The making of southeast asia international relations of a region

“This book is a landmark in the process it describes Southeast Asia’s ‘quest for identity’; its imagining of a common destiny, has found a worthy chronicler and analyst in Amitav Acharya.” Anthony Reid Emeritus Professor, Australian National University “extremely insightful, timely, and instructive” Harvard Asia Quarterly “… this is a thought-provoking book, loaded with valuable observations and insights It also provides a needed corrective to orientalist perspective and to the sometimes tunnel vision of international relations scholars It is highly recommended, and should be added to the reading lists of every Southeast Asia international relations course.” Contemporary Southeast Asia “The book succeeds on a number of levels For one thing, it pays close attention to the notion of ‘region’ rather than simply examining the various individual parts that constitute the area we now regard as Southeast Asia In doing so it stakes out new ground not only in theoretical terms but practical ones as well Moreover, because the development of a regional identity has been consumed with efforts to create a unity amongst its members, the charting of its successes, its failures, its hopes and prospects is a worthwhile task in itself The author is not simply content to lay out the history of these in analytical fashion but rather seeks to go beyond in assessing the way in which regionalism has affected how they see themselves in terms of regional identity.” International Affairs “… an excellent and compelling historical overview of regional relations and regionalism in Southeast Asia One of Acharya’s stated objectives in writing the book is to address a lack of historical analysis among political scientists when it comes to examining Southeast Asia … This is an important book, which makes a valuable contribution towards the study of Southeast Asian regionalism by opening new areas for discussion and debate about this concept.” Canadian Council for Asia Pacific Security (CANCAPS) Bulletin “In his comparative approach, … [Acharya] challenges the ‘gap’ between discipline-based approach and the country-specific approach adopted by many area specialists … While dealing with great complexity, Acharya is able to present his ideas clearly and concisely …” Journal of Contemporary Asia “The book … is timely in its attempt to discern the conceptual meaning of Southeast Asia’s efforts to forge its own identity … The Quest for Identity will be a welcome source for newcomers to the field With its easy-to-read and subtle presentation of major topics, readers should be tempted into a deeper exploration of the field of Southeast Asian international relations.” International Relations of the Asia-Pacific “… numerous insights and important but neglected facts to be learned from this account …” Australian Journal of International Affairs “a perceptive study … Southeast Asia is different from Europe, South Asia or the Middle East … If … Asean’s core countries managed heroically to imagine themselves in Benedict Anderson’s sense to be an entity, it was mainly because of the Cold War and the conflict in Vietnam In the process, they developed cohesion, confidence and a sense of purpose Acharya also exposes the hype …” Times Higher Education Supplement A volume in the series Cornell Studies in Political Economy edited by Peter J Katzenstein A list of titles in this series is available at www.cornellpress.cornell.edu The Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS) was established as an autonomous organization in 1968 It is a regional research centre dedicated to the study of socio-political, security and economic trends and developments in Southeast Asia and its wider geostrategic and economic environment The Institute’s research programmes are the Regional Economic Studies (RES, including ASEAN and APEC), Regional Strategic and Political Studies (RSPS), and Regional Social and Cultural Studies (RSCS) ISEAS Publishing, an established academic press, has issued more than 2,000 books and journals It is the largest scholarly publisher of research about Southeast Asia from within the region ISEAS Publishing works with many other academic and trade publishers and distributors to disseminate important research and analyses from and about Southeast Asia to the rest of the world Copyright © 2012 Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore First edition published in Singapore in 2000 by Oxford University Press New expanded edition published in Singapore in 2012 by ISEAS Publishing Institute of Southeast Asian Studies 30 Heng Mui Keng Terrace Pasir Panjang Singapore 119614 This reprint edition is a complete reproduction of the Singapore edition, specially authorized by the original