PRIMER OF PUBLIC RELATIONS RESEARCH ebook THE GUILFORD PRESS Primer of Public Relations Research SECOND EDITION DON W STACKS THE GUILFORD PRESS New York London © 2011 The Guilford Press A Division of Guilford Publications, Inc 72 Spring Street, New York, NY 10012 www.guilford.com All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher Printed in the United States of America This book is printed on acid-free paper Last digit is print number: Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Stacks, Don W Primer of public relations research / Don W Stacks.—2nd ed p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-59385-595-6 (hardcover) Public relations—Research I Title HM1221.S78 2011 659.2072—dc22 2010013366 Preface to the Second Edition Almost 10 years have passed since the first edition of the Primer of Public Relations Research was published Over that time, several things have changed the way that public relations professionals understand and conduct practice Four particular changes have arisen to affect public relations practice Each will continue to drive how public relations is practiced and how it is perceived by others over the next 10 years First, new technology has changed and has sped up the practice of public relations This new technology utilizing the Internet and social media has taken many practitioners by storm—it fits their niche of marketing public relations and media relations quite nicely, and they have quickly endorsed it as the way to communicate in the 21st century However, a closer look at this new form of media shows that it really does not present new ways of doing research Indeed, public relations research focusing on message impact and strategy has not changed at all The methods— survey, content analysis, focus group, in-depth interviews—are still the methods The material being coded or asked about—blogs, tweets, and so forth—are still messages that differ little from their traditional media counterparts (newspaper copy, broadcast stories, speeches, interpersonal contacts) What has changed, and changed greatly, is the amount of those messages and the ability to go around the traditional media gatekeeper I not think that the social media are a trend that will go away, but will be data that can be used as part of the total communication milieu, which will include the traditional media for the foreseeable future When I talk to public relations professionals—not the technicians but those who are actively engaged in communication strategy—I often get the question “What are the new methods of data gathering and analyv vi Preface to the Second Edition sis?” My answer is, “The methods and the data have not changed, but the analysis—what the researcher can provide for the strategic communication found in public relations campaigns and programs—has changed, mainly because the amount of time needed to conduct the research and analyze the data has changed, and changed at warp speed.” So, readers of the second edition will note that social media are not covered in a chapter of their own Instead, where appropriate, they are covered as part of the data the methods gather and analyze The second change deals with proving the value of public relations in terms of how investment in the public relations function is returned by business, or the ROI of public relations—business being the organization the public relations function works in and the client-based investment in public relations programs Chapter has been expanded to cover this ROI both theoretically and practically From stating measurable public relations objectives (as introduced in the first edition) to the second edition’s expanded coverage of the research objectives, I discuss how public relations objectives should focus on the overall business objectives and final goal Third, over 30 years of teaching communication and public relations research methods classes have made it clear that readers who understand what data are and how outcomes can be measured with stated reliability and validity better understand the advantages and disadvantages of different research methodologies For the second edition, the coverage of basic statistics and measurement has been moved to the beginning of the book After talking to many college professors and public relations professionals I have found that most are not comfortable with numbers, let alone statistics, or with creating outcome measures that can