Innovation Processes in Agro-Ecological Transitions in Developing Countries Innovation in Engineering and Technology Set coordinated by Dimitri Uzunidis Volume Innovation Processes in Agro-Ecological Transitions in Developing Countries Edited by Ludovic Temple Eveline M.F.W Compaoré Sawadogo First published 2018 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address: ISTE Ltd 27-37 St George’s Road London SW19 4EU UK John Wiley & Sons, Inc 111 River Street Hoboken, NJ 07030 USA www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com © ISTE Ltd 2018 The rights of Ludovic Temple and Eveline M.F.W Compaoré Sawadogo to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 Library of Congress Control Number: 2018931223 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-78630-272-4 Contents Foreword Michel GRIFFON xi Introduction Ludovic TEMPLE and Eveline M.F.W COMPAORÉ SAWADOGO xiii Chapter Innovation Platforms as a Tool to Support Technological Change in the Agri-Food Sector in Developing Countries: A Case Study of the Plantain Value Chain in Côte d’Ivoire Euphrasie C.M ANGBO-KOUAKOU, Ludovic TEMPLE, Syndhia MATHÉ and Alexandre ASSEMIEN 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Technological innovations in the Ivorian plantain sector 1.2.1 Development of plantain cultivar transfers 1.2.2 History of the WAAPP plantain program 1.2.3 Innovation platform features: objectives, composition and governance 1.3 Conceptual and methodological framework 1.3.1 SIS: framework for analyzing technological changes based on the strategies of stakeholders in agri-food chains 1.3.2 Conceptualization of the four components of an AIS 1.3.3 Methodological and analytical framework 1.4 Results 1.4.1 Functionality of Côte d’Ivoire’s PIPs 1.4.2 Reorganization of the AIS components by PIPs 1.4.3 Redirecting technological trajectories in the plantain sector in Côte d’Ivoire 1.5 Discussion of the functionalities of the system and IAs 4 10 10 11 13 17 17 17 18 20 vi Innovation Processes in Agro-Ecological Transitions in Developing Countries 1.5.1 Functionalities of the agricultural SIS for the plantain sector in Côte d’Ivoire 1.5.2 IAs and changes 1.5.3 Renewal of technological innovation processes 1.6 Conclusion 1.7 Bibliography 20 21 21 22 23 Chapter Biotechnological Cotton in Burkina Faso: An Innovation Trajectory in a Development Context Eveline M.F.W COMPAORÉ SAWADOGO 29 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The rise of biotechnological cotton within a context of persistent development problems 2.3 Institutional mechanisms that led to the adoption of biotechnological cotton innovation in Burkina Faso 2.4 Identification of the actors and their place in the Bt innovation trajectory 2.4.1 Cotton producers 2.4.2 Cotton industries 2.4.3 Cotton researchers 2.4.4 Civil society 2.4.5 The government of Burkina Faso 2.5 Stabilization of the Bt cotton adoption process 2.6 Discussion and conclusion on the failure of Bt cotton in Burkina Faso 2.7 Bibliography 29 33 34 35 35 36 36 37 37 42 43 45 Chapter Emergence of a Biofuel Innovation System and Production in Burkina Faso: An Analysis of the Determinants and Challenges for its Development Salif DERRA and Ludovic TEMPLE 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Methodology 3.2.1 Analytical framework 3.2.2 Data collection 3.3 Defining the biofuel innovation and production system 3.4 Incentives for the emergence of the actor system 3.4.1 Biofuel support policies 3.4.2 Increased funding for biofuels research 3.4.3 Financing of biofuel production projects 3.5 Functional analysis of the biofuel innovation and production system 3.5.1 Creation of a platform for capacity-building 51 51 52 52 55 56 58 58 59 60 60 60 Contents vii 61 62 63 63 64 64 65 65 66 Chapter Trajectories of Innovation in Conservation Agriculture at Lake Alaotra in Madagascar Eric PENOT, Valentin FEVRE and Patricia FLODROPS 71 3.5.2 Functioning of the biofuels sector in Burkina Faso 3.5.3 Biofuel development models 3.6 The failures of the biofuel innovation and production system 3.6.1 Insufficient knowledge on the consequences of technological choices 3.6.2 Poor interaction within the actor network 3.6.3 Lack of regulatory frameworks and standards 3.6.4 Apprehension from national and international civil society 3.7 Conclusion 3.8 Bibliography 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The problem 4.3 Methodology 4.4 Status report on the adoption of CA in 2013 4.5 Developments in farming practices and innovations in CA 4.6 A wide variety of growing systems among the early adopters 4.7 Learning, innovation co-design and IS 4.7.1 Learning and recombination of knowledge 4.7.2 Empirical example of an evolution towards co-construction of systems 4.7.3 Toward innovation