i Jihad & Co ii iii JIHAD & CO Black Markets and Islamist Power z AISHA AHMAD iv Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America © Oxford University Press 2017 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer CIP data is on file at the Library of Congress ISBN 978–0–19–065677–5 1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2 Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America v For Baba vi vi Contents Acknowledgments Introduction 1. Mosques and Markets ix xiii 2. Black Flags in the Bazaar: The Making of Modern Islamist Proto-╉States 16 3. Mafia and Mujahideen: Trafficking and Trust Building under Soviet Occupation 29 4. Traders and Taliban: Business Interests and Islamist Power in Afghanistan 64 5. Beards for Business: The Origins and Evolution of the Mogadishu Mafia 95 6. The Price of Protection: The Rise of the Islamic Courts Union 119 7. The Blowback Effect: International Intervention and the Collapse of the Proto-╉State 142 8. The Proto-╉State Goes Global: Business-╉Islamist Alliances across the Muslim World 161 9. Rising from the Ashes: The Dilemma of Modern Jihadist Proto-╉State Formation 184 Appendix: Methodology and Field Research 203 Notes 221 Index 285 vi ix Acknowledgments In the many years devoted to making this book, I have incurred an enormous debt of gratitude This manuscript is the end result of a collective global effort: from the fieldwork to the final revisions, I was blessed to inherit the experiences and insights of countless people who invested in the telling of this story They are the heart of this book and its most beautiful features Its flaws and failings are mine alone At its core, this work would not have been possible without my extraordinary colleagues overseas In Afghanistan, I received immense support from Gul Mohammad Gulzai, Ahmad Jan Nawzadi, and Nasir Ahmad Nawidy I was also fortunate to learn from several former members of the original Taliban movement I am especially grateful to Mullah Abdul Salam Zaeef, who not only kindly shared his experiences with me but also critically reviewed my argument for accuracy I am deeply touched that Mullah Wakil Ahmed Mutawakkil made the time, while recovering from illness, to clarify the empirical details of important historical events of the Taliban era I am also greatly indebted to Sayed Rahmatullah Hashemi for making line-╉by-╉line scholarly comments on my Afghanistan chapters, based on his incredible insider’s knowledge of the early Taliban government I am honored by their generosity In Pakistan, I give special thanks to the former commissioners of Afghan refugees Abdullah Sahib and Rustam Shah Mohmand, as well as Khalid Rahman and his outstanding team at the Institute for Policy Studies in Islamabad, who organized workshops, focus groups, and seminars in support of my research I also thank Professor Adnan Sarwar Khan and Professor Qibla Ayaz of the University of Peshawar; Professor Khan Bahadar Marwat of the Agricultural University, Peshawar; Professor Rasul Bakhsh Rais of the Lahore University of Management Sciences; and Asif Gul and Sohail Ahmad for their research assistance I am grateful to several members of the Pakistani 296 296 Index oil smuggling, 164, 166–168, 228n11 Olson, Mancur, 25 Omar, Abu, 169 Omar, Muhammad, 10, 67, 69–71, 143–151, 179, 182, 250nn11–12 economic governance, 93–94 transit trade, 81–82, 88–89 Omar, Sahib, 67–69 Operation Enduring Freedom, 148 opium, xxiii, 57, 93, 144, 149, 242n26, 265n5 