provide valuable information regarding the ROI question The statistics chapter also introduces the reader to statistical procedures that will be used in covering the different methodologies to collect and analyze data Finally, best practices is a way of life in contemporary strategic public relations, which focuses on how research can be conducted to maximize the contribution of public relations to organizational success The second edition now includes a focus on best practices Readers need to understand how the best-practice approach will make for better research and aid them in evaluating the data and analyses provided by public relations research firms An Instructor’s Manual in RTF format will automatically be e-mailed to all instructors who request a desk copy of this book from Guilford Included in the manual are a test bank with multiple-choice, true–false, short-answer, and essay questions; suggested readings; chapter outlines; and case studies Use some or all of these materials to gauge your students’ retention and comprehension In addition, PowerPoint slides of selected illustrations and other related materials can be found at www.guilford.com/stacksmanual Preface to the Second Edition vii Writing the second edition has not been a solo undertaking I am indebted to four graduate students for a critical review of the first edition and for reading and rereading copy as it was produced I would like to thank MA student Devonie Nicholas and PhD students Koichi Yamamura, Linjuan Rita Men, and Melissa Dodd for their help in producing this edition In particular, I thank Koichi for his insight into needed changes as a first-time public relations research methods instructor I would be remiss if I did not acknowledge the critical appraisals of my ideas by two close friends—David Michaelson of Echo Research, Inc., and Donald K Wright of Boston University I thank Shannon A Bowen of Syracuse University for review and critique of Chapter 5, “Ethical Concerns in Public Relations Research.” I am also indebted to my editor, Kristal Hawkins, and The Guilford Press production team for their professional guidance and critical decision making in getting the second edition to press Thanks also to reviewers Donald K Wright, Dean Kruckeberg, Tina McCorkindale, Ron Anderson, and Marcia DiStaso for their comments, questions, and suggestions DON W STACKS Coral Gables, Florida Preface to the First Edition This book is the product of many years spent attempting to prove that research really does matter in public relations Most books—both text and trade—talk about research as being important, as in the ROPE or RACE models, but very little is said regarding its application in day-to-day practice Over a decade ago in Montreal, Donald K Wright (University of South Alabama) and I packed a room at the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication’s annual meeting discussing the need for research At that meeting we made an argument for a book that would present research (and statistics) in a simple, “primer” way Although the academics demonstrated their desire, no publisher at that time (or for the next 10 years, for that matter) was willing to take a chance on public relations research Instead, the argument was that mass communication or speech communication or sociology research methods books sufficed for the area Over these years this book languished Although it was clear that today’s practitioner needed to understand and interpret research, little was being done to provide both the student and the practitioner with a quick and simple approach to research Further, academic books took rather aesthetic approaches, focusing on science and theory (as appropriate for their interests—to extend the knowledge base of the humanities and social sciences) instead of the bottom line, or establishing how research added to an organization’s or client’s ROI (return on investment) In 1997 Jack Felton of the Institute for Public Relations suggested that what public relations practitioners and students really needed was a “research for dummies” book While this is not a research for dummies book, it is a primer for research It presents in what I hope is simple and ix 354 Index D Data, 8, 331 Data analysis computer analysis and, 71–76, 73t, 74f, 75f focus groups and, 189–190 in-depth interviews and, 178 overview, participant-observation method and, 193 secondary research and, 153–154 Data assessment, 