publisher, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, for publication and sale only in the North American and European markets All rights reserved Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher For information, address Cornell University Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street, Ithaca, New York 14850 First printing, Cornell Paperbacks, 2013 ISBN 978-0-8014-7736-2 (paper : alk paper) Typeset by International Typesetters Pte Ltd Printed in the United States of America Librarians: A CIP catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress Cornell University Press strives to use environmentally responsible suppliers and materials to the fullest extent possible in the publishing of its books Such materials include vegetable-based, low-VOC inks and acid-free papers that are recycled, totally chlorine-free, or partly composed of nonwood fibers For further information visit our website at www.cornellpress.cornell.edu Paperback printing 10 Cover photos: The images of the tall buildings and the battleship are from Shutterstock; the map of Southeast Asia is by Getty Images Dedication The late Ananda Rajah, a social anthropologist and close personal friend, was a steadfast enthusiast behind my attempts to imagine and interpret Southeast Asia and live the region for a dozen years It is to his beloved memory that this book is dedicated Contents Preface xi List of Abbreviations xv List of Tables xviii Introduction: Region, Regionalism and Regional Identity in the Making of Southeast Asia Unity in Diversity Interactions and Identity Structure of the Book Imagined Communities and Socially Constructed Regions Defining Regionness Material and Ideational Perspectives Whole and Parts Past and Present Inside and Outside Permanence and Transience Summary of the Argument 21 Imagining Southeast Asia Introduction The Southeast Asian States and State System in the Pre-Colonial Era Commerce, Colonialism and the Regional Concept After the War: (Re)inventing the Region The Contribution of “Southeast Asian Studies” Conclusion 51 336 economic philosophies, 119 economic policy in Southeast Asian, 161–162 economic regionalism, 164, 178n84 economic vulnerabilities, 225 Economist, The, 244 Economy and Environment Program for Southeast Asia (EEPSEA), 254 EFEO See ẫcole franỗaise dExtrờmeOrient (EFEO) Eisenhower, Dwight D., 132 Emmerson, Donald K., 39, 90, 294, 298–299, 299 EOI See export-oriented industrialization (EOI) Estrada, Joseph, 276 ethnic Chinese community, 188–189 ethnics, ethnic separatism, 122, 143 in Indonesia, 128 Europe “absolutist”, 68 administrative centralization in, 69 colonialism, 52, 82 colonial powers in, 81 frontiers in, 81, 99n104 interstate relations, 69 modern state system in, 68 nationalisms, 70 rulers, 74 violence in, 74 European colonialism, 108 European Community, 138 European Economic Community (EEC), 159 European scholars, 88 Evans, Gareth, 234 Evers, Hans-Dieter, 3, 5, 10, 17n9, 18n15 exclusionary regionalism, 112 expansionism, Chinese, 188, 190, 270 export-oriented industrialization (EOI), 118, 119, 161 external powers in Southeast Asian security, 189 Index F fait accompli, 190 FDI, 170, 202, 246 Fifield, Russell, 12, 20n47, 172, 294, 301n9 financial crisis, Asian, 213, 240, 241, 297, 298 fires on islands, 253 Fisher, Charles A., Five Power Defence Arrangement (FPDA), 139 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 253 foreign investment, 170 foreign policy, 105 forests of Southeast Asia, 252–253 Forum-Asia, 264, 285n86, 286n89 FPDA See Five Power Defence Arrangement (FPDA) Franco-German conference, 79 free-market model, 162 Furnivall, J S., 10, 19n36 G galactic polity, 13, 60–67, 69, 94n10, 291 GATT, 226–228 GDP in Malaysia, 170 Geertz, Clifford, 60 Geneva Accords, 134–135, 136 Geneva Conference, 136 Geneva principles, 136 George Yeo, 268–269, 290 global financial crisis, 240 globalization, 40, 296, 299, 300 economic forces of, 236 perils of, 241–252 in Southeast Asia, 181 GNP, 170 Goh Chok Tong, 201, 226, 277 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 194, 196, 197 Gordon, Bernard, 141, 153 Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere, 83, 110–111 great-power rivalry, 189, 190 “Guided Democracy”, 128–129 Gungwu, Wang, 5, 18n14, 115 Index H Habibie, B.J., 242 Hall, D.G.E., 2–3, 17n5, 294, 301n8 Hanifa, Abu, 109 Hanoi, 114, 115, 181–184, 188, 189, 196, 197, 199 Hatoyama, Yukio, 277 hegemonic forms of regionalism, 111 hegemonic powers, 22, 44n7 hegemonic regionalism, 35, 38 hegemonism Soviet, 158, 189 Vietnamese, 115 Heine-Geldern, Robert, 10 heritage, 21 Hernandez, Carolina, 215, 221 Hettne, Bjorn, 27, 46n30 High Council, 207 Hirono R., 205 historicism, defining, 33 historiography of Southeast Asia, 34, 35 History, Culture and Region in Southeast Asian Perspective (Wolters), 