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Urban Pollution Urban Pollution Science and Management Edited by Susanne M Charlesworth Coventry University Coventry, United Kingdom Colin A Booth University of the West of England Bristol, United Kingdom This edition first published 2019 © 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/ permissions The right of Susanne M Charlesworth and Colin A Booth to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law Registered Office(s) John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial Office 9600 Garsington Road, 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information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation You should consult with a specialist where appropriate Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Charlesworth, Susanne M., editor | Booth, Colin (Colin A.), editor Title: Urban pollution : science and management / edited by Susanne Charlesworth, Colin Booth Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2018 | Includes bibliographical references and index | Identifiers: LCCN 2018014793 (print) | LCCN 2018028469 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119260462 (pdf ) | ISBN 9781119260509 (epub) | ISBN 9781119260486 (cloth) Subjects: LCSH: Urban pollution Classification: LCC TD177 (ebook) | LCC TD177 U73 2018 (print) | DDC 628.509173/2–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018014793 Cover Design: Wiley Cover Image: © Melinda Nagy/Shutterstock Set in 10/12pt WarnockPro by SPi Global, Chennai, India 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 For the future: our children (Ruth, Hugh‚ and Thomas; Esmée, Edryd‚ and Efren), and their children (Rónán, Ella‐Rose, Aidan‚ and Douglas), and their children … vii Contents List of Contributors xvii Insights and Issues into the Impacts of Urban Pollution Colin A Booth and Susanne M Charlesworth 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Examples of Urban Pollution 1.2.1 Air Pollution in London, United Kingdom 1.2.2 Air Pollution in Bhopal, India 1.2.3 Water Pollution in London, United Kingdom 1.2.4 Water Pollution in Minamata, Japan 1.2.5 Soil Pollution in Missouri, United States 1.3 Structure of This Book 1.4 Conclusions References Historical Urban Pollution Ann Power and Annie Worsley 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Historical Pollution Monitoring using Environmental Archives 2.3 Ancient Air Pollution 2.4 Industrial Revolution 10 2.4.1 Case Study: Chemicals in Merseyside, NW England 11 2.5 Twentieth‐Century Urban Pollution 13 2.5.1 Coal Consumption and the Rise of Urban Smog 13 2.5.2 Case Study: London Smog 1952 13 2.5.3 Post‐1950 Urban Pollution – A Complex Signal 15 2.6 Industrial Emissions 16 2.6.1 Metals 16 2.6.2 Persistent Organic Pollutants 17 2.7 Transport 18 2.7.1 Road Transport 18 2.7.2 Air Transport 20 2.8 Conclusions 20 References 20 viii Contents Evolution of Air Quality Policy and Management in Urban Areas 29 Enda Hayes 3.1 Introduction 29 3.2 Sources of Urban Air Pollution 29 3.3 Health Implications of Urban Air Pollution 30 3.4 Historical Context of Air Quality Policy and Management 30 3.4.1 Towards Modern Air Quality Management in Europe 30 3.4.2 Towards Modern Air Quality Management in the United Kingdom 33 3.5 Future Urban Challenges 34 3.5.1 Current Vehicle Emission Factors 34 3.5.2 Vehicle Fleet Dynamics 35 3.5.3 Human Behaviour 35 3.5.4 Environmental Justice 36 3.6 Conclusions 36 References 36 UK and EU Water Policy as an Instrument of Urban Pollution 39 Anne‐Marie McLaughlin, Susanne M Charlesworth, and Stephen J Coupe Acronyms used in This Chapter 39 4.1 Introduction 39 4.2 Determining Water Quality 40 4.3 UK Water Policy 41 4.3.1 The EU Water Framework Directive 41 4.3.2 Drinking Water Standards 42 4.3.3 Regulations to Protect Groundwater 43 4.3.4 Road Run‐Off and the Development of Run‐Off Specific Thresholds 45 4.3.5 Heavily Modified Waterbodies and Artificial Waterbodies 45 4.4 Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS) 46 4.4.1 Run‐Off Destination 46 4.4.1.1 Discharge into the Ground 46 4.4.1.2 Discharge to a Surface Waterbody 47 4.4.1.3 Discharge to a Surface Water Sewer or Local Highway Drain 47 4.4.1.4 Discharge to a Combined Sewer 47 4.4.1.5 Effective Treatment 47 4.4.1.6 Infiltration into the Ground 48 4.4.1.7 Surface Waterbody 48 4.4.2 Rainwater Harvesting 48 4.5 European Policy 49 4.5.1 The Water Framework Directive 49 4.5.2 Drinking Water 51 4.5.3 Groundwater 51 4.5.4 Treatment of Urban Wastewater 51 4.6 The Future 51 4.6.1 Water Quality and Climate Change 52 4.6.2 Potential Impacts of Brexit: Britain’s Exit from the European Union 53 4.7 Conclusions 53 References 54 Contents Soil Quality and Policy 57 J Webb, Jose L Rubio, and Michael A Fullen 5.1 Introduction 57 5.2 Soil Pollutants and Their Sources 57 5.3 Consequences of Urban Soil Pollution 58 5.3.1 Heavy Metals 58 5.3.1.1 Sources 58 5.3.1.2 Characterisation 58 5.3.1.3 Health Risks 58 5.3.