9t Data collection differences between quantitative and qualitative methods, 9t ethical considerations and, 109–110 historical or secondary research and, 140–151, 142t, 147t, 149f, 151f Internet surveys and, 232 matrix data collection, 38, 39f overview, 116–117 sources of information, 143–144 See also Sampling; Surveys Data distributions, 70 Data matrix system, 38, 39f Data reporting See Reporting the research data Data sources, 152–153 Database mining, 331 Databases, 146–147, 147t, 331 dBase, 72 Decision-making process best practices and, 36–40, 37f, 39f, 40f research assumptions regarding, 27 Deduction, 331 Definitional questions case studies and, 163 in-depth interviews and, 173 overview, 12 Degrees of freedom, 274 Delphi technique, 331 Demographic analysis, 331 Demographic data, 238–239, 331 Dependent variable, 70, 331 Depth interview, 331 Descriptive research, 331 Descriptive statistics, 331 advanced descriptive statistics, 92–96, 93f, 94f, 95f, 96f bivariate continuous analyses, 86–92, 87f, 88f, 90f, 91f, 92f chi-square tests and, 275, 275f, 277 measurement and, 69–71 overview, 2, 68–69 univariate categorical analysis, 76–77, 77–81, 77f, 78f, 79f, 80f, 81f, 82f univariate continuous analysis, 82–86, 83f, 85t, 86f See also Statistics Descriptive survey, 331 Design bias, 331 Diction program, 130, 131t, 132f–133f, 133 Difference, 84–85 Directional research hypothesis, 267 Discriminant validity, 332 Discussion guide, 182–186, 183f–185f Divergent validity, 332 Document analysis, 119–120 See also Content analysis Documents assessing, 148, 150 historical or secondary research and, 144–148, 147t, 149f Double-barreled question, 332 E Editorial, 332 Empirical questions, 13–14 Entity, 22 Environmental monitoring (or scanning) phase, 31 Environmental scanning, 332 Equal appearing interval scale, 332 Equivalent advertising value (AVE), 332 ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center) database, 147–148 Index Error, probability of, 267–269, 268f, 269f Error bar, 332 Ethical considerations case studies and, 164 ethical codes, 104–106 informed consent and, 234 overview, 102–106, 112–113 ownership of data and research and, 112 research and, 106–112 surveys and polls and, 243 technologies and, 243 Ethnographic research, 332 Evaluation case studies and, 168–169 overview, 11–15, 18, 27–28, 39–40, 40f, 59–60, 332 Events, 332 Executive summary, 310–311 Expected frequencies, 273 Experimental designs overview, 257–258, 258t types of, 258–261 Experimental method, 332–333 causation and, 254 control and, 255–257 experiment overview, 249–251, 250f experimental designs, 257–261, 258t overview, 248–249, 262–263 testing relationships, 251–253, 253f–254f types of, 258–261 See also Quantitative methods Experiments, 249–251, 250f See also Experimental method Explanatory research, 333 Exploratory research, 333 355 Factor analysis, 333 advanced descriptive statistics and, 93–96, 93f, 94f, 95f, 96f Likert-type scales and, 59t False acceptance error, 271–272, 271f False rejection error, 271–272, 271f Fever graph, 333 Field experiment control and, 256–257 overview, 253 See also Experimental method Field study methodology, 333 Filter question, 333 Focus group methodology, 333 advantages and disadvantages of, 179–180 conducting, 180–190, 183f–185f, 187f overview, 119–120, 173, 179–190, 183f–185f, 187f See also Content analysis Formal methodology, 5, 333 Formative evaluation, 333 Four-step process (Defining PR Problems, Planning and Programming, Taking Action and Communicating, Evaluating the Program) model, 6, 29f FoxPro, 72 Frequency, 334 Frequency table, 77f, 334, 767 F-test, 334 overview, 283–288, 284t, 285f, 286f, 287f t-test and, 280 See also Analysis of variance (ANOVA) Funnel question, 334 G F Face validity, 48, 333 See also Validity Facilitator, 333 Fact questions case studies and, 163–164 overview, 13–14 General Inquirer program, 130, 131t Generalizability, 261 Goals, 32, 334 Grand mean, 334 Graph, 334 Gross rating points (GRP), 334 356 Index Grounded case study, 158, 162–163 See also Case studies Grounded research, 173 Guttman scale, 329, 334, 346 H Histogram, 334 Historical methodology, 334 case studies and, 158–159, 158–162, 161t, 162t data collection and, 140–151, 142t, 147t, 149f, 151f overview, 139–140, 154–155 search engines and, 150–151, 151f History source of internal validity, 257, 258t Holsti’s reliability coefficient, 51, 334–335 Human Subject Committees, 234 