Organization of Islamic Countries, 153 Organski, A F K., 193 Pakistan, 165 admission into UN, 243n44 Afghan Trade Commission, 42–43, 74–76, 93, 252n38 agriculture, 242n26, 244n49 armed forces, 244n48 arms trade, 46 business-Islamist alliances, 190–192 constitution, 243n43 couterterrorism operations, 152 customs duties, 41–42, 44, 74, 79–80 ethnic conflict, 236n34 Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA), 32, 46–48, 47, 179, 182, 245n55 Frontier Corps, 90, 254–255n81 GOP (Government of Pakistan) Central Asian convoy, 90–91 hundi (hawala) money transfer system, 84, 253n57 Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), 32–35, 37–38, 49, 52, 59 ISIS in, 182 as Islamic Republic, 243n43 Islamists, 16–17 landowners, 244nn48–49 markets, 79–81 neo-Taliban factions, xxiv, 178–182 North West Frontier Province (NWFP), 243n46 refugees, 32, 240nn9–11 relations with Afghanistan, 32–34, 44, 59, 72, 243n44, 245n56 relations with Taliban, 146 smugglers’ bazaars, 44, 80 smuggling, 6, 44, 46–48, 47, 64, 178–182 Soviet and mujahideen supply routes, 46–48, 47 support for Jamiat-i Islami, 35, 48–49, 246n63 support for mujahideen, 32–37, 240n11 support for Taliban in Afghanistan, 90–91, 93–94, 143, 152, 251n28 Taliban insurgency, 161–162 taxes and taxation, 44, 244nn48–49 trade routes, 46, 74–75, 93, 181, 254n79 transit trade, 41–43, 244–245n52 tribal populations, 187, 243–244n46, 243n45, 244n46 US intervention in, 179 Pakistani rupee (currency), 253n59, 254n70 Paris, Roland, 151 Pashtanay Tejarati Bank, 86 Pashtuns, 71, 243n46 ethnic politics, 249n95, 251n26 honor codes, 216 Islamist factions, 65–66 languages, 205 refugees, 240n9 soldiers, 69–70 traders, 40, 54, 62 traditions, 147 tribal districts, 245n55 women, 247n76 297 Index 297 PDPA See People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), 31, 34, 45–46, 50, 53, 59–60, 238n2 communist decrees, 246n71 debt from Moscow, 245n57 export taxes, 245n58 Politburo, 242n30 revenues, 245n58 Peshawar, Pakistan, 1, 9, 72–73, 178–182 markets, 43–44, 80 refugee camps, 32, 239n4, 240nn10–11 Peshawar Seven, 35, 59–60, 72t, 73–74, 246n70 philanthropy, 57–58, 83 See also charitable endeavors piety, religious, 54, 57–58 political Islam See Islamists poppy cultivation, 57, 144, 150, 242n26, 265n5 poverty, 1, 9, 62–63, 144 Prendergast, John, 263n54 prices, 80, 127–128, 196–197 oil prices, 167–168, 245n58 profit margins, 25, 177, 197 protection payments, 157–158, 170, 174, 181, 237n40 See also checkpoint fees; security costs safe passage (rahdari) costs, 43–44 in Somalia, 119–141 warlord taxes, 128–132, 135–138, 137t, 138f proto-states, xv, xx, xxiv, 4–9, 12–28, 161–183, 184–201 collapse of, 142–160 definition of, xx drivers of, xxiv, 4–9, 14–15, 17–20 financial drivers, xxiv, 4–9, 14–15 formation of, 17–20, 184–201 global, 161–183 rise of, 12–13, 16–28, 142 Pul-i-Charkhi penitentiary, 34, 37, 53 Punjab, 182 qabiil (clan), 223n17 al-Qaeda, 16, 145–146 affiliated networks, 6, 270n78, 273n52 black flag of, 232n2 early network, 146–147 financing, 234n11 merger with al-Shabaab, 156 regional affiliates, 6, 270n78, 273n52 sanctions against, 93 support for AIAI, 269n52 al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI), 164 al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), 12, 161, 173–178, 193, 273n52 financing, xxiv, 175–176, 191 Quetta, Pakistan, 46–48, 47, 88, 90 Rabbani, Burhanuddin, 2, 35, 48–49, 59–60, 70, 74–75, 149 as president of Afghanistan, 60, 254n69 and Taliban, 87–88, 254n69 