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 59 5.3.2.1 Health Risks 59 5.3.3 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) 59 5.3.3.1 Health Risk 59 5.3.4 Dioxins 60 5.3.4.1 Health Risks 60 5.3.5 Platinum Group Elements 60 5.3.6 Rare Earth Elements 60 5.3.7 Particulate Matter 61 5.4 Soils Legislation 61 5.4.1 The European Strategy for Soil Protection 61 5.4.2 EU Legislation Related to Soil Contamination 62 5.4.3 UK Soils Legislation 64 5.4.3.1 Current UK Soils Legislation 64 5.4.3.2 Planning Policy 65 5.5 Conclusions 65 References 66 Ground Gases in Urban Environments – Sources and Solutions 69 Andrew B Shuttleworth 6.1 Introduction 69 6.1.1 Landfill Gas 69 6.1.2 Mine Workings 70 6.1.3 Minor Sources of Ground Gas 71 6.2 The Biochemistry of Ground Gas Production 71 6.2.1 Landfill Gas 71 6.2.2 Natural Materials Producing Ground Gas 72 6.2.3 Radon 72 6.3 Ground Gas Monitoring and Risk Assessment 73 6.3.1 Desk Top Study 73 6.3.2 Intrusive Investigation 73 6.3.2.1 Monitoring Gas in Wells 74 6.3.2.2 Monitoring Instruments 74 6.3.3 Risk Assessment Process 75 6.3.4 Methane and Carbon Dioxide 75 6.3.4.1 Low‐Rise Housing with Ventilated Underfloor Void (Min 150 mm) 75 6.3.4.2 All Other Developments 75 6.5 Other Approaches 76 ix x Contents 6.6 6.6.1 6.6.2 6.6.3 6.7 6.7.1 6.8 Passive Barriers and Subfloor Ventilation 77 The Effect of Development on Ground Gases 77 Primary Receptor Protection – Ventilation Layer 77 Secondary Protection – Low‐Permeability Membranes 79 Practical Examples of Gas Protection Details 79 Quality Assurance, Verification, and Integrity Testing 82 Pathway Interception Systems for Receptor Protection and Control of Historic Sources 82 6.9 Examples of Other Techniques and Solutions: Biodegradation of Gaseous Pollutants 86 6.10 Conclusion 87 References 87 Insights and Issues of Trace Elements Found in Street and Road Dusts 91 Susanne M Charlesworth, Eduardo De Miguel, Almudena Ordóđez, and Colin A. Booth 7.1 Introduction 91 7.2 Sources of Street and Road Dusts 92 7.2.1 Characteristics of Atmospheric Diffuse Sources 92 7.2.2 Point Sources of Particulates and Pollutants to Street and Road Dust 93 7.2.2.1 Sources Associated with Traffic 94 7.2.2.2 Domestic Heating, Coal, and Oil Combustion 95 7.2.2.3 Resuspension of Soil and Street Dust Particles 96 7.2.2.4 Other Urban Sources 97 7.3 House Dust 98 7.4 Urban Soil 99 7.5 Urban Geochemical Cycles 99 7.6 Conclusions 100 References 101 Bioaccessibility of Trace Elements in Urban Environments 107 Eduardo De Miguel, Almudena Ordóđez, Fernando Barrio‐Parra, Miguel Izquierdo‐Díaz, Rodrigo Álvarez, Juan Mingot, and Susanne M Charlesworth 8.1 Introduction 107 8.2 Analytical Protocols 108 8.3 Bioaccessibility and Urban Environments 109 8.3.1 Bioaccessibility in Urban Soil 110 8.3.2 Lung Bioaccessibility 112 8.4 Bioaccessibility and Human Health Risk Assessment 113 8.5 Conclusions 113 References 113 The Necessity for Urban Wastewater Collection, Treatment, and Disposal 119 Colin A Booth, David Oloke, Andrew Gooding, and Susanne M Charlesworth 9.1 Introduction 119 9.2 Wastewater Collection in Developed Countries 120 9.3 Wastewater Treatment and Disposal in Developed Countries 121 9.4 Sludge Treatment and Disposal in Developed Countries 124 9.5 WASH in Developing Countries 125 Contents 9.6 Conclusions 127 References 127 10 Living Green Roofs 131 Sara Wilkinson and Fraser Torpy 10.1 Introduction 131 10.2 Increasing Urbanisation: Urban Growth 131 10.3 Increasing Urbanisation: Soil, Water, and Air Pollution 132 10.3.1 Soil Pollution 132 10.3.2 Water Pollution 133 10.3.3 Air Pollution 134 10.4 Urban Heat Islands and Human Health 135 10.5 Green Roof Options 137 10.6 Case Study: University of Technology, Sydney, Food‐Producing Roof and Urban Pollution 139 10.7 Conclusions and Next Steps 140 References 141 11 Light Pollution 147 Fabio Falchi 11.1 Introduction 147 11.2 Environmental and Health Effects of Light Pollution 149 11.3 How to Reduce Light Pollution 151 11.4 The example of the Italian Regional Laws 153 11.5 Conclusions 155 References 156 12 The Role of Forensic Science in the Investigation and Control of Urban Pollution 161 Kenneth Pye 12.1 Introduction 161 12.2 Types of Urban Pollutants 161 12.3 Stages in the Forensic Investigation of Urban Pollution 165 12.4 Methods Used to Identify Sources of Pollutants 165 12.5 Conclusions 168 References 169 13 River Ecology and Urban Pollution 173 Martin Fenn 13.1 Introduction 173 13.2 History of River Ecology Monitoring 174 13.2.1 Macroinvertebrates 175 13.2.2 Macrophytes 180 13.2.3 Diatoms 181 13.2.4 Fish 181 13.3 Success Stories 184 13.3.1 Case Study: Love Your Rivers Telford 184 13.3.2 River Wandle, South West London 184 13.4 Conclusions 185 References 185 xi xii Contents 14 Urban Meadows on Brownfield Land 187 Lynn Besenyei 14.1 