Hypothesis, 335 Hypothesis testing, 335 I IBM® SPSS® STATISTICS advanced descriptive statistics and, 93, 93f correlation and, 90–91 cross-tabulation and, 77–81, 78f, 79f, 80f, 81f, 82f descriptive statistics and, 76–77, 77f entering data into, 72–76, 73t, 74f, 75f inferential statistics and, 97–99 nonparametric analysis, 272–277, 274f, 275f, 276f overview, 71–72 parametric analysis, 277–288, 279f, 281f, 282f, 284t, 285f, 286t, 287f surveys and polls and, 243 Image research, 335 Impressions, 335 Incidence, 335 Independent t-test, 335 See also t-test Independent variable, 70, 335 In-depth interviews, 335 advantages and disadvantages of, 174–175 conducting, 175–178, 177f overview, 173–179, 177f Induction, 335 Industry research, 153 Inferential reasoning, 266–272, 268f, 269f, 271f Inferential research, 335 Inferential statistics, 335 advanced statistical testing, 289–290 versus descriptive statistics, 71 inferential tests, 272–288, 274f, 275f, 276f, 279f, 281f, 282f, 284t, 285f, 286f, 287f overview, 97–99, 290 testing relationships, 266–272, 268f, 269f, 271f See also Quantitative statistics Inferential tests nonparametric analysis, 272–277, 274f, 275f, 276f parametric analysis, 277–288, 279f, 281f, 282f, 284t, 285f, 286t, 287f See also Analysis of variance (ANOVA); t-test Informal methodology, 5, 335 Informational objectives, 33–34, 336 Informative research, 7, 7f Informed consent, 234 Inputs, 336 Inquiry research, 336 Institute for Public Relations (IPR), 16 Institutional libraries, 142t, 143 Institutional Review Boards (IRBs), 234 Instrumental error, 50, 336 See also Reliability Instrumentation source of internal validity, 257, 258t Intercoder reliability, 336 Internal consistency reliability, 50 See also Reliability Internal experimental invalidity, 257–258, 258t See also Validity Internal validity, 261 Index International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) ethical codes and, 105 overview, International Public Relations Association (IPRA) ethical codes and, 105 overview, Internet research, 109–110 Internet surveys, 226t, 232–233 See also Surveys; Technologies Interval data, 336 Interval measurement descriptive statistics and, 69 overview, 46–47 Interview content, 119–120 See also Content analysis Interview schedule, 176–178, 177f, 336 Interviews, in-depth See In-depth interviews Intracoder reliability, 336 Intuitive data, Invalidity, 257–258, 258t See also Validity Issues research, 336 Items, 122–123, 122t, 336 J Judgmental sample, 336–337 K Key message analyses, 124 Key performance, 337, 342 Known error, 50 See also Reliability Known group t-test, 337 See also t-test KR-20, 337 Krippendorf’s alpha, 337 L Laboratory research experimental method and, 252 overview, 11–15 357 Latent content, 121, 123–124, 337 Libraries data collection and, 141–143, 142t historical or secondary research and, 149f Likert-type scales, 337 overview, 56–59, 57t, 59t, 61–62 surveys and polls and, 243, 243f– 244f Line graph, 337 Linear case study, 160 See also Case studies Literature review, 311–312, 312f Longitudinal sampling experimental method and, 249 overview, 205, 221t survey methods and, 225–226 See also Sampling Longitudinal surveys, 225–226, 337 See also Surveys M Mail surveys, 226t, 229, 231–232, 337 See also Surveys Mall intercept research, 337–338 Management by objective (MBO) approach, 27, 30t, 31–36 Manifest content, 120–121, 122–123, 122t, 338 Market research, 338 Matrix data collection best practices and, 38, 39f correlation matrix and, 90–91 Maturation source of internal validity, 257, 258t Maximizing systematic error (known error), 50 See also Reliability Mean, 338 overview, 84, 85f, 87f t-test and, 280 Measurement, 338 levels of, 44–47, 69–71 measurement scales, 51, 53–62, 57f, 59f, 60f overview, 44–51, 66 358 Measurement (cont.) reliability and validity of, 48–51 See also Outcome measurement Measurement accuracy, 210 Measurement bias, 338 Measurement error, 338 overview, 198, 199t reducing, 200 Measurement reliability, 338 See also Reliability Measurement scales example of, 62, 63f–65f overview, 51, 53–62, 57t, 59t types of, 55–62, 57t, 59t See also Measurement Measurement validity, 338 See also Validity Media, 119–120, 338 See also Content analysis Media evaluations, 338 Median, 84, 87f, 338 Mention prominence, 338 Mentions, 338–339 Message content, 339 Message content analysis, 339 Message strength, 339 Meta-analysis, 154 Methodology overview, 8, 115–117 