radicalization, 145–159 Rage, Bashir, 134, 263n51 Rahanweyn (Digil-Mirifle) clan, 101, 124 Rahanweyn Resistance Army (RRA), 124 rahdari (safe passage) costs, 43–44 ransom, 91, 121–122, 173 rape, 65–67, 121, 249–250n7, 267n34 Raqqa, Syria, 170, 185 Rashid, Ahmed, 91, 250n14, 252n33, 253n47 refugee camps, 1, 3, 9, 142, 186, 240nn10–11 Dadaab refugee camp, 10, 121 Jalozai refugee camp, 32, 240n10 refugees, 2, 9, 32, 58, 120–121, 184–185, 186, 239n4, 240nn9–11 See also internally displaced persons (IDPs) 298 298 refugees (cont.) Afghan, 1–2, 31–32, 56, 69, 92, 142, 239n4, 240nn9–10 religion, 54, 278n4 See also specific religions for security, xix–xx trustbuilding through, 52–58, 138, 139t Reno, William, xi, 7, 14 research ethical considerations, 213–220 fieldwork, 9–12, 204–205 interview data, 205–208 methodology, 203–204 observational data, 212–213 pilot studies, 210–211 security considerations, 213–220 survey data, 208–212 Revkin, Mara, 170 Riasat-i Khidmat-i Ettela’at-i Doulati (KHAD, Afghanistan Department of State Information Services), 34, 38, 53, 241n19 Robow, Mukhtar (Abu Mansour), 124 Rosberg, Carl, 14 Rosenberg, Matthew, 268n38 Roy, Olivier, 222n14 RRA See Rahanweyn Resistance Army Rubin, Barnett, 8, 278n4 Russia See Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) sadaqa (charity), 83–84, 248n87 sadism, 66–67 Sahel region, 12, 171–178 Salafi See Islam Salang Pass, 45–46, 48 Saleh, 67–68, 250n10 Salman, Raheem, 169–170 Samatar, Abdi Ismail, 101–102 sanctions, 93, 144 Sangesar, Afghanistan, 67, 81–82 Index Saudi Arabia, 113, 115, 146–147, 246nn63–64 Sayigh, Yezid, 168 Saywell, Shelley, 212, 255n3 Sayyaf, Abdul Rasool, 10, 48–49, 60–62, 70, 74, 147–148, 150, 246n64, 267n35 Sayyid, Muhammad (“Mad Mullah”), 101, 257n18 SCIC See Supreme Council of Islamic Courts sectarianism, 71, 198 security costs, 5–6, 23–27, 174, 238n48 See also checkpoint fees in Afghanistan, 62–63, 79 alternatives, 189 Islamist, 264n60 overhead costs, 23–27 rahdari (safe passage) costs, 43–44 in Somalia, 105–108, 115, 125, 127, 130, 133 voluntary contributions, 133 warlord taxes, 128–132, 135–138, 137t, 138 f , 264n60 ways to lower, 188–189 Selassie, Haile, 103 September 11 attacks, 145 sexual violence, 66–67, 166 SFG See Somali Federal Government al-Shabaab (“the youth”), 12, 122–123, 134–135, 154–159, 269nn60–61 Shabi Jummah, 55 Shah, Mohammed Zahir, 243n38 sharia law See Islamic law Sharif, Sheikh Ahmed Sheikh, 121–122, 153–156 Shelley, Louise, 167–168 Shiites, 62, 71, 74, 167, 236n29, 240n9, 246n64 Shueitat tribe, 166 Siisii court, 121–122 Sipah-e-Sahaba, 182 Sirte, Libya, 178 29 Index 299 smugglers’ bazaars, 43–44, 80 See also markets; specific bazaars smuggling See trafficking SNA See Somali National Alliance Somalia, 96, 152–159, 200 African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM), 156–158 agriculture, 100, 257n17 arms trade, xvii–xviii, xviii, xxiii, 99 black market, 102–103 business community, 2–3, 10, 130–140, 137t, 138f, 144–145 checkpoint fees, 106–107, 119–120, 126–127 civil war, xix, xxiv, 10–11, 96–99, 104–109, 119–120, 125–130, 155, 158–159, 188 colonial era, 101–102 corruption, 102–103, 107, 110, 157 drought, 97–98 economic development, 101–108, 111, 258n27 extremism, 154 as failed state, 142 food aid, 97–99, 104–105, 106 foreign interference, 96–99, 102–105, 134, 157–158 franco valuta system, 102–103 freelance militias, 125–126, 129 hawalas (money transfer agencies), 84, 111, 168–169, 196, 253n57, 259nn47–48, 263n47 honor