these networks and interactions themselves shape globalization, hence the title of the paper Globalization is not pre-given, nor is it simply out there and ready made See also Jessop (1997) Reimer (1994) David Held and his colleagues have essayed some of the most incisive accounts of the 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 269 changing nature of democratic politics in an age of globalization: see Held (1993); Potter et al (1997) and McGrew (1997) For a recent review of Held’s ouevre, see Goldblatt (1997) Dreze and Sen (1995) Ibid., p.8 On social capital more generally, see Evans (1996) The distinction is well made by Peter Evans (Evans, 1995) Keynes (1972); see also Skidelsky (1992) See Sinclair (1994) Ulrich Beck’s account of the ‘risk society’ deals persuasively with these and other issues: Beck (1992) Tobin (1994); see also Mendez (1996) The Real Aid agenda was forcefully pressed by British NGOs including Oxfam, Christian Aid and Save the Children in the 1980s; see Independent Group on British Aid (1982) Under Prime Minister Thatcher, UK official development assistance declined from 0.52% of GNP in 1979 to 0.27% of GNP in 1990 In 1993 the figure was 0.31%; in the United States the corresponding figure was 0.15% See Bernstein (1996) and Cook (1994) On transnational justice, see Beitz (1991) and O’Neill (1991, 1996) On development ethics, see Crocker (1991), Gasper (1996) and Qizilbash (1996) On the possible connexions between space-time compression and emerging moral geographies, see Corbridge (1993b), Harvey (1996) Watts (1991) deals persuasively with various rhetorical constructions of ‘Africa’ as a site of illness, communicable disease and excess population; Clapp (1995) provides information on the dumping of toxic wastes in sub-Saharan countries by affluent (effluent) countries in the North On the hegemony and territory in a deterritorializing world, see Agnew and Corbridge (1995); see also Luke (1993) See Brohman (1996) for an up-to-date account See also Ferguson on aid, bureucratization and various discourses of ‘development’ in southern Africa (Ferguson, 1994) The phrase is Toye’s (Toye, 1993) Index Abelshauser, W 70 Acheson, D 4, 5, 9, 10, 11, 13, 16, 42, 45, 140, 173, 175 Adenauer, K 3, 157, 230 Afghanistan 3, 15 Agriculture 11, 69–70, 86, 229; commodities as aid 100, 236; food crisis in Europe 83, 87, 191 Albania 15 Albright, M 16 Allied Powers Alphand 133 Alsop, J 128 American Empire/Imperium ‘Americanization’ 78–79 Amsden, A 255 Argentina 33–36, 39 Auriol, V 42 Australia 131 Austria 61, 62, 63, 69, 76, 79, 104, 106–107, 127, 134, 142, 143 Bacha, E.L 101 Balassa–Samuelson Effect 48, 50 Balkans 17 Barro, R.L 31 Bayard, C.S 173–174 Belgium 84, 92, 93, 97, 103, 107, 108, 134, 142, 145, 178 Benelux 131, 132, 134, 138, 144, 225, 226 Berghahn, V.R 78 Beria, L 45 Bevin, E 6, 42, 131, 132, 133, 140, 225 Bischoff, G Bissell, W 173, 181 Blaisdell, T.C 222 Blum, L 135, 218 Bohlen, C 129 Boris, G 143 Borchardt, K 68 Bosnia 15 Bourdet, C 220 Brazil 254; and Bretton Woods 250 Brett, E.A 249 Bretton Woods Agreement/System 3, 50, 62, 67, 68, 192, 201, 207, 241, 242, 244, 246, 248, 250–251, 252–253, 259 British pound sterling 11, 74, 234 Breuning, Chancellor 51 Brussels Treaty 132, 221 Bryan, W.J 