Introduction 187 14.2 Creating Flower‐Rich Meadows 189 14.3 Brownfield Soils for Meadow Creation 192 14.4 Management of Created Meadows 193 14.5 Opportunities for Urban Meadow Creation 195 14.6 Conclusions 196 References 196 15 Urban Pollution and Ecosystem Services 199 Rebecca Wade 15.1 Introduction 199 15.2 Ecosystem Services (ES), the Ecosystem Approach, and Ecosystem Service Valuation 199 15.3 Urban Impacts on ES 201 15.4 ES and Urban Pollution in the UK Legislative Context 202 15.5 Enhancing Urban ES to Mitigate Urban Pollution 203 15.6 Conclusions 206 References 207 16 Greywater Recycling and Reuse 211 Katherine Hyde and Matthew Smith 16.1 Introduction 211 16.2 The Ubiquitous Nature of Pollutants in Wastewater from Baths, Showers, and Handbasins 211 16.3 The Quality of Untreated Greywater and Its Water Resource Value 212 16.4 Greywater Terminologies Used in this Chapter 213 16.5 Pollutants in Untreated Greywater 213 16.6 Standardising Greywater Treatment Systems: Removing and Minimising Pollutant Concentrations 214 16.7 Managing the Environmental Characteristics, Applications, and Urban Uses of Treated Greywater 216 16.8 University of Reading’s 2016 Experimental Irrigation of Sedum using Treated Greywater 217 16.9 Soil Results Evaluated during Irrigation using Greywater Constituents 218 16.10 Applying the Principles of Controlled Waters to Greywater Discharges for Sustaining Green Infrastructure 218 16.11 Concluding Comments and Review 220 Acknowledgements 220 References 220 17 Containment of Pollution from Urban Waste Disposal Sites 223 Isaac I Akinwumi, Colin A Booth, Oluwapelumi O Ojuri, Adebanji S Ogbiye, and Akinwale O Coker 17.1 Introduction 223 17.2 Generation of Waste Worldwide 224 17.3 Waste Management Issues 224 17.3.1 Sorting, Collection, Reuse, and Recycling 224 Index PRBs and 268–270 in situ plume treatment 262–264 techniques 262 inputs, environmental archives 9 landfill monitoring 227–228 Massachusetts environmental clean‐up programme standards 314, 319–320 pollution 161, 162, 388–389 protection regulations EU 51 UK 43–45 RAD 267–268 Groundwater Directive, UK 44–45 Groundwater Regulations, UK 43–44 h Handbasins, greywater 211–212 Harvard University 318 Hazardous waste landfills 227 HCB See Hexachlorobenzene HCBD See Hexachlorobutadiene HCH See Hexachlorocyclo hexane Health See Human health Heating, domestic 95–96 Heatwaves 136–137 Heavily modified waterbodies, UK policy 45–46 Heavy metals Litani River Basin, Lebanon levels 407–408 soil pollution characterisation 58 China case study 335–336 health risks 58–59 lead 59 sources 58 zeolites removing 249–250 Hematite 374–378 Heracleum sphondylium (hogweed) 194 Hertfordshire Oil Storage Limited (HOSL) 299 HEV See Hydro‐Ecological Validation Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) 50 Hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) 50 Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) 349 Hexadecyltrimethyl ammonium 249 Hg See Mercury High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) 167 Historical urban pollution air pollution Great Acceleration 15–16 Great Smog of London 1952 3, 13–15, 33 Industrial Revolution 10–12, 30 twentieth‐century 13–16 environmental archives monitoring 8 industrial emissions metals 16–17 POPs 17–18 overview 7–8 transport air 20 road 18–19 Hogweed (Heracleum sphondylium) 194 HOSL See Hertfordshire Oil Storage Limited Housing and Urban Development (HUD) 319 HPLC See High performance liquid chromatography HRCs See Hydrogen release compounds HUD See Housing and Urban Development Human behaviour, air quality policy and management factor 35 Human health See also Deaths air pollution impacts on 30, 203, 303 ES values 200 heatwave effects 136–137 light pollution effects 149–151 noise pollution 350 risk assessments, bioaccessibility of trace elements 112 social cohesion and community impact 137 urban heat islands and 135–137 Hungary See Budapest, Hungary, case study Hydro‐Ecological Validation (HEV) 178–180 Hydrogen release compounds (HRCs) 267–268 Hygiene See Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) HZSM‐5 zeolite 250 i IAP See Indoor air pollution IASs See Inorganic ash spheres IBM See Inhalation Bioaccessibility Method Ice sheet inputs, environmental archives 9 ICTs See Information Communication Technologies 431 432 Index Igeo (geoaccumulation index) 96 Illegal dumping 165–166 in situ solidification (ISS) 323–324 Incineration ashes, MSW 239–240 India sustainability of cities 341, 342 urban pollution air pollution 3, 297– 298, 342–344, 346–348 case studies 342–345 issues 341–342 marine debris 349–350 noise pollution 350 POPs 342, 349 reduction techniques 350–351 soil pollution 345 urban heat island effect 343 urban wastewater pollution 345–346 vehicle emissions 347–348 waste disposal 345–346 water pollution 342– 343, 348–350 urbanisation 341, 419 Individual particle properties, forensic science 166, 