in the research report, 312, 313f See also individual methods Microsoft Excel, 72 Microsoft Word, 133, 135f Minimizing random error, 50 See also Reliability MiniTab program, 71–72 Mode, 84, 87f, 339 Moderator, 339 Monitoring, 339 Mortality source of internal validity, 258t Motivational objectives, 34, 339 Multiple regression, 339 Multiple-factor ANOVA, 285–288, 287f Multistage cluster sampling, 216–217 See also Sampling Multivariate analysis, 339 Index N Network analysis, 339 Neutral point, 339 Nominal data, 339 descriptive statistics and, 69 overview, 46 Nondirectional research hypothesis, 267 Nonparametric analysis, 272–277, 274f, 275f, 276f Nonparametric statistics, 70, 97–98, 339 Nonprobability sample, 126, 201–204, 202t, 219t, 340 See also Sampling Nonscientific sampling, 197 See also Sampling Nonverbal communication, 340 Norm, 340 Normal curve, 207–209, 208f, 209f, 340 Normative data, 340 Note taking, 193 Null hypothesis, 266–267, 340 NVivo program, 130 O Objective, 8, 30t, 334, 340 Objective setting management by objective (MBO) approach and, 30t overview, 32 research assumptions regarding, 27 stating objectives, 33–34 writing objectives, 34–36 Observational methods focus groups, 179–190, 183f–185f, 187f in-depth interviews, 173–179, 177f overview, 172–173, 193–194 participant-observation method, 117, 173, 190–193 Omnibus survey, 340 “One-group pretest–posttest” design, 259 “One-shot case study” design, 259 One-tailed test, 268–269, 268f Index One-way ANOVA, 283–284, 285f, 286f Open-ended question, 340 Operational definition, 121 Opinions, 53, 340 Opportunities to see (OTS), 340 Oral presentation of results, 315–319, 320f See also Reporting the research data Ordinal data, 340–341 Ordinal measurement descriptive statistics and, 69 overview, 46 Organizational research, 152–153 Organizations, 22 Outcome measurement See also Measurement Outcomes, 341 differences between quantitative and qualitative methods, 9t overview, 39–40, 40f, 44–51 Outgrowth, 341 Output, 341 Outtake, 341 P Paired t-test, 341 See also t-test Panel sampling, 205, 206f, 221t See also Sampling Panel survey, 341 Parameter, 341 Parametric analysis, 277–288, 279f, 281f, 282f, 284t, 285f, 286t, 287f Parametric statistics, 70, 98–99, 342 Participant-observation method, 342 advantages and disadvantages of, 191 conducting, 191–193 overview, 117, 173, 190–193 Path analysis, 342 Path diagram, 342 Pearson product–moment coefficient (r), 288, 342 Percent of change, 342 Percentage, 342 Percentage point, 342 359 Performance, 342 Performance indicator, 342 Performance measure, 342 Performance result, 337, 342 Performance target, 342 Periodicals, 145–146 Periodicity, 342 Personal libraries, 142t, 143 Person-to-person surveys, 226t, 233–234 See also Surveys Phases of research, 27–28 Pie graph, 342 Piggyback survey, 342 Pilot experiment, 253f–254f See also Experimental method Policy questions case studies and, 164 overview, 15 request for research proposal (RFP) and, 297 Poll methods, 342–343 informed consent and, 234 overview, 223–224, 243, 246 reporting the results from, 241–242, 241f versus surveys, 224–225 technologies and, 242–243, 243f–244f See also Surveys Population, 25–26 Position papers, 343 Positioning, 343 Potency, 59–60 Power, statistical, 270–272, 271f PR return on investment (PRROI), 343 Predictive inferential statistics, 289– 290 See also Inferential statistics Pre-experimental designs, 259 See also Experimental designs Presentation of research results, 315–319, 320f See also Reporting the research data Pretest example of, 253f–254f experimental method and, 257 See also Experimental method Primary sources of information, 143 360 Index Probabilistic sampling overview, 125–126, 197, 204–207, 206f, 219t–220t sample size and, 207–214, 208f, 209f See also Sampling Probability of error, 267–269, 268f, 269f Probability sample, 343 Probe question, 343 Problem analysis, 297 Problem identification management by objective (MBO) approach and, 30t overview, 21–22 problem solving and, 297 stating the research problem, 31– 32 Problem solving Dewey’s technique, 297, 298t request for research proposal (RFP) and, 297 Process case study, 160, 162 See also Case studies Product, 327, 343 Program, 327, 343 Program development phase overview, 28, 30t, 31–36 research assumptions and, 27 Program implementation, 30t Program planning, 30t Program refinement phase, 27 Prominence of mention, 343 Proportion, 343 PRSA’s Code