36 Buchheim, C 68 Bush, G W 15 Camp, M 141 Canada 131 Cartels, international 156, 158, 163, 168 Cassiers, I 108 Center for European Studies, NYU Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) 128 Chace, J 4, 16 Chauvel, M 131, 133 Chile 16 China 250; and Bretton Woods 254 Chirac, J 17 Churchill, W 1, 6, 135, 218, 222 Clayton, W 8, 10, 11, 129, 130, 131, 175 Cleveland, H 141 Clinton, W 15, 212 Clesse, A Cohen, D 26, 54 Cold War 4, 5, 6, 13, 17, 58, 143, 171, 174, 180, 182, 186 Committee for Economic Development 174 Committee on European Economic Cooperation 88, 226 Committee on International Relations 15 Common Market 9, 147 Coordinating Committee (COCOM) 143, 182–185 Cripps, S 136, 139, 142 Cross of Gold 36–40 Czechoslovakia 13, 17, 58 Dallek, R 13 De Gasperi De Gaulle, C 159, 221 De Long, B 44, 64, 69, 70, 72, 100 Denmark 76, 104, 107, 134, 142 Détente Diaz-Alejandro, C 34–35, 39 Dirigiste Dobbs, M 16 Dobney, F.J Dreze, J 257 Dulles, J.F 222 Easterlin, R 30 Economic Cooperation Act 88–90, 96 Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA) 13, 14, 60, 65, 71, 73, 78, 88–89, 92–94, 95, 96, 98, 100, 102, 106, 108, 143, 175–177, 179–181, 192, 227, 235 Economic Miracle, European 31, 194, 197 Eichengreen, B 2, 3, 5, 8, 19, 50, 63, 64, 65–66, 67, 69, 70, 72, 75, 82, 83, 87, 99, 100, 101–102, 104, 105, 106, 107 Eisenhower Administration 182–184, 186, 231 Eisenhower, D.D 182–183 Ellwood, D.W 14, 64 Epps, A Escobar, A 245 Esposito, C 73 Estonia 45 Ethnic Cleansing 15 EURATOM 147, 228, 230 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) 9, 141, 147, 158–159, 166, 198, 227, 229 European colonial dependencies 134–135, 192 European Commission 85, 164, 168 271 European Defense Community 147, 227–228, 229, 230 European Economic Community (EEC) 159, 165–166, 228, 230, 248 European Industrial Projects 175 European Payments Union 59, 64, 65, 66, 67, 73, 74, 75, 76, 90–93, 140, 141, 145–147, 194, 198 European Union 3, 9, 17, 54, 85, 147, 160, 198, 204, 210 FINEBEL 145 Finland 45 Fordham, B.O 12 Foreign Assistance Act 84 Foreign Operations Administration 176 Fossedal, M 11 Foster, W C 181 France 7, 8, 11, 17, 27, 35, 37, 38, 43, 48, 61, 62, 64, 65, 68, 69, 72, 75, 79, 92, 104–105, 106, 108, 127–128, 129; and Bretton Woods 250; farmers 70, 229; FINEBEL 145; Foreign Ministry 133, 134, 137; France–US policy 73; and Indochina 237–238; Modernization and Equipment Plan 136, 138, 142, 144, 199–200, 221, 224, 226; reparations 223; SGCI 137, 138; USTA&P 178 Frankel, J 41 Friedman, B 241 Friedman, M 26, 53 Geiger, T 222 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 8, 74, 141, 192, 201, 250, 251, 258 Georgia 45 German Communist Party 45 Germany 3, 7, 9, 17, 27, 35, 43, 48, 58, 65, 69; hoarding goods 70, 72, 76, 99, 104, 127, 128, 129, 132, 142, 199, 223–224; Ministry of Economics 66, 76; pre-WWII 172, 200, 217–218, 220; and Soviet containment 221, 228 Government Aid and Relief in Occupied Areas (GARIOA) 59, 69, 99, 109–110 272 Great Britain (United Kingdom) 7, 11, 16, 27, 37, 38, 43, 48, 61, 62, 68, 92, 104–105, 106, 108, 131, 134, 139, 142, 158, 160, 199, 220, 226, 254; Bretton Woods 247, 250; rationing 71; tariffs 74–75; treasury 66 Greece 6, 60, 104, 129, 134, 141, 142 Greek Civil War Great Depression 