167 Indoor air pollution (IAP) 351 Industrial chimney emissions 164 Industrial emissions, historical metals 16–17 POPs 17–18 Industrial Revolution air pollution 10–12, 30 Alkali Acts of 1863 12 chemicals in Merseyside, NW England 11–13 coal smoke 11, 12 Inert waste landfills 227 Infiltration gallery 281 Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) 304 Infra‐red spectroscopy (IRS) 167 Infrastructure maintenance 235–236 Inhalation bioaccessibility 106, 111–112 Inhalation Bioaccessibility Method (IBM) 107–108 Inner Protection Zone (SPZ1) 44 INNS See Invasive non‐native species Inorganic ash spheres (IASs) 10, 11 Institute of Freshwater Ecology 177 Insurance values, for ES 200 Integrated pollution index (IPI) 97 Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Directive (IPPC) 44, 63 Integrity testing, gas protection 82 Intermediate‐volatility organic compounds (IVOCs) 335 Interpol Environmental Crime Committee 166 Intrusive investigation, ground gas monitoring 73–75 Invasive non‐native species (INNS) 173–174 IPI See Integrated pollution index IPPC See Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Directive IRMS See Isotope ratio mass spectrometry Iron oxides (Fe oxides) 375, 376, 379 Irrigation, greywater uses 211, 215–217 IRS See Infra‐red spectroscopy ISO 14001 system 294–295 Isolated pile cap sealing 79–80 Isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) 167 ISS See In situ solidification ISTIL (Light Pollution Science and Technology Institute) 151 Italy, regional light pollution laws 153–155 i‐Tree software 306 IVOCs See Intermediate‐ volatility organic compounds k Kabwe, Zambia l La Oroya, Peru Laboratory analysis stage, in forensic science 165 Lake inputs, environmental archives 9 Landfarming 282–283 Landfill Directive, EC 63–64 Landfills capping 228, 229 containment 227–230 EA permits 228 engineered 226 gas biochemistry 71–72 features 69–70 phases of generation 71 waste decomposition factors 72 hazardous waste 227 inert waste 227 leakage 162 liners 228–230 monitoring 227–228 non‐hazardous waste 227 odour control 227 sanitary 226 waste disposal 226–228 Index LAS See Linear alkylbenzene sulphonate Las Vegas, Nevada, light pollution 151, 152 Lawton, John 195 Leachate level monitoring, landfills 227–228 Leaches 176 Lead (Pb) 8, 9, 346, 374–376, 378–379 current classification 19 road transport‐ derived 18–19 soil pollution, health risks 59 in street and road dusts 91–92, 94 Lebanon 418 climate and seasons 398 climate change impact 399–400 geo‐morphological regions 397–398 Litani River Basin case study current management efforts and strategies 409 development 403 heavy metal levels 407–408 urbanisation and water pollution trends 404–408 water pollution impact and mitigation 408–409 water quality 406–408 wildlife 408 NERP 401–402 Syrian refugees 399 urban wastewater management 401– 402 urbanisation and population growth 397, 400–401, 404–408 water quality 402–403 water resources and management 398– 400 Lebanon Environmental Pollution Abatement Program (LEPAP) 409 Leblanc process 11, 12 LEDs (light emitting diodes) 150–152 Legislation chemical management 297 ES and urban pollution in UK 202–203 EU air quality policy and management 30–34 green roofs 131 light pollution challenges 147–148 Italian regional 153–155 soil pollution EU 61–64 UK 64–65 solid substrates bioremediation 277 UK air pollution 19 UK air quality policy and management 29, 32–34 urban meadows on brownfield sites 196 urban wastewater 164 water policy 40 Leisure, rivers for 174 LEPAP See Lebanon Environmental Pollution Abatement Program Leucanthemum vulgare (ox‐eye daisy) 187 Licensed site professionals (LSPs) 313–314, 320, 322, 417 LIFE See Lotic‐invertebrate Index for Flow Evaluation Light emitting diodes (LEDs) 150–152 Light Non‐Aqueous Phase Liquid (LNAPL) 263– 264, 323 Light pollution ALAN 147–151 CCT 152–153 circadian disruption/sleep disorders from 150 environmental impact 149–151 G20 countries 148, 149 human health impacts 149–151 intensity 150 Las Vegas, Nevada 151, 152 LEDs 150–152 legislation challenges 147–148 Italian regional 153–155 mitigation strategies 151–153 negative consequences 147, 153 night sky light comparison 147 short‐wavelength light emission 152 sources 148–149 spectrum 150 Light Pollution Science and Technology Institute (ISTIL) 151 Limestone fines, cement replacement 237–238 Limiting safe mixture (LSM) 72 Lindane 250 Linear alkylbenzene sulphonate (LAS) 216 Linfen, China Litani River Basin, Lebanon case study current management efforts and strategies 409 development 403 heavy metal levels 407–408 433 434 Index Litani River Basin, Lebanon case study (Contd.) urbanisation and water pollution trends 404–408 water pollution impact and mitigation 408–409 water quality 406–408 wildlife 408 Livestock grazing, urban meadows on brownfield sites 194 LNAPL See Light Non‐ Aqueous Phase Liquid Local highway drainage