comanagement 4.8 Contrasting behaviors after project shutdown 4.9 Conclusion 4.10 Bibliography 71 73 75 76 79 80 82 82 82 83 84 87 91 Chapter Ecological Transition of an Innovation Model: Yam Seed Production in Haiti James BOYER and Ludovic TEMPLE 95 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Conceptual and methodological frameworks 5.2.1 Yam production in Haiti 5.2.2 Methodology and data collection 5.2.3 A three-phase mechanism for collecting data and validating results 5.3 The diffusionist attempt to transfer Miniset technology in Haiti 5.3.1 Emergence of the Miniset technique in Haiti 5.3.2 Orientation based on external research and exogenous elements 5.3.3 The diffusionist model’s failed attempt at adapting 95 97 97 97 98 100 100 100 102 viii Innovation Processes in Agro-Ecological Transitions in Developing Countries 5.3.4 Co-constructing adoption: adapting the technology to green the process 5.4 From adoption results to the socioeconomic impacts of Miniset 5.4.1 Evolution of the adoption rate 5.4.2 Impact on production 5.5 Discussion of the conditions for changing an innovation model 5.5.1 Miniset: the failure of linear and diffusionist innovation models 5.5.2 Miniset: a positive contribution to agro-ecological innovation 5.5.3 Miniset: a reaffirmation of the importance of action research 5.6 Conclusion 5.7 Appendix: characteristics of surveyed areas 5.8 Bibliography Chapter Diversity of Innovation Processes in the Niayes Market Gardening System (Senegal): Between Conventional Intensification and Agro-Ecological Transition Patrick DUGUÉ, Isabelle MICHEL, Victor KETTELA and Serge SIMON 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Theoretical position 6.3 Methodology 6.3.1 Context 6.3.2 Combination of methods 6.4 Results: diversity of technical innovation processes 6.4.1 Adoption and adaptation of an innovation from large capital-intensive farms: drip irrigation and electric pumping 6.4.2 An innovation process led by a development operator: the use of biopesticides and organic manure 6.4.3 Poorly visible innovations carried forward by market gardeners 6.5 Discussion 6.5.1 Recognizing the innovation capacities of farmers 6.5.2 Why should agronomists be interested in farming innovation? 6.5.3 How to support innovation processes? 6.6 Conclusion 6.7 Bibliography 104 107 107 107 109 109 110 111 111 113 115 117 117 119 120 120 122 124 124 125 128 131 131 132 135 136 137 Chapter Food Challenges in Africa Jean-Marc BOUSSARD 141 7.1 Food challenge in Africa 7.2 How to improve the food production capacity of sub-Saharan Africa 7.3 Difficulty in raising capital 7.4 Agricultural prices south of the Sahara 141 143 145 149 Contents 7.5 Reasons for agricultural price volatility in Africa 7.6 The “endogenous” causes of price instability 7.7 Conclusion and implications for agricultural policies 7.7.1 Improving infrastructure 7.7.2 Input subsidies 7.7.3 Price stabilization 7.8 Bibliography ix 152 155 159 160 161 163 165 List of Authors 167 Index 169 Foreword The different chapters in this book deal with a difficult problem that can be summarized as follows: “conventional” and modern agriculture in the second half of the 20th Century was based on a technical model using chemical inputs, mechanization and capital Farms, which use these inputs at varying levels, could only “import” these techniques and inputs from large and increasingly monopolistic companies, acquiring them on the corresponding markets and following the recommendations attached to them This has resulted in a form of technical dependence of agriculture on the upstream industrial sector and a dependence on reasoning from research institutions and dissemination of technical models In contrast, ecological intensification proposes to first intensify the natural functionalities of agroecosystems, which not turn to industrial inputs as a first point of call For farmers in developing countries, this is an interesting opportunity However, ecological intensification is not easy to achieve First of all, it is knowledge intensive For example, reasoning in terms of food webs to control crop pests requires precise and sometimes complex knowledge, which is not the case in conventional agriculture where pesticides are used It therefore requires a shift from situations where simple technical practices are applied to complex reasoning requiring training through observation, diagnosis, knowledge of different technical alternatives, monitoring and surveillance Experience has shown that small-scale farmers quickly become familiar with this knowledge of how natural mechanisms work xii Innovation Processes in Agro-Ecological Transitions in Developing Countries But these techniques are not given away for free They are supplemented with conventional