3, 25, 28, 39, 43, 50 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 27–31, 35, 41, 44, 67, 194–195, 209; France 28; Great Britain 30; Italy 29; West Germany 27, 67; US transfers as share of 46 Gross National Product (GNP) 60, 62, 63, 64, 66, 72, 76, 87, 101–103, 234, 239, 246 Guindey, G 141 Gulf War 16 Gutt-operation 107 Hall, P 51 Harriman, A 13, 132, 136, 138, 144, 173, 174 Harrod-Domar growth models 62 Hayek, F 42 Hemsing, A 14 Hickenlooper, B 131 Hirst, P 256 Hitler, A 13; attack on Russia 45 Hobson, J 32, 39 Hoffman, P 4, 13, 42, 78, 173, 174–175, 177, 179–180 Hogan, M J 5, 7, 8, 10, 12, 19, 64, 87, 129, 245, 247 Hungary 17, 58 Hyde, H 15 Iceland 141, 142 Import-Export Bank 110 India 131, 251–252, 254; Bretton Woods 250; staged liberalization 256 inflation 47, 48, 50, 51–52, 53 International Monetary Fund 65, 192, 201, 204, 206–209, 238, 246, 250, 253; 1997 Meetings 255 International Trade (effect of on Europe) 41, 156–157, 162–163, 166–169 International Trade Organization (ITO) 157, 163 Iran (Revolution) 52, 129 Iraq 2, 3, 15, 17 Ireland 14, 60, 135, 142, 143 Iron Curtain 1, 6, 32–33, 222 Italy 6, 7, 8, 11, 35, 37, 38, 43, 48, 62, 69; Italy-US policy 73, 76, 104, 107, 128, 132, 143, 145, 178, 224 Japan (trade competition) 164 Jdanov commitment 133 Johnson, M 16 Kagan, R 21 Kennan, G 6, 10, 11, 13, 129, 140, 222, 226 Keynes, J.M 33, 43, 62, 243, 246–247, 258 Keynesianism 17, 43, 44–46, 50, 62–63, 167, 242, 246, 258 Kim Il-Sung 45 Kindleberger, C 33, 48, 87, 222 Kojeve, A 137 Kok, W 84 Korea 6, 14, 45, 129 Korean War 38, 142, 199, 240 Kosovo 15 Kreisky, B 15 Krugman, P 30 Kruschev, N 32 Labouisse, H 133 Lacina, F 15 Lakoff, G 16 Lambert, R 21 Latvia 45 Leffler, M.P 7, 11 Lend Lease 135, 234 Lenin, V 32, 39 Lippman, W 140, 222 Lithuania 45 Lodge, H.C 130 Loth, W Lundestad, G 245 Luxembourg 95, 134, 142, 145 Maier, C 4, 19, 48, 64, 65, 86, 129, 244; ‘politics of productivity’ 64, 244 Malagodi, G 141 Mao Tse-tung 45 Marjolin, R 129, 133, 134, 142, 144 Marshall, G C 1, 8, 10, 12, 13, 84, 127, 128–129, 135, 173, 191, 202, 212, 223–224, 231 Marshall Plan: anniversaries 4, 5, 58–59; Foreword 1, 11, 191, 224, 235; speech, Harvard University Massigli, R 132, 137 Mee, C 4, 11, 12, 13, 14, 99, 100 Melandri, P 128–129 Mergers and Acquisitions 165–166 Middle East 15, 17 Mikhail, B 11 Milward, A 2, 5, 14, 38, 39, 50, 86–87, 99, 109, 129, 134 Mitterand, F 167 Mollett, G 230–231 Moldova 45 Monnet, J 3, 127, 130, 134, 136, 139, 141, 144, 157, 229 Moore, B T 129 Morgenthau, H 246 Mutual Defense Assistance Act 89, 110, 179 Mutual Security Act 89–90, 237 Mutual Security Agency 60, 77, 89, 110, 141, 143, 147, 181, 186 National Association of Manufacturers (NAM) 173, 176 National Foreign Trade Council 173, 176 National Security Council 128 Nestle 155 ‘Net inflow of funds’ 82 Netherlands 61, 62, 63, 68, 69, 76, 79, 92, 104, 107, 108, 134, 142, 145, 178 New Deal 7, 67, 173, 250 New Zealand 131 Nineteen Eighty-Four 39 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 1, 3, 8, 14, 16, 17, 45, 50, 140, 142, 143–144, 147, 179, 183, 198, 210, 228, 236, 239–240 Norway 76, 104, 107, 134, 141, 142, 178 NSC–68 45 273 Overseas Investment Guaranties (OIG) 177–178 OPEC 52 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Dependency (OECD) 194, 201, 237, 241, 253 Organization for European Economic Cooperation 13, 59, 66, 72, 73; OEEC Council 142, 145, 146, 158; participant countries 134–135, 195–198, 227–228; Trade Liberalization Program 74, 75, 76, 77, 86, 88–89, 128, 136, 137, 139–141, 144–145, 147, 221, 226, 235, 237 Pakistan 131 Pax Americana 243, 246, 249 Pelinka, A Peron, J 34, 39 Pinochet, A 16 Plowden, Lord 139, 144 Pogue, F.C 12 Poland 17, 45, 58 Portugal 91, 134 Politics of Productivity 64, 244 Porter, P 222 Quai d’Orsay 131, 133, 136–137 Queuille, H 136 Raw materials 68, 86, 236 Red Army 6, 32 Reed, P.D 173, 174 Reichlin, L 75 Roberts, G Romer, D 41 Roll, E.P 141 Roosevelt Administration 174 Rossi, E 219 Rostow, W 222 Rumsfeld, D 17 Russia (USSR) 2, 6, 7, 8, 15, 17, 33 45, 58, 128, 129; Bretton Woods 250; fishing 11; nuclear weapons 33; post-Soviet 257; space program 33 Rwandan Genocide 17 Ryan, H B 274 Sala-i-Martin, X 31 Sanford, W 177 Santer, J 85 Schain, M Schuman, R 1, 3, 133, 134, 138, 140, 227, 230 Sen, A 257 Serbia 16 Servan-Schreiber, J 162 Shroder, H.J 128 Shuker, S.A 86 South Africa 131; and Bretton Woods 250 Spaak, P.H 157, 230 Spierenburg, D 141 Spinelli, A 219 Stalin, J 2, 6, 13, 15, 31–33, 45, 220 Stiefel, D Stikker, D 146 Stoppani, P 141 Summers, L.H 44 Supreme Allied Commander, Europe 45–46 Sweden 43, 107, 134, 142, 143 Sweezy, P 32 Switzerland 91, 92, 134, 143 Truman, H 10, 11, 13, 142, 175, 192, 245 tariffs 74, 229 Taylor, P J Thatcher, M 167 Thompson, P 256 Tiananmen 16 Turkey 129, 134, 141, 142 Treaty of Rome 74, 163, 185 Trieste 142 Triffin, R 248–249 Truman Administration 1, 5, 7, 10, 12, 13, 16, 60, 132, 141, 144, 174–175, 179–180, 186, 222, 226–227; Truman Doctrine 223–224 Washington Consensus 20 Washington, G (Farewell Address) 12 Wexler, I Whelan, B 4, 14 White, H 246–247 White, T 128 Williamson, J 248 Wormser, O 143 World Bank 8, 192, 201, 204, 206, 208–209, 225, 238, 246, 253 World War I 9, 32 World War II 19, 25, 32 unemployment (German) 47, 54 Unilever 155 United Nations 89, 222; Palestine Refugee Aid Act 89; Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) 109–110, 238–239 United States Congress 11, 15, 59, 62, 67, 131, 133, 142, 224, 226, 250 United States Technical Assistance and Productivity Program (USTA&P) 175, 177–178, 181 United States Treasury 66 United States Department of State 13, 72, 84, 129, 140, 181, 222, 225–226; Europe Bureau 140, 141; ‘Free Traders’ 225; Policy and Planning Staff 10, 129, 222, 224 Uzan, M 2, 63, 82, 83, 87, 100, 101–102, 104, 105, 106, 107 Van Cleveland, H 129, 222 Van Zeeland, P 135 Vandenberg (Senator) 12, 13, 175 Vietnam 16, 251 Yalta Conference 3, ... Bradford DeLong 25 Europe and the Marshall Plan: 50 Years On Alan S Milward 58 The Economic Effects of the Marshall Plan Revisited Dafne C Reymen 82 The Marshall Plan and European Integration:... salience and discursive power of the idea of the plan in other arenas of international affairs The Introduction provides four services to the reader of the book The first is to situate the Marshall Plan. .. The remedy lies in breaking the vicious circle and restoring the confidence of the European people in the economic future of their own countries and of Europe as a whole The manufacturer and the