70 Ho Chi Minh, 108, 182, 183 homogeneity, 26 human rights and democracy, 242–243, 268 NGOs, 223 organizations, 264 Hungladarom, Sunthorn, 138 Hun Sen-Ranariddh coalition in 1997, 215 Hurrell, Andrew, 25, 46n22 I Ibrahim, Anwar, 244 ICJ See International Court of Justice (ICJ) ICK See International Conference on Kampuchea (ICK) ideational perspectives, 24–28 identity, 25 interactions and, 11–13 identity-building, 25–26 337 IISS See International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) imagined community, 35, 44, 295, 299 imagined regions, 23 IMF See International Monetary Fund (IMF) imperialism, 114, 115 British, 111 imperialist intervention, 134 imperial kingdom, 64, 67 import-substituting industrialization (ISI), 119 import-substitution industrialization (ISI), 161, 162 incrementalism, 234 India and China, 41, 59, 76, 84, 85–87, 127, 246, 272–273 cultural ideas, 86 and Pakistan, 251 rise of, 41, 279, 300 and Southeast Asian identity, 268–274 tsunami in, 250 Indian caste system, 85 Indianization, 36 of Southeast Asia, 59, 84, 100n118 Indic model, indigenization, 37, 298, 300 of Southeast Asian studies, 89–90, 92 Indochina communist takeovers, 132, 181 communist victories in, 186, 187 economic conditions of, 162 regional concept, 183 Third Indochina War, 181, 190–194 U.S failure in, 140 U.S withdrawal from, 161, 167, 181 Vietnam security in, 190 Indochinese conflicts, 293 Indo-Chinese peninsula, Indonesia, 248 anti-colonial wars in, 87 communist movements in, 134 currencies of, 241 338 defence and economic links with Britain, 128 democratization in, 267, 268 diplomatic ties with Beijing and Moscow, 131 economic growth rates, 161, 170 ethnic separatism, 128, 130 financial crisis, 245 foreign policy, 130–131 India and, 273 Islamic political forces in, 242 membership in ASEAN, 157 Ministry of Foreign Affairs in, 283n64 Muslim-majority areas in, 247 national elections in 1955, 128 neutralization proposal, 166 peace process in, 197 political stability and continuity of leadership, 129 rainforests in, 253–254 regionalism, 131 SEATO, 136 Sukarno’s foreign policy, 128–129 Indonesia-Malaysia-Thailand Growth Triangle (IMT-GT), 229 Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), 128, 131 Indonesian independence, U.S support for, 133 Indonesian leaders, 108 Indonesian nationalists, 116 Industrial Complementation Scheme, 179n84 industrialization, Japanese model of, 205 Industrial Joint Venture (AIJV) Scheme, 179n84 interactionist, regionness from, 24 interactions and identity, 11–13 internal vulnerabilities in ASEAN states, 186 International Biographical Directory of Southeast Asian Specialists (Tillman), 91 International Conference on Kampuchea (ICK), 191 Index International Court of Justice (ICJ), 218 International Development Research Centre of Canada, 254 International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS), 195 internationalism, 110 internationalization, 44 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 127 International NGOs, 262–263 international political economy, 1980 changes in, 225 international regional cooperation, 152 international relations, 27, 28–34, 51– 52, 135, 141, 149, 292, 295–297, 300 Europeanization of, 81 Indochina, 140 regional pattern of, 63 of regions, 43 in Southeast Asia, 2, 12, 14, 68, 138, 139, 141 international relations theory, 24, 299 international security environment, 180 international terrorism, 247 interstate conflicts, 15 interstate system, 69 interventionism, 189 intra-ASEAN relations, 218 intra-ASEAN trade, 224, 226 intra-mural conflict, 293, 295 intramural military cooperation, 182 intraregional authority, 63 intra-regional conflict, 35 intraregional homogeneity, 64 intraregional interactions, 26, 33 intraregional relations, 69 intraregional trade liberalization, 224–226 intra-Southeast Asian relations, 246 intra-state conflict, 35 inward-looking concept, 187 ISI See import-substituting industrialization (ISI); importsubstitution industrialization Islam, 8, 65, 76, 101n122 Index 339 Islamic political forces in Indonesia, 242 isolationism, 110 Kuala Lumpur, 165, 166, 169, 190, 277 Kuantan principle, 190 Kulke, Hermann, 66–67, 95n32, 96n43 J Jakarta, 190, 246 ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution, 254 Jakarta Informal Meetings (JIM), 197 Japan, 169 colonial possessions in Southeast Asia, 131–132 FDI, 202 role in UN peacekeeping operations, 231 Japanese capital, southward movement of, 181, 202 Japanese investment, inflow of, 203 Japanese occupation, 83 Japanese remilitarization, 231 Japanese surrender, 83 Java, 66, 76 Jayakumar, S., 243 Jemaah Islamiyah (JI), 247 Johnson, Chalmers, 204 joint exploitation agreement, 218 L Lake, David A., 29, 47n37 Laos, 167, 181, 182, 245 communist regime in, 184 currencies of, 241 federation in, 183 foreign