techniques, such as applying fertilizers where necessary, as “natural” methods are insufficient In addition, ecological intensification comes with specific costs that can be high This is particularly the case for ecological infrastructures such as, for example, establishing hedgerows, terraces, impluviums and more general improvements, which are all investments, and these investments are not limited by human labor These are monetary costs It therefore appears that this new form of intensification presupposes a good understanding of ecology and good motivation from farmers to use it This can only be done if they are convinced that it is in their own interest and if they freely agree to use the new techniques by appropriating them This approach therefore contrasts with conventional extension, which has often placed farmers in a situation of dependence The studies that are presented here show how this change is taking place in practice on the ground The authors are to be congratulated for having done this work of observation and analysis of experiments on a social phenomenon that is of primary importance for the farming agriculture based on agroecology Michel GRIFFON 162 Innovation Processes in Agro-Ecological Transitions in Developing Countries benefited from this More alarmingly, the yields of so-called “cash crops” (Malawi is traditionally a net exporter of corn) have not changed significantly (despite that corn-growing surface area, and consequently the corresponding exports have almost doubled, and therefore corn exports have increased) It is undoubtedly a little too early to determine all the lessons learnt from this case13, but it seems clear that fertilizers purchased in this way were used by the farmers foremost to improve their cassava crops to feed their families, then, because of the resources thus released, to expand their corn acreage, thus allowing exports as desired by the government Overall, although this policy was strongly criticized by international agencies, it was beneficial to the country by reversing the trend of agricultural imports and exports, as shown in Figure 7.14 However, it is questionable whether a price guarantee for the desired production (in this case, corn) would have had an equally significant impact at a lower budgetary cost Figure 7.13 Yields (t/ha) of three crops in Malawi (source: FAOSTAT) For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/temple/innovation.zip 13 These subsidies have been vigorously contested by international organizations, while at the same time, governments, concerned about political communication, have been bringing them to light: these are not favorable conditions for economic experimentation The figures given here have been the subject of heated debate because of their political implications, in a country that is basically ill-equipped to determine them rigorously It is likely that some of the corn exports recorded by the national statistics were allowed in through clandestine imports from neighboring countries It seems nevertheless likely that the figures given here roughly reflect the reality (see [DOU 11]) Food Challenges in Africa 163 7.7.3 Price stabilization The role of the State in price stabilization is much more debated, because the liberal doctrine has always been wary of price manipulation by the public authorities This doctrine assumes that price fluctuations should spontaneously diminish with the improvement of infrastructure and that any intervention on prices could only thwart this movement Moreover, these interventions would create “profits” because of the perverse interventions of all kinds of “lobbies” that revolve around the State, while preventing the search for the most efficient and cheapest production techniques The aforementioned reasoning about Figure 7.3, however, shows that this is not the case Both the history of colonial “cash crops” and the theory of adjustment of rigid-demand markets show that prices will not spontaneously stabilize, even though stabilization is one of the conditions necessary to increase production How this is done remains to be seen Certainly, a foreign economist should not give in-depth recommendations here, because the solutions need to be specific to each country, depending on its history and its particularities It should be noted, however, that one of the essential conditions for this is first and foremost the closure of borders – or at least, control of borders; otherwise, the world market is not (and cannot be) stabilized Actually, if any country tries to stabilize its domestic prices without monitoring imports and exports, it would lead to stabilizing the entire world market Recent experiences such as Thailand’s rice production show that import and export quota