codes, 216 humanitarian aid, 97–98, 104, 114–115 Islam, 100–102, 257n13 Islamic courts, 3, 130–135 Islamists, 10–11, 16–17, 96, 116–118 Ogaden region, 101, 103, 257n16 peace talks, 116 political development, 10–11, 101–102, 223n17, 281n3, 281n6 al-Qaeda in, 145–146, 152–159 taxes and taxation, 101–102, 104–105, 257n19 toxic waste dumping, 107, 259n41 trade, 99–103, 113 trade routes, 105–106, 119, 126 Transitional Federal Government (TFG), 11, 116–118, 124, 132, 134–138, 137t, 138f, 155–157 Transitional National Government (TNG), 11, 116, 132, 135–138, 260nn56–57 United Nations Operation in Somalia (UNOSOM), 97–98, 104–107, 262n19 Somalia-Kenya border, Somalia Reconstruction and Restoration Council (SRRC), 116, 260n57 Somali Federal Government (SFG), 157–158 Somali National Alliance (SNA), 97–98, 107 Somali shilling, 103 South Asia, 161, 182, 236n27 South Waziristan Agency, 45, 180, 191, 245n55 Soviet-Afghan War, xvii–xviii, xxiii, 2, 30–63, 188, 206 casualties, 239n4 land reform, 239n6, 246n71 refugees, 58 Soviet Union See Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) Spin Boldak, Afghanistan, 79, 88–90, 254–255n81, 255n84 Spruyt, Hendrik, 14 SRRC See Somalia Reconstruction and Restoration Council state formation, 8–15, 192–195, 221–222n8 See also proto-states as protection racket, 25 Sudan, 147 Sudi, Muse, 134 Sufis See Islam sugar, 262n29 suicide bombings, 155, 178–179, 214, 270n64 suitcase NGOs, 107 30 300 Sulimaniyah, Iraq, 169 Sunnis See Islam Supreme Council of Islamic Courts (SCIC), 260n8 See also Islamic Courts Union (ICU) Suuq Ba’ad (Ba’ad market) (Mogadishu, Somalia), 105, 127, 130, 133 Suuq Bakara (Bakara market) (Mogadishu, Somalia), xiii, 2–3, 95–96, 130 Sykes-Picot agreement, 165, 193 Syria, 185, 199–200, 271n9 border region, 162 business-Islamist alliances, 190–191 civil war, 184–185 criminal networks, 226n5 ISIS in, xxiv, 161–171 Islamists, 16–17 oilfields, 167–168 refugees from, 9, 186 smuggling networks, 162–171 taxes, 168 Tablighi-Jamaat, 55, 248nn81–82 Tajiks, 62, 65–66, 149, 240n9 Takfiri, 198, 268n42 Taliban, xvii, xxiv, 4, 10–11, 28, 64–94, 72t anticorruption agenda, 82–83, 92–93, 144 area of influence, 86–87, 90–92, 151 ban on poppy cultivation, 144 battle of Spin Boldak, 88–89, 254–255n81, 255n84 and bin Laden, 147–148 early objectives, 69–70 expansion of, 88–92, 151 on extortion and corruption, 82–83 financial support, 81–94, 143–144, 149, 187, 253n58 flag, 232n2 government, 92–93 internal divisions, 152 Index international relations, 143, 146–148, 233n9, 265n11 name, 251n27 and narcotics industry, 149 neo-Taliban factions, 178–182 Pakistani support, 87–88, 90–94, 143–144 political platform, 2, 69–70 prohibitions against women, 71, 144 and al-Qaeda, 148 recruitment, 69–70, 92, 142–143 religious ideology, 69–72, 72t, 86, 151–152, 268n42 rise to power, 2, 9, 67–72, 92, 189, 251n27 shadow governments, 151 shura (leadership council), 251n26 splinter groups, 161, 268n42 support for, 68–69, 71–72, 72t, 81–92, 193, 251n26, 252n33 tax system, 71, 86, 89–90, 149 trade, 81–92, 252n33 Taraki, Nur Muhammad, 238n2, 241n19, 247n71 Tarar, Sultan Amir (Colonel Imam), 34–37, 36, 48, 54, 87–89, 91–92 Tawheed (monotheism), xix taxes and taxation See also security costs; transportation costs Bayt al-Mal system, 169 checkpoint fees, 65–66, 69, 76–78, 83, 87, 106–107, 119–120, 126–127, 168, 252n39 of cigarettes, 176–177 customs duties, 41–42, 44, 74, 76–80, 86, 101–102, 253n47 dhimmi (non-Muslim) tax, 236n27 of drugs, 