policy, 184 Hanoi’s relations with, 183 regime in, 183 Lee Hsien Loong, 243, 280n14 Lee Kuan Yew, 43, 158, 164, 167, 219, 221, 231, 242, 243 Legge, John, 2, 4, 17n1 legitimacy in Southeast Asia, 118–131 Leifer, Michael, 11, 20n43, 28, 42, 43, 47n34, 49n78, 49n82, 126, 295, 300 Leur, Van, 85, 86, 102n125, 102n132 liberalization, 243 economic, 181 intraregional trade, 224, 225 programmes, 217 Lieberman, Victor, 2, 7, 28, 44, 46n33, 50n84, 66–67, 78, 96n44, 98n75 comparative history approach, 31 linguistic diversity, Lombard, Denys, 79 Look East Policy, 204, 250 Luzon coast, 65 K Kang, David, 272 Kapur, P.K., 273 Katzenstein, Peter J., 23, 24–25, 40 Keys, Charles F., 297–298 Khmer People’s National Liberation Front (KPNLF), 192 Khmer Rouge, 122, 181, 184, 185, 188, 191, 192 Khoman, Thanat, 151, 152, 153, 156 Kiet, Vo Van, 201 Kim Dae Jung, 276 Kittikachorn, Thanom, 130 Koh, Tommy, 244 Korean War, 131, 134, 138, 193 China entry into, 134 KPNLF See Khmer People’s National Liberation Front (KPNLF) M Macapagal, Diosdado, 154 mainland Southeast Asia, 6, 62, 66 Buddhist rulers in, 74 Majapahit, 69, 76 Javanese mandala of, 63 major Non-NATO Allies, 249 Malacca, Portuguese conquest of, 80 Malay language, Malay Peninsula, 6, 63, 76 decolonization in, 107 Malaysia, 220, 248 and ASA, 152 340 authoritarianism in, 129 Badawi government in, 246 communal riots, 128 currencies of, 241 economic growth rates, 161, 170 ethnic separatism, 130 financial crisis, 245 India and, 273 ISI strategies in, 162 Muslim-majority areas in, 247 NEP in, 224 neutralization proposal of, 166 Philippines and, 165–166 political stability and continuity of leadership, 129 primary production in, 119 SEATO, 136 tsunami in, 250 ZOPFAN concept, 167 Malaysian Federation, 154, 157, 164 formation of, 128 Malik, Adam, 137, 156, 159, 169, 173, 178n67 mandala, 94n11 concept of, 60, 64–65, 71, 96n39 examples of, 61 formulation of, 60 impact of, 63 Philippine, 65 rulers, 69 structures of, 75 mandala system, 34, 61, 63–64, 69, 75, 79, 291 Manila, 154, 165 Manila Pact, Article VIII, 135 manufacturing sectors, 121 Manusmrti, 86 Maphilindo, 150–155, 164 Marcos, Ferdinand, 129, 186, 193 Marcos’ “New Society” programme, 129 Maritime Southeast Asia, market economies, 243 Marshall Plan, 132 martial law in Indonesia, 128 Marxism-Leninism, 127 Index material perspectives, 24–28 Mauzy, Diane, 28–29 McCloud, Donald G., 6, 18n16, 33, 48n51 McVey, Ruth, 88, 103n142, 299–300, 303n28 Mediterranean analogy, 79, 80 Mediterranean, unity of, 27–28 Mekong River, 271 middle level developing economies, 170–171 military conflict, 243 military modernization programmes, 219 military pressure, 180–181 military role for ASEAN, 169 Military tensions, China and Vietnam, 189 military umbrella, 187 Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 283n64 moderate nationalism, 292–293 modus vivendi, 293 Mohamad, Mahathir, 199, 201, 204, 221, 228, 243, 275 Mon-Khmer languages, Monsoon Lands, 10 Morgan, Patrick M., 29, 47n37 Moscow, 189, 194, 196 multi-ethnic ASEAN states, 221 multilateral defence cooperation, 169 multilateral economic cooperation, 169–170 multilateralism, 233 security, 232 multilateral security forum, 234 Murphy, Alexander B., 23, 25, 45n14 Muslim separatists, 122 Musyawarah, 155, 206, 207 Mutual Defense Treaty, 138 Myanmar, 14, 106, 126, 193, 222, 244, 245 anti-colonial wars in, 87 China’s links with, 271–272 communist movements in, 134 currencies of, 241 Cyclone Nargis in, 252 Index democratization process in, 267, 268 foreign policy isolationism, 128 independence by revolutionary nationalism, 127 India and, 273 involvement in World Bank, IMF and ADB, 127–128 issue of, 257 Revolutionary Council in, 127 socialist methods of, 162 N Nanhai, Nanyang, national economic development, 164 national identities, 24 nationalism, 105, 106, 110, 115, 121, 152, 187, 292 economic, 118, 121, 161 nationalist elites, 118 nationalists Indonesian, 116 Southeast Asian, 108, 109, 114, 115 nationalist vision of regionalism, 106–118 national resilience, 186, 187 nation-building, 292 Nations and States in Southeast Asia (Tarling), nation-states, 23, 29, 38, 52, 63, 87, 295 NATO See North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) natural regions, 21 Nawasawat, Thamrong, 113 negara, 62 Neher, Clark, 5, 17n13, 36, 48n60 neoliberalism, 27 neorealism, 27 NEP See New Economic Policy (NEP) Neumann, Iver B., 35, 48n59 “New Cold War”, 193 New Delhi Conference of 1949, 134 New Economic Policy (NEP), 224 New Order, 128–129, 157 NGOs See non-governmental organizations (NGOs) 341 Nguyen Duy Trinh, 184 NICs, 203, 205, 206 Nixon doctrine, 139, 140 Nixon-Kissinger geopolitical framework, 140 Nixon, Richard, 137 non-combatant soldiers, 231 non-communist in Southeast Asia, 181, 185, 186 non-governmental organizations (NGOs), 222–224, 