of Professional Standards for the Practice of Public Relations historical or secondary research and, 146–147, 147t overview, 104–105 See also Ethical considerations; Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) Psychographic research, 343 Psychometrics, 343 Public, 343 Public libraries, 141 Public opinion poll, 344 Public relations effectiveness, 344 Public relations overview, 1–2, 20–26, 23f, 24f, 25f best practices and, 16–17, 17f use of research in public relations, 15–16 Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) ethical codes and, 104–106 overview, Public Relations Value Questionnaire, 63f–65f Publics management by objective (MBO) approach and, 30t overview, 23–26, 23f, 24f, 25f target public, 25–26 Purposive sampling, 202t, 203, 219t, 344 See also Sampling Push poll, 344 Q Q-sort, 344 Qualitative analyses, 178 Qualitative methods, 344 audiences and, 23–24, 23f compared to quantitative methods, 8–10, 9t definitional questions and, 12 overview, 9, 18, 115–116, 115–117 research assumptions and, 27 See also Case studies; Content analysis; Historical methodology; Observational methods; Poll methods; Sampling; Secondary research; Surveys Quantification process, Quantitative analyses, 178 Quantitative methods, 344 audiences and, 23–24, 23f compared to qualitative methods, 8–10, 9t definitional questions and, 12 overview, 8, 18 Index research assumptions and, 27 See also Experimental method; Quantitative statistics Quantitative statistics overview, 265 testing relationships, 266–272, 268f, 269f, 271f See also Inferential statistics; Quantitative methods; Statistics Quasi-experimental designs, 260–261 See also Experimental designs Questionnaires, 344 construction of, 235–241, 237f reporting the research data and, 313–314 Questions, research, 235–241, 237f, 344 See Research questions Quota sampling, 202t, 203, 219t, 344 See also Sampling R RACE (Research, Action, Communication, Evaluation) model case studies and, 159 overview, 6, 116 research assumptions and, 28, 29f Random intercept method, 234 See also Surveys Random selection in sampling, 204 Randomness, 217–218 Range, 87f, 344 Ratio data, 345 Ratio measurement, 46–47 Reach, 345 Reactive arrangements, 257 Readability indices, 133, 135f Readership, 345 Recommendation section, 314 Recruitment of research participants, 186 Regression, 258t, 289–290, 345 Relationships between variables chi-square tests and, 274–275 experimental method and, 251–253, 253f–254f 361 overview, 24–26, 24f, 25f, 265 testing, 251–253, 253f–254f, 266–272, 268f, 269f, 271f Reliability, 338, 345 content analysis and, 128–130, 129f Likert-type scales and, 58–59 overview, 48, 50–51, 52f Reliability analysis, 94–95 Reliability coefficient, 128–130, 129f Reliability statistics, 92–93, 93f Reporting the research data ethical considerations and, 110–112 oral presentation, 315–319, 320f overview, 293–294, 309–315, 312f, 313f, 319 surveys and polls and, 241–242, 241f Representative samples, 196 See also Sampling Reputation, 24–26, 24f, 25f, 345 Request for research proposal (RFP) addressing what you need, 296–297, 298t evaluating, 304–307, 305f, 306f identifying researchers and firms and, 299–300 overview, 293, 295–296, 300–304, 302f, 303t, 307 Research bias, 345 Research hypothesis, 266–267 Research instrument, 345 Research overview, 1–2, 5–6, 8–15, 9t, 345 assumptions of, 27–28, 29f ethical considerations and, 106–112 reasons to conduct research, 6–7, 7f use of research in public relations, 15–16 Research participants ethical considerations and, 107–112 focus groups and, 186 in-depth interviews and, 175 See also Sampling Research planning, 6–7 Research questions case studies and, 163–165 of definition, 12 of fact, 13–14 362 Index Research questions (cont.) in-depth interviews and, 176–178, 177f inferential statistics and, 268 overview, 10–15, 18 of policy, 15 of value, 14–15 Research reporting See Reporting the research data Respondent, 345 See also Research participants Response rate, 345 Results section of a research report, 313–314, 345 Return on expectations (ROE) audiences and, 24–26, 24f, 25f best practices and, 36–40, 37f, 39f, 40f overview, 21 Return on investment (ROI), 346 audiences and, 24–26, 24f, 25f best practices and, 36–40, 37f, 39f, 40f ethical considerations and, 112 experimental method and, 248 overview, 21 Roles, 192 ROPE (Research, Objectives, Program, Evaluation) model case studies and, 159, 161t experimental