176–177 export taxes, 245n58 fixed taxes, 140 fuel taxes, 176–177, 245n58 301 Index 301 import fees, 42–43, 85–86, 102–103, 244n51 indirect, 41–45, 101–102, 257n19 jizya (unbelievers) tax, 169, 236n27 land tax (khāraj), 170 payment methods, 168 preferences for, 135–138, 137t, 138f during Somali civil war, 125–130 ‘ushr, 71, 86, 89–90, 248n84, 254n63 voluntary taxes, 140, 189 warlord taxes, 128–132, 135–138, 137t, 138f ways to lower, 197 zakat donations, 71, 86, 89–90, 135, 169–170, 248n87, 254n63 Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP), 12, 179–182, 191–192 telecom industry, 111, 259n48 territory, 14, 134, 222n14 terrorism, 145–153, 177, 265n10, 269n52 suicide bombings, 155, 270n64 TFG See Transitional Federal Government threshold model, 225n4 Tilly, Charles, 14, 19, 193 TNG See Transitional National Government tobacco, 6, 175–176 See also cigarettes Tomsen, Peter, 254n81 toxic waste dumping, 107, 259n41 trade See also specific commodities during Afghan civil war, 73–81 with Arab countries, 21, 95–96, 99–102, 113–114, 236n27 black markets, xvi, xvii–xviii, illicit See trafficking informal, 102–103 mujahideen-era, 58–63 regulation-free, 99 during Somali civil war, 125–130 under Soviet occupation, 29–63 and Taliban, 81–92 tax-free, 99 transit, 73–81, 244n50 transit trade, 81–92 trade routes, 30, 39, 46, 79–80, 105–106, 180, 197 to Central Asia, 86–87 checkpoint-free, 83–86, 89–90, 92, 123, 189 NATO supply lines, 152 Peshawar-Jalabad-Kabul, 254n79 Quetta-Chaman-Kandahar, 254n79 salt caravan routes, 176–177 supply routes, 46–48, 47, 79 under Taliban control, 83–86 trafficking, xxii See also trade routes Afghan civil war era, 76 Afghanistan-Pakistan, 2, 245n56 in antiquities, xvi, 162–164, 163 arms trade See arms trade definition of, xxii drug smuggling See drug trade and ISIS, 162–171 mujahideen routes, 46–48, 47 in Somalia, 99 under Soviet occupation, 29–63, 44, 52–58 Transitional Federal Government (TFG) (Somalia), 11, 116–118, 124, 132, 134, 155–157 business community support for, 135–138, 137t, 138f Transitional National Government (TNG) (Somalia), 11, 116, 132, 260nn56–57, 264n60 business community support for, 135–138 transit trade during Afghan civil war, 73–81 Convention on Transit Trade of Landlocked States, 244n50 and Taliban, 81–93 302 302 Index transnational terrorism, 146–153, 269n52 transportation costs, 23–27, 245n53, 262n29 Afghan, 65–66, 69, 76–78, 83, 87, 252n39 checkpoint fees, 24, 26 passage fees, 175–176 rahdari (safe passage) costs, 43–44 right-of-way fees, 177 shipping costs, 76 Somali, 106–107, 119–120, 126–128 trucking fees, 252n42 warlord taxes, 128–132, 135–138, 137t, 138f tribal groups, xxi, 187, 226n5, 243n45 tribal politics, 18, 27, 108–109, 134–135 tribal warlords See warlords; specific individuals trust, 20–23, 188, 235n25 building, 29–63, 108–110, 110f, 113, 188 clan, 110, 110f Islamic, 110–112, 110f, 135–139, 137t, 138f trustworthiness, 112, 138, 139t TTP See Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan Tuareg, 174–176, 187 Tunisia, 173–174, 176 ulema (clergy), 20–23 Umar, Ahmed (Abu Ubaida), 158–159 unbelievers (jizya) tax, 169, 236n27 Union of Islamic Courts (UIC), 260n8 See also Islamic Courts Union (ICU) Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) aid to Afghanistan, 40–41 dissolution, 58–59 invasion of Afghanistan, 31, 52–53 KGB, 34 occupation of Afghanistan, 29–63, 238n2, 242n30, 245n57 Soviet-Afghan War, xvii, xvii–xviii, xxiii, 2, 30–31, 37–38, 45–46, 58, 188, 