261–265 non-official regionalism, 258–259, 261, 264 non-state regionalism, 259 non-Weberian polities, 75 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 133 North Borneo, 154 Northeast Asian investments in Southeast Asia, 203 North Vietnam, communist victory in, 126 O Obama, Barrack, 277–278 official development assistance (ODA), 203 “One Southeast Asia”, 214–224, 297 Onn, Hussein, 158, 168 O’Reilly, Dougald J.W., Organization of African Unity (OAU), 158 Organization of American States (OAS), 158 Osborne, Milton, 6, 59, 141 “outward-looking” approach, 142 P Pachariyangkun, Upadit, 185 Pacific Economic Cooperation Conference (PECC), 227 Pacific Economic Cooperation Council (PECC), 284n71 Pagan, 76 mandala, 65 Pakistan, 251 342 pan-Asian grouping, 109 Pan-Asianism, 83 pan-Asiatic community, creation of, 108 Pan-Islamic movement, 247 Pan-Islamic regional unity, 247 Panyarachun, Anand, 201, 214 paradoxical effects on regional identity, 14 on Southeast Asia, 149 Paribatra, Sukhumbhand, 215 Paris Peace Agreement, 14, 115, 183, 198, 214, 216 participatory liberal democracy, 129 participatory regionalism, 265–266 Pathet Lao, 114, 122, 181 patrimonial authority, 69 peace and stability in Southeast Asia, 180, 189 in Vietnam, 187 peace process Cambodian, 191, 198, 199, 213 in Indonesia, 197 PECC See Pacific Economic Cooperation Conference (PECC) Pelaez, Emmanuel, 152 Pempel, T.J., 42, 49n76, 277 Peninsular Malaysia, 252 perils of globalization, 241–252 Pham Van Dong, 183 Philippines, 95n34, 186, 248 authoritarianism in, 129 barangay, 65 communist movements in, 134 communist rebellion, 129 currencies of, 241 democratic political systems in, 243 economic growth, 119, 170 ethnic separatism, 130 ISI strategies in, 162 Malaysia and, 165–166 Muslim-majority areas in, 247 Mutual Defense Treaty, 138 nationalist movements in, 106 occupation of, 81 rainforests in, 253 Index regional defence cooperation in, 131 security of, 150 ZOPFAN concept, 167 Phnom Penh, 181, 187, 192 physical constants regions, 21 Pitsuwan, Surin, 244, 255 PKI See Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) Plaza Accord, 1985, 181, 202 Policy Planning Staff Paper, 133 political authority, 60, 61, 69 in pre-colonial Philippines, 65 political cooperation in Southeast Asia, 126–127 political division of Southeast Asia, political economy, 22, 44n6 political groups, antagonistic, 180 political marginality, 89 political scientists, 11, 32–33, 36, 51, 61 political systems, 27 Pol Pot regime, 187, 188, 190 Popper, Karl, 33, 48n50 port city-state, post-Cold War, 215, 218, 219, 224, 230, 232, 296, 297 post-colonial societies, 126 post-World War II, 3, 52, 82, 292, 295, 301 Potsdam Conference, 131 Pramoj, Seni, 129, 130 pre-colonial interstate system, 52, 59, 295 pre-colonial states, 291, 295 Southeast Asia, 52, 53, 58 Preferential Trading Arrangements (PTA), 171 pre-Indic Dong Son artefacts, Pridi Phanomyong, 113, 119, 129–130 protectionism, 225 pro-Western regimes, 126 Ptak, Roderich, 79, 98n91 Pye, Lucian, 52 Q Quirino, Elpidio, 116, 133 Index R Rahman, Tunku Abdul, 129, 150 rainforests and regional identity, 252–254 Rajanubhab, Damrong, 71 twenty-four wars, 72–73 Rajaratnam, S., 173 Ramos-Horta, Jose, 223 Ranariddh, Norodom, 216 Ravenholt, Albert, 150 Reagan administration, 194, 197 “Reagan Doctrine,” 194 Reagan-Gorbachev détente, 197 reconciliation, regional, 195–201 regional anti-terror cooperation, 248 regional autonomy, 27–38, 293 in ASEAN, 197, 214 regional conflicts, 22, 45n8, 180 regional constructions, regional cooperation, 116, 122, 149, 161, 248 regional defence system in Southeast Asia, 131 regional entity, 44 regional identity, 1, 22, 24, 63, 82, 151, 240 challenges facing, 41 and civil society, 258–268 and community, 255–258 concept of, 27–28 construction of, 290–291 need for, 290 paradoxical effects on, 14 rainforests and, 252–254 of Southeast Asia, 34, 246 regional integration in ASEAN, 289 regionalism, 13, 16, 26, 46n26, 105, 121, 138, 152, 185, 187, 244, 291, 292–295 ASEAN, 164–172, 173, 180, 295 Aung San’s concept of, 112 Cold War in Southeast Asia, 141 East Asian, 275, 276 economic, 164 in foreign policy framework, 130 hegemonic forms of, 111 343 in Indonesia, 131 nationalist vision of, 106–118 non-official, 258–259, 261, 264 non-state, 259 obstacles to, 142 official, 258, 279 role of, “self-reliant” form of, 144 Southeast Asian, 131, 201–206, 217, 222, 297, 300 Track-II, 259 regionalization, 29 East Asian economies, 201–206 regional (dis)order, 118–131 regional organizations, 41, 158 regional perspective, 24, 28, 29 regional reconciliation, 195–201 regional resilience, 186 regional security, 136 regional security cooperation in Southeast Asia, 131 in United States, 134 regional security structure, 136 regional self-reliance, 293 regional sociocultural