systems, or variable customs duties, regularize domestic prices, and this in turn allows production to increase at lower costs than most other producers Another point to consider is that, in agriculture, “the law of constant returns” holds: by this, we mean that if it is possible to produce 1,000 tons of wheat on 100 with one man and €200,000 of capital, then with 200 ha, two men and €400,000, we will produce exactly 2000 tons, no more, no less The long-term “supply curve” that can be expected from such a situation then presents particular characteristics: it is flat, parallel to the abscissa axis, with a gradient of zero If, then, the State buys any quantity produced at a fixed price, the corresponding demand curve is also parallel to the abscissa, and two parallel curves tend toward infinity (Figure 7.15) In this case, it means that the risk of surpluses is real We have seen this in the European Union, where production quotas have had to be introduced to avoid 164 Inn novation Processses in Agro-Eco ological Transitiions in Developing Countries unbearaable export suubsidies Thiis was also seen in Africaa, for example, when Côte d’IIvoire was ovverwhelmedd by cocoa prroduction in the t 1990s F Figure 7.14 Developments D s in Malawi’s agricultural a exp port and import vo olume indices,, 100 = averag ge (Source: FA AOSTAT) For a color versiion of this figure, see ww ww.iste.co.uk//temple/innova ation.zip p without quantity q limitss Figure 7.15 The curse off guaranteed prices Withh guaranteedd prices wiithout quanttity limits and a constantt yields, producttion in the lonng term can be b either zerro or infinite Therrefore, markeet stabilizatioon cannot bee independennt of a certainn amount of suppply control, and this is the whole problem p of agricultural policies throughhout the worlld [BOU 17]] Dealing wiith this problem is anothher story, which will w perhaps be b told one day, d as Kiplin ng might havve said Food Challenges in Africa 165 Indeed, this topic requires further study, new research and the courage of audacious politicians to provide clarification on various points in the above reasoning What is certain is that the market does not always work well for agriculture and, when it comes to ensuring food security, African countries should not rely too much on such an unstable and volatile instrument 7.8 Bibliography [BLE 11] BLEIN R., SOULE B.G., “Marchés céréaliers ouest-africains: vers une dépendance croissante aux importations, ou une souveraineté alimentaire régionale?”, Demeter 2011, Paris, 2011 [BOS 15] BOSC P.M., “Investissement dans la petite agriculture familiale: vers un New Deal”, Perspective CIRAD, no 32, June, 2015 [BOU 96] BOUSSARD J.M., “When risk generates chaos”, Journal of Economic Behaviour and Organization, vol 29, no 96/05, pp 433–446, 1996 [BOU 17] BOUSSARD J.M., Les prix agricoles, L’Harmattan, Paris, 2017 [COL 10] COLLIER P., The Plundered Planet, Penguin, London, 2010 [DAR 12] DARDEL S., BOUCHITE A., Marchés agricoles et petits producteurs: instruments d’accès et gestion des risques, European Commission, Brussels, 2012 [DAS 72] DASGUPTA P., SEN A., MARGLIN S., Guidelines for project evaluation, United Nations, New York, 1972 [DAV 13] DAVID BENZ H., LANÇON F., “Transmission des prix internationaux du riz sur les marchés africains: le long terme, la crise de 2008 et maintenant”, 3rd African Rice Congress, Oct Yaoundé, pp 24–27, 2013 [DOU 11] DOUILLET M., La relance de la production agricole au Malawi: succès et limites, Fondation FARM, Paris, 2011 [EZE 38] EZEKIEL M., “The Cobweb Theorem”, Quaterly Journal of Economics, vol 53, pp 225–280, 1938 [FÉV 85] FÉVRIER R., “Politique Agricole Commune et agricultures du tiers monde”, Etudes Rurales, vol 25, nos 99–100, pp 115–134, 1985 [HOL 01] HOLLIS A., SWEETMAN A., “The life cycle of a microfinance institution: the Irish loan funds”, The Journal of Economic Behaviour and Organisation, vol 46, pp 291–311, 2001 166 Innovation Processes in Agro-Ecological Transitions in Developing Countries [LAN 16] LANÇON F., TEMPLE L., BIENABE E., “La notion de filière: un cadre d’analyse pour les politiques et les stratégies de développement”, in BIENABE E., LOEILLET D., RIVAL A (eds), Développement durable et filières tropicales, Quæ, Paris, 2016 [LEL 89] LELE U., “Agricultural growth, domestic policies, the external environment, and assistance to Africa: lessons of a quarter of century”, Madia discussion paper 1, Banque Mondiale, Washington, 1989 [LIT 69] LITTLE I.M.D., MIRRELEES J.A., Manual of Industrial Projects Analysis in Developing Countries, OECD, Paris, 1969 [NDI 10] NDIAYE M., NIANG M., De l’étude de la transmission des fluctuations et le calcul du prix de parité importation/exportation, dans la région: cas pratique du