method and, 249 management by objective (MBO) approach and, 28 overview, 6, 116 Routines, 192 Rules, 192 S Sample, 346 Sample size calculating, 211–214 probabilistic sampling and, 207–214, 208f, 209f Sampling content analysis and, 125–126 errors encountered in, 198–200, 199t overview, 196–198, 199t, 219 probabilistic sampling and, 207–214, 208f, 209f randomness, 217–218 sample size and, 207–214, 208f, 209f strategies, 214–217 survey methods and, 225–226 types of, 200–207, 202t, 206f, 219t–220t See also Qualitative methods; Research overview Sampling accuracy, 117 Sampling error, 346 overview, 198, 199t reducing, 200 sample size and, 210 Sampling frame, 198 Scale, 346 See also Measurement scales Scalogram, 329, 334, 346 Scatter diagram, 90–91 Scattergram, 346 Schedule, 346 Scientific sampling, 197 See also Sampling Scott’s pi coefficient, 51, 346 Screener question, 346 Search engine optimization (SEO), 140 Search engines, 150–151, 151f Search strategies, 148, 149f Secondary research, 346 overview, 139–140, 151–154, 154–155 research assumptions and, 27 search engines and, 150–151, 151f Secondary sources of information, 143 Selection source of internal validity, 257, 258t Semantic differential scales, 59–62, 60f, 346 See also Measurement scales Semantic space, 346–347 Semistructured interview, 347 Sequential equation model, 347 Share of ink (SOI), 347 Share of voice (SOV), 347 Shared-cost survey, 347 Index Significance chi-square tests and, 274 inferential statistics and, 269–270 Simple random sampling, 126, 214, 347 See also Sampling Simple systematic sampling, 214–215 See also Sampling Simulations, 253 Situation analysis, 347 Six Sigma decision-making system, 36–37 See also Decision-making process Skip interval, 347 SLC (Syntactic Language Computer Analysis) program, 130 Snapshot sampling overview, 204–205 survey methods and, 225–226 See also Sampling Snapshot survey, 347 Snowball sampling, 202t, 204, 219t, 347 See also Sampling Sociogram, 347 Sources mentioned, 348 Speaking engagements, 348 Spearman’s rho rank, 348 Specialized libraries, 142, 142t Speech analysis, 119–120 See also Content analysis Split-half reliability, 50, 348 See also Reliability Spreadsheet programs, 72 Staffing considerations, 182 Stakeholder research, 153 Standard deviation, 348 overview, 87f sample size and, 208–209 Standard error of the mean, 280 Standardized score, 209, 209f, 348, 350 “Static group comparison” design, 259 Stating the research problem, 31 See also Problem identification Statistical Analysis System (SAS), 71–72 Statistical coefficients, 51, 52f 363 Statistical Package for the Social Sciences advanced descriptive statistics and, 93, 93f correlation and, 90–91 cross-tabulation and, 77–81, 78f, 79f, 80f, 81f, 82f descriptive statistics and, 76–77, 77f entering data into, 72–76, 73t, 74f, 75f inferential statistics and, 97–99 nonparametric analysis, 272–277, 274f, 275f, 276f overview, 71–72 parametric analysis, 277–288, 279f, 281f, 282f, 284t, 285f, 286t, 287f surveys and polls and, 243 Statistical power, 270–272, 271f Statistical significance, 269–270, 348 Statistical testing inferential statistics and, 266–267 secondary research and, 154 Statistics computer analysis and, 71–76, 73t, 74f, 75f inferential statistics, 71, 97–99 overview, 100 sample size and, 207–214, 208f, 209f See also Descriptive statistics; Quantitative statistics Strategic research, 11–15 Strategy implementation, 27 Stratified sample, 348 Structural equation modeling (SEM), 290 Structured interview, 348 Summary measure, 348 Summative evaluation, 348 Survey methodology, 349 Survey Monkey software, 243, 243f–244f Surveys construction of, 53–55 design considerations, 225–234, 230f informed consent and, 234 overview, 223–224, 243, 246 364 Index Surveys (cont.) versus poll methods, 224–225 questionnaire construction, 235–241, 237f reporting the results from, 241–242, 241f technologies and, 242–243, 243f–244f types of, 227–234, 230f See also Measurement Symbols/words in content, 122–123, 122t, 349 SYSTAT program, 71–72 Systematic sample, 126, 215–216, 349 See also Sampling T Target audiences, 25–26, 349 See also Audiences Target public, 25–26 See also Publics Targeted gross rating points (TGRP), 349 Technologies, 242–243, 243f–244f See also Computer analysis; Internet research Telephone surveys overview, 226t, 227–229, 230f questionnaire construction, 235–241, 237f respondent contact record for, 237f See also Surveys