discharge, SuDS 47 London, UK air pollution 2–3 Great Smog of London 1952, 3, 13–15, 33 water pollution 3–4 Los Angeles, California, photochemical smog 15 Loscoe, Derbyshire, UK, methane explosion 70 Lotic‐invertebrate Index for Flow Evaluation (LIFE) 178–180 Love Canal disaster 297 Love Your Rivers, Telford case study 184 Low‐permeability gas barriers 79 LSM See Limiting safe mixture LSPs See Licensed site professionals Lung bioaccessibility 111–112 m MA See Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Macroinvertebrates, river ecological monitoring 175–180 Macrophytes, river ecological monitoring 175, 180–181 Magnesium peroxide 266 Magnetite 374–379 Marine debris, India 349–350 Marsh gas 69 Massachusetts Contingency Plan (MCP) 313–315 Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection (MassDEP) 313–316 Massachusetts environmental clean‐up programme amendments 313–314 brownfields tax credits 315, 319–321, 417 case studies affordable housing, Boston 318–321 East End Veteran’s Memorial Park, Peabody 315–318 Thomas J Butler Freight Corridor and Memorial Park, Boston 321–324 creation 313 groundwater standards 314, 319–320 LSPs and privatised system 313–314, 320, 322, 417 risk‐based approach 314–315 MassHousing 321 Mayflies (Ephemeroptera) 176 MCP See Massachusetts Contingency Plan MDGs See Millennium Development Goals Meadows See Urban meadows Mean Trophic Rank (MTR) scoring system 180 Melbourne, Australia 136–137 Mercury (Hg) 50, 336, 346 Merseyside, NW England, Industrial Revolution chemicals in 11–12 Mesh grass cap 317–318 MESSAGE Project 304 Metakaolin, cement replacement 237 Metals 10 See also Heavy metals global emissions 16–17 historical emissions 16–17 inhalation exposure 16 soil pollution 133 TSP enrichments 375–377 TSP metal‐bearing phases 377–379 UD enrichments 373–374 UD metal‐bearing phases 375, 376 Methane (CH4) 69 Loscoe, Derbyshire, UK, explosion 70 LSM of CO2 and 72 site monitoring 76 Methanogenesis 260 Methyl isocyanate (MIC) 297–298 Microscopy 166 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 36, 387, 419 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) 199 Minamata, Japan Minamata disease Mine gas 70–71 Mineral landfill liners 229 Missouri, United States Mo See Molybdenum Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) 334 Molybdenum (Mo) 346 Monitored natural attenuation 262 Index Moon illumination levels 147, 149 Mordenite 251 MPE system See Multi‐phase extraction system MSW See Municipal solid waste MTR scoring system See Mean Trophic Rank scoring system Multi‐phase extraction (MPE) system 323 Municipal solid waste (MSW) 222–223 See also Waste China 332–333 incineration ashes 239–240 n National Brownfield Strategy, England 195 National Coal Board (NCB) 70 National Council for the Environment (CONAMA), Brazil 357–359 National Emergency Reconstruction Program (NERP), Lebanon 401–402 National Emissions Ceiling Directive, EU 31 National Nature Reserves (NNRs) 187 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 349–350 National Pollinator Strategy 192 National vehicle fleet turnover 35 Native species planting, urban meadows 188 Natural air pollution 30 Natural Environment White Paper 42 Natural gas emanation 69 NCB See National Coal Board NEPs See New and emerging pollutants NERP See National Emergency Reconstruction Program, Lebanon New and emerging pollutants (NEPs) 51, 361, 364 New particle formation (NPF) 330–331 Nickel (Ni) 346 NIFP See Non‐image‐forming photoreceptor Nigeria 222, 224, 225 Nitrate 260, 266 Nitrates Directive, UK 45 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 11, 305, 307, 334 Nitrogen oxide (NOX) 64, 164, 328–330, 347, 348 NNRs See National Nature Reserves NO2 See Nitrogen dioxide NOAA See National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Noise pollution 350, 386, 389 Non‐hazardous waste landfills 227 Non‐image‐forming photoreceptor (NIFP) 150 Norilsk, Russia NOX See Nitrogen oxide NPF See New particle formation Nuclear clean‐up, zeolite uses 251–252 o OA See Organic aerosol OCPs See Organochlorine pesticides Odour control landfills 227 urban animal housing 86–87 OECD See Organisation for Economic Co‐operation and Development Oil combustion, street and road dust particulate source 95–96 Oil spills 299–300 Olusosun dumpsite 226, 227 Olympic Games, Beijing, China 333–336 Ombrotrophic peat bog inputs, environmental archives 9 OMI See Ozone Monitoring Instrument Open Air Laboratories (OPAL) surveys 307 Open dumps 225, 226 Optical microscopy 166 Orchis morio (green‐winged orchid) 189, 194 ORCs See Oxygen releasing compounds Organic aerosol (OA) 334–335 Organic clean‐up, zeolite uses 252 Organisation for Economic Co‐operation and Development (OECD) 222 Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) 10, 17, 336 Outer Protection Zone (SPZ2) 44 Ox‐eye daisy (Leucanthemum vulgare) 187 Oxygen releasing compounds (ORCs) 265–266 