community, 267 regional sub-systems, 22 regional unity, 70 region-building, 37, 294 region-naming, 37 regionness defining, 21 of Southeast Asia, regions, 2, 3, 291 defining, 11 evolution of, 44 socially constructed, 21–44 Reid, Anthony, 2, 7, 8, 11, 12, 17n2, 18n23, 30, 77 Reid, Tony, 36, 48n61 relative autonomy, 40 relativism, 220 cultural, 221 remilitarization, Japanese, 231 renewed superpower tensions, 180 Reynolds, Craig, 60, 74 Romulo, Carlos P., 108, 163, 167, 169 344 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 132 Russell, Bertrand, 249 Russett, Bruce Martin, 22, 44n3 S Sabah, 164, 252 intramural dispute over, 166 issue, 165 Samrin, Heng, 188, 190, 192, 195 San, Aung, 110, 111, 113, 116, 127 concept of regionalism, 112 Sandhu, Kernial, 91 Sarawak, 154 SARS See Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome scepticism in ASEAN, 186 of regional integration, 289, 297, 298 Scott , James, 30, 39, 47n42 SEAC See Southeast Asia Command (SEAC) SEATO See Southeast Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO) second Cold War, 180 Second Track processes, 259, 284n71 security cooperation, European models of, 233 security multilateralism, 232 Sein, Thein, 268 self-determination in East Timor, 224 semi-official regionalism, 259, 260–261 Sen, Hun, 188, 199 separatist movements in Southeast Asia, 122, 123 separatists, Muslim, 122 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), 15, 249–250, 281n32 Shafie, Ghazali, 162 shared identity, 22 shared nationalism in Southeast Asian, 106 Shrine, Yasukuni, 277 Sihanouk, Norodom, 184 Singapore, 220 colonialism, artificial creation of, 128 currencies of, 241 Index economic growth rates, 161, 170 effect of SARS on, 249, 281n32 ethnic separatism, 130 financial crisis, 245 India and, 273 Muslim-majority areas in, 247 political stability and continuity of leadership, 129 ZOPFAN concept, 167 Singapore-Johor-Riau (SIJORI) triangle, 229 Singapore-Malaysia relations, 242, 246 “single ocean” concept, 77 sinicization, 59, 84 Sino-Soviet conflict, 231 normalization of, 200 rapprochement, 196 rift, 138, 140, 158 and Sino-Vietnames, 180 split, 181, 182 Sino-U.S rapprochement of 1972, 181, 185 relationship, 231 Sino-Vietnamese, 180, 189 Sixth National Congress of the Vietnamese Communist Party, 198 Sjahrir, Sutan, 108 social control, 68 Socialist Republic of Vietnam, 183 Socialists, 111 socialization, 27 socially constructed regions, 21–44, 23 social movements, 264 social theories, 25, 27 Soderbaum, Frederik, 27, 46n30 Soeharto anti-communism, 131 internationalization programmes, 193 “New Order” regime, 128–129, 157 “soft regionalism”, 207 solar polity, 66 Solidarity for Asian People’s Advocacy (SAPA), 265, 285n86 Solomon, Richard, 229 Index Sopiee, Noordin, 207 South China Sea, 270–272 Southeast Asia, 105 administrative centralization in, 68 artificial divisions and separations, 106 and Asia-Pacific idea, 224–235 autonomous, 38, 49n68 civilization in, 101n118 classical state system of, 69 Cold War in, 141 colonialism, 82, 99n101 colonial powers, 118, 132 communist movements in, 122, 123, 126 cultural unity, 87 culture and civilization of, 9–10 decolonization in, 105 democratization process in, 267 diplomatic history of, 106 domestic politics of states in, 105 earthquake and tsunami, 250 economic development patterns, diversity of, 120 economic growth rates, 161–162 economic liberalization in, 181 economic philosophies of, 119 economies of, 242 education sector of, 261 evolutionary model of, 66 financial crisis, 213, 240, 241, 245– 246, 297, 298 forests of, 252–253 globalization in, 181 governments, 220, 222 Hindu caste system in, 101n121 historians of, 79, 85, 86 historiography of, 34, 78, 86, 98n88 human rights activists, 223 identity of, 23, 154, 268–274 ideological polarization of, 135, 160 indianization, 59, 84, 100n118, 102n124 inherent geographical unity of, international relations of, 2, 12, 14, 51, 138, 139, 141 345 islamic people of, 101n122 key challenges to, 240 legitimacy in, 118–131 manufacturing sectors in, 121 Marshall Plan for, 132 nationalism, 105, 106, 110, 115, 118, 121 NGOs, 222–224, 262–263 non-communist states of, 105 Northeast Asian investments in, 203 notion of, 36, 290 paradoxical effect on, 149 participatory regionalism in, 258 peace and stability in, 180, 189 polarization of, 180, 192 political cooperation in, 126–127 political economy, 75 post-war scholarship on, 84 pre-colonial era, 33, 38 pre-colonial states of, 52, 53, 58 prospects for regional cooperation in, 127 pro-Western regimes in, 129, 138, 140 recognition of, 295 regional concept of, 12, 85, 296 regional conflict in, 180 regional cooperation in, 248 regional defence system in, 131 regional identity of, 34, 246 regionalism, 37, 131, 158, 201–206, 217, 222, 297, 300 regional (dis)order in, 