Sénégal, Commissariat la sécurité alimentaire, Dakar, 2010 [PER 12] PERAKIS S.M., “Changing spatial maize price relationships in West Africa”, Presentation at the Agricultural & Applied Economics Association Meeting, Seattle, August, 2012 [RAK 11] RAKOTOARISOA M.A., LAFRATE M., PASCHALI M., Why has Africa become a net food importer?, FAO Trade and Markets Division, Rome, 2011 [ROU 10] ROUDART L., “Terres cultivables et terres cultivées: Apports de l’analyse croisée de trois bases de données l’échelle mondiale”, Notes et études socioéconomiques, no 34, pp 57–95, 2010 [SWI 29] SWIFT J., A modest proposal for preventing the children of poor people in Ireland, from being a burden on their parents or country, and for making them beneficial to the public, York & Stevenson, Dublin, 1729 [TEM 15] TEMPLE L., TOUZARD J.M., KWA M et al., “Comparaison des trajectoires d’innovation pour la sécurisation alimentaire des pays du Sud”, Biotechnology, Agronomy, Society and Environment, vol 19, no 1, pp 53–61, 2015 [WOR 13] WORLD BANK, Growing Africa - unlocking the potential of agro-business, Washington, 2013 List of Authors Euphrasie C.M ANGBO-KOUAKOU Institut National Polytechnique Félix Houphouët-Boigny (INP-HB) Yamoussoukro Côte d’Ivoire and INNOVATION University of Montpellier, CIRAD Montpellier France Alexandre ASSEMIEN Institut National Polytechnique Félix Houphouët-Boigny (INP-HB) Yamoussoukro Côte d’Ivoire Jean-Marc BOUSSARD Former Research Director INRA Paris France James BOYER CIRAD UMR INNOVATION and INNOVATION University of Montpellier, CIRAD Montpellier France Eveline M.F.W COMPAORÉ SAWADOGO Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique et Technologique Institut de l’Environnement et de Recherches Agricoles Ouagadougou Burkina Faso Salif DERRA CIRAD UMR INNOVATION and INNOVATION University of Montpellier, CIRAD Montpellier France Patrick DUGUÉ CIRAD UMR INNOVATION and INNOVATION University of Montpellier, CIRAD Montpellier France Valentin FEVRE AgroParisTech Paris France Innovation Processes in Agro-Ecological Transitions in Developing Countries, First Edition Edited by Ludovic Temple and Eveline M.F.W Compaoré Sawadogo © ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc 168 Innovation Processes in Agro-Ecological Transitions in Developing Countries Patricia FLODROPS AgroParisTech Paris France Michel GRIFFON Former Assistant Director ANR Paris France Victor KETTELA Montpellier SupAgro UMR INNOVATION Montpellier France Syndhia MATHÉ CIRAD UMR INNOVATION France and INNOVATION University of Montpellier, CIRAD Montpellier France and IITA-Cameroon Yaoundé Cameroon Isabelle MICHEL Montpellier SupAgro UMR INNOVATION and INNOVATION University of Montpellier Montpellier SupAgro Montpellier France Eric PENOT CIRAD UMR INNOVATION and INNOVATION University of Montpellier, CIRAD Montpellier France Serge SIMON CIRAD UPR HortSys Dakar Senegal and HortSys University of Montpellier, CIRAD Montpellier France Ludovic TEMPLE CIRAD UMR INNOVATION and INNOVATION University of Montpellier, CIRAD Montpellier France Index A action research, 111 Africa, 141 agricultural market, 159 Alaotra lake, 89 B biofuel, 51 biotechnological cotton, 29 Burkina Faso, 29 C capital, 142–147, 152, 159, 160, 163 conservation agriculture, 71 Côte d’Ivoire, gardening, 117 innovation processes, 72, 83, 89 system, 51, 110 trajectory, 29 J, M, N Jatropha, 52, 55, 57, 59, 60, 62–66 Madagascar, 71 Miniset technology, 95, 100, 111 new hybrid varieties, Niayes, 117 P, R D, E plantain innovation platforms (PIP), price, 141, 142, 147–160, 162–164 productivity, 141, 143, 144, 149 risk, 145–147, 155, 158–160, 163 determinants, 51 emergence, 51, 52, 55, 57–60, 62 S, T F, G, I sectoral innovation system (SIS), Senegal, 117, 143, 152, 161 technological change, 1, 2, 10 failure, 32, 43, 45 family farming, 122 food security, 97, 106, 111, 112 Innovation Processes in Agro-Ecological Transitions in Developing Countries, First Edition Edited by Ludovic Temple and Eveline M.F.W Compaoré Sawadogo © ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc Other titles from in Innovation, Entrepreneurship and Management 2018 CORLOSQUET-HABART Marine, JANSSEN Jacques Big Data for Insurance Companies (Big Data, Artificial Intelligence and Data Analysis Set Volume 1) CROS Franỗoise Innovation and Society (Smart 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Sons, Inc 2 Innovation Processes in Agro- Ecological Transitions in Developing Countries international markets but instead on an increase in food production relative to the needs of the internal... xvi Innovation Processes in Agro- Ecological Transitions in Developing Countries entrepreneurial investments in the bioenergy sector instigates technological dynamics in response to needs defined