Ozone (O3) 32, 134–135, 265–266, 307 Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) 328 p PAHs See Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Paper industry waste construction materials 240–241 435 436 Index PAPs See Particulate associated pollutants Paraná state, Brazil 360–362, 364–365 Participatory monitoring 302 See also Citizen science Particulate associated pollutants (PAPs) 40, 98–99 Particulate matter (PM) 7, 19 China levels 329–331 soil pollution 61 total suspended 348 creation 371 geochemical and mineralogical analyses 372–373 metal enrichments 375–377 metal‐bearing phases 377–379 phase composition 377 sampling 372 Passive bioventing 278, 279 Pathway interception systems, ground gases advantages 82–83 cut‐off trenches 83, 84 design considerations 83 Virtual Curtain system 84–86, 278, 279 Pb See Lead PCA See Principal component analysis PCBs See Polychlorinated biphenyls PCPs See Personal care products Peabody, Massachusetts 315–318 Peat bog inputs, environmental archives 9 Permavoid boxes 281 Permeable reactive barriers (PRBs) 262, 268–270 Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) 10, 15, 332 historical emissions 17–18 India 342, 349 regional use 18 restricted use 18 types 17 Personal care products (PCPs) 51–52, 214–215 Pervious paving systems (PPSs) 46 Pesticides, zeolites removing 250 Petromyzon marinus (sea lamprey) 181 PGEs See Platinum group elements pH measurements, greywater 212, 215–217 Phillipsite 251 Phosphorus 260, 360 Photochemical smog, Los Angeles 15 Photosynthesis 1 Phytobenthos, river ecological monitoring 175, 181, 182 Phytoremediation 277 PI See Pollution index Pictorial meadows 187–188 Planning Policy Statements (PPSs) 65 Plant leaf sodium concentrations, treated greywater impact 217, 218 Plants citizen science biomonitoring 305– 306 green air pollution reduction 203–204 citizen science biomonitoring 305–306 pollution 1 sodium concentrations 217 Platinum group elements (PGEs) 40, 60 Plecoptera (stoneflies) 176 PM See Particulate matter PMF See Positive matrix factorisation Point pollutants, diffuse pollutants compared to 161–162 Pollinators, urban meadows on brownfield sites 194–195 Pollution, definition 147 See also Urban pollution Pollution Crime Forensic Investigation Manual 166 Pollution index (PI) 97 Pollution Prevention Control (PPC) permit 227 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 10, 18, 59–60, 267 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) 10, 15, 17, 59, 356, 364 POPs See Persistent organic pollutants Population growth global trends 417, 418 Lebanon 397, 400–401, 404–408 resource demands and 34 urban pollution and 1–2, 235, 327 urbanisation increasing with 131–132, 327, 397, 400–401 Porous pavement cap 316, 317 Positive matrix factorisation (PMF) 334 POSTnote 376 203 Potentially toxic elements (PTEs) 58, 372 PPC See Pollution Prevention Control permit Index PPSs See Pervious paving systems; Planning Policy Statements PRBs See Permeable reactive barriers Prepared bed systems See also Bioremediation landfarming 282–283 turned windrows 283–285 ventilated biopiles 285, 286 Primary air pollution 29 Primula veris (cowslips) 190 Princes Street Gardens, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK 202 Principal component analysis (PCA) 334 Priority Substances Directive of 2013, UK 44–45 Proportion of Sediment‐ sensitive Invertebrates (PSI) index 178, 179 PSI index See Proportion of Sediment‐sensitive Invertebrates index PTEs See Potentially toxic elements Public Health Act of 1926, UK 13 q QRVs See Quality reference values Quality assurance, gas protection 82 Quality reference values (QRVs) 358, 359 Quantitative electron microprobe analysis 166 r RAD See Reductive anaerobic degradation Radioactive nuclides 10 Radon 69, 72–73 Rainwater harvesting, SuDS 48–49 Rammed earth blocks 241 Rare earth elements (REEs) 60 RBMPs See River Basin Management Plans Recycled construction materials 235–236 Reductive anaerobic degradation (RAD) 267–268 REEs See Rare earth elements Reference Dose (RfD) 112 Report of the Royal Commission of Environmental Pollution, UK 177 Resource demands, population growth and 34 Reuse and recycling, waste 223–225 RfD See Reference Dose Rhinanthus minor (yellow rattle) 191 RICT See River Invertebrate Classification Tool Rio Grande Sul state, Brazil environmental study 362–363 Risk assessments Brazil water pollution 359 greywater 219 ground gases 75, 76 human health, bioaccessibility of trace elements and 112 River Basin Management Plans (RBMPs) 41, 42, 45, 49 River Invertebrate Classification Tool (RICT) 177–178 River InVertebrate Prediction and Classification System (RIVPACS) 177 River Macrophyte Nutrient Index (RMNI) 180–181 River Severn, EA fish study 181–183 River Wandle, South West London, case study 184–185 Rivers ecological monitoring biotic indices 176–180 BMWP index 176–179 case studies 184–185 chemical