118–131 regional organization in, 128, 164 regional security cooperation in, 131 regional state system, 56 Reid’s conception of, 78 rulers of, 62–64 security, external powers in, 189 semi-regional approach to, 132 separatist movements in, 122, 123 South Korea investment in, 228 state formation in, 66 strategic polarization of, 135 Taiwan investment in, 228 1979 to 1991, 180 trade, 76–77 346 U.S policy, 132, 133 violence in, 74 ZOPFAN in, 166 South-East Asia: A Social, Economic and Political Geography (Fisher), Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty, 135 Southeast Asia Command (SEAC), 12, 38, 52, 83–84, 132, 292 Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce (Reid), 2, 17n2 Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries (Marr), 90 Southeast Asia Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO), 260 Southeast Asian history, 63, 77, 82, 94n8 stages of, 79 Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science, Southeast Asian nationalist, 108, 109, 114, 115 Southeast Asian political identity, 87 Southeast Asian societies, 85 Southeast Asian states development policies of, 118 ethnic composition of, 124–125 Southeast Asian studies contribution of, 88–92 Emmerson, 299, 300, 303n30 indigenization of, 89 Southeast Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO), 38 Southeast Asian Voting Group, 152 Southeast Asia Regional Council, 88 Southeast Asia’s Economy: Development Policies in the 1970s (Myint), 120 Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), 134, 137, 150, 169 concept of “region”, 135 establishment of, 135, 136 legal framework for, 135 Southern Ocean, Southern Thailand, Muslim separatists in, 122 South Korean investment, 228 Index South Vietnam, 167 southward movement of Japanese capital, 181, 202 sovereignty, 68 European concepts of, 68 Soviet hegemonism, 189 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 191, 193 Soviet Union, 182, 185, 189, 194–196 Cold War with United States, 105 Soviet-U.S relations, 138 Spanish rule, 81 Spiegel, Steven L., 21–22, 44n2 Spratly Islands, 189 Sri Lanka, tsunami in, 250 Srivijaya Malay rulers of, 63 mandala, 61, 65 state-centric trade liberalization, 226 State formation process European, 68 Southeast Asian, 68 Stone, Diane, 284n69 Subrahmanyam, Sanjay, 30, 47n43 connected history approach, 31 Sukarno anti-colonialism, 130–131 foreign-policy, 116 Sukhothai mandala, 65 Sumatra earthquake in, 250 tsunami, 250 supra-national systems, 92 Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, 254 Suvarnabhumi, T Tai language, 18n22 Taiwan investment, 228 Taliban, 247 Tambiah, Stanley, 34, 59 Tarling, Nicholas, 37, 49n65 territorial integrity, 68 territorial limits, 60, 81 terrorism, 247–249, 251 Thai-Cambodian border, 192 347 Index Thailand, 165, 231 attack on, 186 currencies of, 241 domestic politics, 130, 243 economic growth rates, 161, 170 ethnic separatism, 130 financial crisis, 245 in foreign policy, 140 forest in, 252 general elections,1946, 129–130 government, 208 India and, 273 ISI strategies, 162 military rule in, 129 political protesters in, 220 refugee camps in, 192 regional defence cooperation in, 131 security of, 150 U.S military assistance to, 131 and U.S relations, 138 ZOPFAN concept, 167 Thai regional foreign policy, 130 Thanarat, Sarit, 130 theatre state, 13, 60, 62–65, 67, 70, 94n10 Theravada Buddhism, 127 Third Indochina War, 181, 190–194 Thompson, William R., 22, 44n4 Tokyo, U.S pressure on, 231 Toungoo dynasty, Burmese monarch of, 74 Track-II processes See Second Track processes trade, 59 importance of, 75 intra-ASEAN, 224, 226 intraregional, 77 liberalization, 224–226 networks, 77 trans-Pacific, 228 U.S.-Japan, 231 transnational terrorism, 248 Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), 278 trans-Pacific trade, 228 Treaty of Amity and Cooperation, 168 trickle-down effect, 163 tsunami, 250–251, 282n39 U United Nations Public Administration Network (UNPAN), 286n97 United States, 161, 245, 277 Cold War with Soviet Union, 105 containment strategy, 137 limitation of SEATO, 137 military assistance to Thailand, 131 planners and policy-makers, 134 in regional security cooperation, 134 regional security structure, 134, 136 support for Indonesian independence, 133 and Thailand relations, 133 United States-Philippines Mutual Defense Treaty of 1951, 131 unity in diversity, 5–10, 11, 27 UN peacekeeping operations, Japan role in, 231 urban phenomenon, 193 U.S Cold War alliances, 136 U.S.-Japan security relationship, 231 U.S.-Japan trade, 231 U.S pressure on Tokyo, 231 U.S.-Soviet relations, 138, 140 U.S.