239n4 supply routes, 46–48, 47 support for Ethiopia, 103 support for Somalia, 102–103 withdrawal from Afghanistan, 58–63 United Kingdom, 40–41, 101, 243n36, 257n18 United Nations, 192–193, 243n44 Monitoring Group, 154, 157, 198, 269n56 Security Council, 93, 97–98, 199 United Nations Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, 194–195 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), 121 United Nations Operation in Somalia (UNOSOM), 97–98, 104–107, 262n19 United Somali Congress (USC), 97 United States aid to Afghanistan, 32–35, 37–38, 46, 59 aid to Somalia, 98 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) (US), 32–35, 38 drone war campaign, 158, 179 intervention in Afghanistan, 148, 150–151, 199, 268n38 intervention in Pakistan, 179 intervention in Somalia, 154–158 invasion and occupation of Iraq, 164, 199 Operation Enduring Freedom, 148 relations with ICU, 153 relations with Taliban, 146–148, 265n11 30 Index 303 support for Jamiat-i Islami, 246n63 support for mujahideen, 32–38, 46, 240n14 support for Somalia, 103, 145, 263n51 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 194 university education, 135–138, 137t, 138f, 139 UNOCAL-Delta oil pipeline, 86 USC See United Somali Congress ‘ushr, 71, 86, 89–90, 248n84, 254n63 USSR See Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Uzbek faction, 62, 66, 74, 149, 249n94 violence, 194 ethnic, 65–66, 149 extremist, 145, 147 genocidal, 65, 166, 246n64 jihadist, 145–159 resurgence of, 150 sexual, 66–67, 166 against women, 65–67, 121, 246n64, 249–250n7, 267n34 voluntary taxes, 140, 189 Wahhabis See Islam waqf (charitable trust), 55, 248n80 war economy, xv–xvi, 1, 119–120, 196, 242n26 warfare drone strikes, 158, 179, 181 effects on agriculture, 31 guerrilla, 37, 149 warlord-parliamentarians, 117–118, 260n58 warlords See also specific individuals definition of, xxi–xxii, 224nn20–21 economic interests, 7, 25–26, 107, 188, 259n41 foreign support for, 150 local, 65 political alliances, 10–11, 237n39 Somalia Reconstruction and Restoration Council (SRRC), 116 warlord taxes, 128–132, 135–138, 137t, 138f, 225n22 protection fees, 131–132 security costs, 5–6, 23–26, 264n60 weapons trade See arms trade Weinstein, Jeremy, West Africa, 161 WFP See World Food Programme women in khat industry, 261n10 in research, 207, 217, 283n20 treatment of, 71, 121, 144, 149–150, 166, 246n64, 247n76, 249–250n7, 267n35 violence against, 65–67, 121, 249–250n7, 267n34 World Food Programme (WFP), 105–106 xeer (Somali customary legal code), 101 xenophobia, 21 Yazidis, 166 The Year of Unity 1433, 156 Yousaf, Mohammad, 33, 38, 49, 241n17 Yusuf, Abdullahi, 116–117, 124, 154, 260n58, 270n64 Zadran, Maulavi Sardar, 180–181 Zaeef, Abdul Salam, ix, 67–69, 76, 81–84, 87, 91, 147–148, 267n30 zakat, 71, 86, 89–90, 135, 169–170, 248n87, 254n63 Zaman, Haji, 75 Zangawat, Afghanistan, 69 al-Zawahiri, Ayman, 165 Zhawara, Afghanistan, 33–34 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 ...i Jihad & Co ii iii JIHAD & CO Black Markets and Islamist Power z AISHA AHMAD iv Oxford University Press is a department of the... this business- Islamist relationship: first, the business community adopts an Islamist identity to mitigate uncertainty and improve access to markets; second, the business community collectively... terms jihad and “jihadist” to describe these groups and their actions Notably, there is an active debate within academic circles and among Muslim scholars about the meaning and scope of jihad. 15