sampling 174 diatoms/ phytobenthos 175, 181, 182 DQI 181, 182 EQSD 184 fish 175, 181–184 GQA 177 HEV 178–180 history of 174–184 LIFE 178–180 macroinvertebrates 175–180 macrophytes 175, 180–181 MTR scoring system 180 PSI index 178, 179 RICT 177–178 RMNI 180–181 self‐purification process 175–176, 420 TDI 181 Trent Biotic Index 176 WHPT score 178 human exploitation leisure 174 physical alteration 174 supply 173 transport 173–174 waste disposal 173 natural benefits 185 UK policy standards 45, 46 RIVPACS See River InVertebrate Prediction and Classification System RMNI See River Macrophyte Nutrient Index Road run‐off, UK 45 437 438 Index Road transport, historical urban pollution 18–19 See also Vehicle emissions Rosebay willowherb (Chamerion angustifolium) 192 RSTs See Run‐off specific thresholds Rubber tyres, recycling 236 Run‐off destination standards, SuDS combined sewer discharge 47 effective treatment 47 ground discharge 46–47 ground infiltration 48 surface water sewer, local highway drain discharge 47 surface waterbody discharge 47 surface waterbody treatment 48 Run‐off specific thresholds (RSTs) 45 s Sanitary landfills 226 Sanitation See Water, sanitation, and hygiene São Paulo, Brazil 201, 363–364 Saprobien system 176 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 166, 373 SCC See Self‐compacting concrete Scotland 202, 203 Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) 227, 228 SCP See Sustainable Cities Programmes SCPs See Spheroidal carbonaceous particles SCV See Species Cover Value SDGs See Sustainable Development Goals Sea Empress oil spill 299 Sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) 181 Secondary air pollution 30 Sediment pollution, Brazil 356, 362–365 Sediment quality assessment, Brazil 358–359 Sediment quality guidelines (SQGs) 358–359 Sedimentary archives 7, Sedimentation, PSI index 178, 179 Sedum, treated greywater experimental irrigation 216–217 Self‐compacting concrete (SCC) 242 Self‐purification process, rivers 175–176, 420 SEM See Scanning electron microscopy Semi‐controlled dumps 225–226 Semi‐natural meadows See Urban meadows SEPA See Scottish Environment Protection Agency Sewage Sludge Directive 63 Sewage treatment developed countries effluent discharge stage 123–124 inlet stage 121 plant design/layout 121 primary stage 122–123 screening stage 121–122 secondary stage 123 tertiary stage 124 developing countries 120 SF See Slope Factor SFD See Soil Framework Directive SGV Soil Guideline Values Shelled compressed earth blocks 241 Short‐wavelength light emission 152 Showers, greywater 211–212 Significant possibility of significant harm (SPOSH) 65 Silent Spring (Carson) 17 Silica fume, cement replacement 237 Silver (Ag) 8, 99, 254 Simple landfill liners 228 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) 214 Sleep disorders, light pollution causing 150 Slope Factor (SF) 112 Slow release drugs, zeolites as agents 254 Sludge treatment and disposal, developed countries 124–125 Slurping 264 Slurry phase reactors 287–288 Small‐and medium‐sized enterprises (SMEs) 293–296 Smectite 374, 376 Smelter waste deposits 63 SMEs See Small‐and medium‐ sized enterprises Smog coal consumption and rise of 13–16 Great Smog of London 1952, 3, 13–15, 33 photochemical, Los Angeles 15 Snow, John 3, 119 SO2 See Sulphur dioxide Social cohesion and community, human health effects 137 Sociocultural values, ES 200 Sodium concentrations, plant leaf 217, 218 Soil Framework Directive (SFD) 61–62 Index Soil investigation, forensic 167–168 Soil pollution 1, 161, 162 Ag 99 bioaccessibility of trace elements 108–111 Brazil trace element QRVs 358, 359 brownfields 63 China 332, 335–336 dioxins 60 green roofs mitigating 133, 135 heavy metals characterisation 58 China case study 335–336 health risks 58–59 lead 59 sources 58 India 345 legislation EU 61–64 UK 64–65 metal contamination 133 Missouri, United States PAHs 59 PCBs 59–60 PGEs 60 PM 61 REEs 60 sources 57 street and road dusts 98 urbanisation causing 132– 133, 135 vehicle emissions causing 132–133 Soil quality and policy 57–66 Soil Thematic Strategy (STS) 61–62 Solid substrates bioremediation ex situ infrastructure requirements 286–287 landfarming 282–283 legislation challenges 277 monitoring 277 slurry phase reactors 287–288 turned windrows 283–285 ventilated biopiles 285, 286 in situ bioventing 278–280 enhanced in situ 280–282 landfarming 282 legislation challenges 277 monitoring 277 Soot 15, 377 Source, Pathway, Receptor model, gas protection systems 82 Source Catchment Protection Zone (SPZ3) 44 Species Cover Value (SCV) 180 Spheroidal carbonaceous particles (SCPs) 10, 11, 15 Sponge City initiative, China 337, 419 SPOSH See Significant possibility of significant harm Spotted orchid (Dactylorrhizafuchsii) 194 Spray irrigation 281 SPZ1 (Inner Protection Zone) 44 SPZ2 (Outer Protection Zone) 44 SPZ3 (Source Catchment Protection Zone) 44 SQGs See Sediment