Tertiary sources of information, 143 Testing, effects of, 257 Testing source of internal validity, 257, 258t Test–retest reliability, 50, 349 See also Reliability Themes in content, 122t, 123–124, 349 Theoretical research questions of value and, 14 See also Research overview Throughputs, 349 Thurstone scale, 55–56 See also Measurement scales Time/space measures, 122–123, 122t, 349 Tonality analysis, 124 Tone, 349 Trend analysis, 349 overview, 205, 206f, 221t survey methods and, 225–226 See also Sampling True experimental designs, 259–260 See also Experimental designs Trust, 24–26, 24f, 25f t-test, 349 one-way ANOVA and, 283–284 overview, 98–99, 279–281, 281f, 282f parametric analysis and, 277 Two-tailed test, 268–269, 269f Type I error, 271–272, 271f Type II error, 271–272, 271f Type of article, 350 U Units of analysis, 121–124, 122t, 350 Univariate analysis, 350 Univariate categorical analysis, 76–77, 77–81, 77f, 78f, 79f, 80f, 81f, 82f Univariate continuous analysis, 82–86, 83f, 85t, 86f Universe, 350 Unknown error, 50 See also Reliability Unpublished papers, 147–148 V Validity, 338, 350 content analysis and, 127–128 example of, 49–50 experimental designs and, 257–258, 258t, 261 Likert-type scales and, 58–59 overview, 48–50 Value, 350 Value, questions of case studies and, 164 overview, 14–15 Variance, 84–85, 85f, 87f, 350 Verbatim, 350 Index Video content, 119–120 See also Content analysis Video recording in research, 181 Volunteer sampling, 202t, 203–204, 219t See also Sampling Word/symbol, 350 Writing objectives, 34–36 See also Objective setting Writing the research report See Reporting the research data W Z Weighted average, 350 Weighting, 350 Z-scores, 209, 209f, 348, 350 365 About the Author Don W Stacks, PhD, is Professor of Public Relations and Associate Dean for Faculty Research and Creative Support in the School of Communication at the University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida He served as program director from 1995 to 2009 As director, Dr Stacks took the program into the top 25 undergraduate and top 15 graduate public relations programs in the United States with a focus on strategic communication and research He has written more than 150 scholarly articles and papers and has authored or coauthored seven books on communication topics Dr Stacks’s most recent awards include the Public Relations Society of America’s Outstanding Educator (2003), the Jackson Jackson & Wagner Behavioral Science Prize (2005), and the Eastern Communication Association’s “Distinguished Research Fellow” (2007) and “Distinguished Teaching Fellow” (2008) Dr Stacks was recently elected to the first class of the Institute for Public Relations’ Research Fellows and was selected as a “Senior Fellow” of the Society for New Communications Research in 2010 Dr Stacks has been an active communication consultant for over 30 years His areas of expertise include organizational systems assessment, sociological/psychological organizational analysis, media relations, internal organizational communications, and leadership, as well as serving as a trained listening specialist Dr Stacks is a member of the Arthur W Page Society, the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, the International Listening Association, the International Public Relations Association, and the National Communication Association He serves on the editorial boards of most premier communication and public relations journals and directs the annual International Public Relations Research Conference, the only research conference focusing purely on public relations research Dr Stacks is a trustee for the Institute for Public Relations, is on the boards of the International Public Relations Association and the Commission on Public Relations Measurement and Evaluation, and served for 10 years on the board of the Commission on Public Relations Education 367 .. .PRIMER OF PUBLIC RELATIONS RESEARCH ebook THE GUILFORD PRESS Primer of Public Relations Research SECOND EDITION DON W STACKS THE GUILFORD PRESS New... (hardcover) Public relations Research I Title HM1221.S78 2011 659.2072—dc22 2010013366 Preface to the Second Edition Almost 10 years have passed since the first edition of the Primer of Public Relations. .. CONDUCT PUBLIC RELATIONS RESEARCH? WHAT IS RESEARCH? USE OF RESEARCH IN PUBLIC RELATIONS 15 BEST PRACTICES IN PUBLIC RELATIONS 16 SUMMARY 17 CHAPTER Management of Research in Public Relations