-Soviet strategic rivalry, 180 U.S subprime mortgage crisis, 246 V Vajapayee, Atal Behari, 274 Vienna World Conference on Human Rights, 220 Vietnam, 76, 168, 169, 245, 250 anti-colonial wars in, 87 and ASEAN, 181–187 China’s military pressure on, 180– 181 communist movements in, 134 communist victory in, 185 currencies of, 241 democratization process in, 267 domestic reform in, 198 effect of SARS on, 249 348 leadership, 188 military tensions in, 189 peace and stability in, 187 polity, 96n37 reunification and reconstruction in, 183 scholars, 96n37 Vietnamese forces in Cambodia, 189–191 Vietnamese commentators, 113 Vietnamese Communist Party, 183, 198 Vietnamese communists, 108, 113 Vietnamese independence, cause of, 108 Vietnamese reform, 199 Vietnam War, 4, 130–131, 137, 160, 180, 182, 189, 193, 208, 224 Vo Dong Giang, 184 W Wanandi, Jusuf, 284n70 Wang Gungwu, 35, 48n55 Wan Waithayakon, 83 Weatherbee, Donald K., 11, 20n45, 294, 297, 301n11, 302n14 Wen Jiabao, 250 Index Western human rights policies, 223 Western liberal democracy, 127 Western political tradition, 70 West European economic integration, 164 Westphalia, peace of, 51, 68–69 Wilson, Harold, 138 Win, Ne, 126, 127 Wolters, O.W., 2, 11, 12, 19n39, 34, 48n52, 59, 60, 61, 69 World Bank, 127 World Health Organization (WHO), 249 World Trade Center, terrorist attacks on, 247 World War II, 3, 4, 51, 83, 84, 105, 119, 120, 131, 144, 183 Y Yeo, George, 268–269 Young, Kenneth T., 294, 301n7 Z Zainuddin, Daim, 226 Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality (ZOPFAN), 166–167, 168, 195, 206, 230, 232, 293 About the Author AMITAV ACHARYA is Professor of International Relations at the School of International Service, American University, Washington, D.C He is also the UNESCO Chair in Transnational Challenges and Governance and Chair of the University’s ASEAN Studies Center at the American University Previously, he was Professor of Global Governance at the University of Bristol; Professor, Deputy Director and Head of Research of the Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies (now the S Rajaratnam School of International Studies), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore; Professor of Political Science at York University, Toronto; Fellow of the Asia Center, Harvard University, and Fellow of the Center for Business and Government at Harvard’s John F Kennedy School of Government He has held several visiting professorships and fellowships, includ­ ing the Direk Jayanama Visiting Professorship in Political Science at Thammasat University, Thailand; ASEM (Asia-Europe Meeting) Chair in Regional Integration at the University of Malaya; Visiting Professorial Fellow, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore; Senior Fellow, Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada, Vancouver; Visiting Professor, Lee Kuan Yew School for Public Policy, Singapore; and the Nelson Mandela Visiting Professorship in International Relations at Rhodes University, South Africa 350 About the Author Professor Acharya’s other books include: Constructing a Security Community in Southeast Asia (2nd edition, 2009); Crafting Cooperation: Regional International Institutions in Comparative Politics (co-edited, 2007); Whose Ideas Matter: Agency and Power in Asian Regionalism (2010) The latter was one of the five books shortlisted by the Asia Society for their “exceptional contributions to the understanding of contemporary Asia or US-Asia relations” for its Bernard Schwartz Book Award in 2010 His essays have appeared in the world’s top academic and policy journals such as International Organization, International Security, International Studies Quarterly, World Politics, Foreign Affairs, Journal of Peace Research, Journal of Asian Studies, Survival, and Washington Quarterly He has appeared on a wide variety of international media, including CNN International, BBC World Service, Al-Jazeera TV, CNBC, CTV (Canada) Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, Radio Australia, and Channel News Asia His current affairs commentaries have appeared in Financial Times, International Herald Tribune, Australian Financial Review, Times of India, Indian Express, Straits Times, Jakarta Post, Bangkok Post, Far Eastern Economic Review, Japan Times, South China Morning Post, and YaleGlobal Online covering topics in international and Asian security and regionalism ... University Southeast Asia Program and the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies Reid, Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce Leonard Y Andaya, “Ethnonation, Nation-State and Regionalism in Southeast Asia? ??,... Towards Regional Reconciliation East Asian Regionalization and Southeast Asian Regionalism The “ASEAN Way” Conclusion 180 Constructing “One Southeast Asia? ?? Towards “One Southeast Asia? ?? Southeast. .. Three ARF ASEAN Regional Forum ASA Association of Southeast Asia ASCC ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASEAN-ISIS ASEAN Institutes for Strategic and International