quality guidelines SSA See Sub‐Saharan Africa SSSIs See Sites of Special Scientific Interest Stakeholder education, urban pollution 391–392 Standards, water policy 40 Starlight Initiative 151 Stoneflies (Plecoptera) 176 Street and road dusts Cd 94–95 Cu 94–95 diffuse sources of particulates 92–93 PAPs 98–99 particulate sources 92–98 Pb 91–92, 94 point sources of particulates domestic heating, coal, oil combustion 95–96 other urban sources 97–98 resuspension 96–97 trace element concentrations 93, 94, 96 vehicle emissions 94–95 soil pollution 98 urban geochemical cycles 98–99 weather impact 93 Zn 94–95 Street level urban pollution 204 STS See Soil Thematic Strategy Sub‐Saharan Africa (SSA) air pollution causes of increasing 387 cost 385 studies 386–387 drinking water challenges 387 noise pollution 389 urban planning 389–392 urban pollution 386–389 visual pollution 389 water pollution 387–389 SuDS See Sustainable Drainage Systems Sukinda, India Sulphate 260, 267 Sulphide 260, 267 Sulphur dioxide (SO2) 11, 164, 328–330 Sulphur isotope analysis 168, 169 439 440 Index Sumgayit, Azerbaijan Surface water monitoring, landfills 227–228 Surface water pollution 161, 162 Surface water sewer discharge, SuDS 47 Surface waterbody, SuDS 47, 48 Suspended particulate matter See Total suspended particulate matter Sustainable Cities Programmes (SCP) 392 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 36, 119, 385, 387, 419–420 air quality targets 389, 390 Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS) ES provision 206 rainwater harvesting 48–49 run‐off destination standards combined sewer discharge 47 effective treatment 47 ground discharge 46–47 ground infiltration 48 surface water sewer, local highway drain discharge 47 surface waterbody discharge 47 surface waterbody treatment 48 Synthetic landfill liners 229 Syrian refugees, Lebanon 399 t Tax credits 315, 319–321, 417 TCB See The Community Builders Inc TCE See Trichloroethylene TDI See Trophic Diatom Index TDS See Total dissolved solids TEM See Transmission electron microscopy Temperature climate change increasing 135 green roofs reducing 137 human health and heatwave 136–137 landfarming problems 283 trees reducing 203 ventilated biopiles and 285 Tesla, Nikola 297 Thames Water, fines 164 The Community Builders Inc (TCB) 318–321 Thematic Strategy on Air Pollution, EU 31 Thistle (Cirsium spp.) 192 Thomas J Butler Freight Corridor and Memorial Park, Boston 321–324 Tianying, China Timber, recycling 236 TOC See Total organic carbon Top soil cap 317 Total dissolved solids (TDS) 350 Total organic carbon (TOC) 77 Total suspended particulate matter (TSP) 348 creation 371 geochemical and mineralogical analyses 372–373 metal enrichments 375–377 metal‐bearing phases 377–379 phase composition 377 sampling 372 Total suspended solids (TSS) 40 Trace elements 332 bioaccessibility 106–112, 418 Brazil soil pollution QRVs 358, 359 street and road dusts particulate concentrations 93, 94 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) 372, 375–379 Transport See also Vehicle emissions historical urban pollution air 20 road 18–19 river 173 zeolites for 250–251 Trees air quality improvements 204 citizen science research 306 temperature reduction 203 Trench and gate PRB system 268, 269 Trent Biotic Index 176 Trianon Park, São Paulo, Brazil 201 Trichloroethylene (TCE) 319–321 Trophic Diatom Index (TDI) 181 TSP See Total suspended particulate matter TSS See Total suspended solids Tubificid worms 175 Turned windrows 283–285 Twaite shad (Alosa fallax) 181 u UBM (Unified BARGE Method) 107 UD See Urban dust UK See United Kingdom UK EA See United Kingdom Environment Agency UK National Ecosystem Assessment (UK NEA) 199–201 UK Technical Advisory Group (UKTAG) 40 Index Ukraine 2, 299 Unified BARGE Method (UBM) 107 Union Carbide Factory disaster, Bhopal 3, 297–298 United Kingdom (UK) See also Environment Agency air pollution legislation 19 air quality policy and management objectives and legislation 29, 32–34 Alkali Acts of 1863 12 Anaerobic Digestion Strategy and Action Plan 125 BAP 192 Beaver Committee 1953, 33 biotic indices development 176–177 CEAC 64 Clean Air Act of 1956 13, 30, 33 Clean Air Zones 34 Control of Pollution Act 1974 41 DEFRA 64, 162, 203 Environmental Act of 1995 33–34 ES and urban pollution legislation 202–203 fly‐tipping incidents in 162, 163 Industrial Revolution chemicals in Merseyside, NW England 11–12 London air pollution 2–3 Great Smog of London 1952, 3, 13–15, 33 water pollution 3–4 Loscoe, Derbyshire, methane explosion 70 Princes Street Gardens, Edinburgh, Scotland 202 Public Health Act of 1926 13 Report of the Royal Commission of Environmental Pollution 177 road transportation historical trends 18–19 soil pollution legislation 64–65 water policy 41–46 Brexit potential impact 53 chemical parameters 43 country status 42 drinking water 42–43 groundwater protection regulations 43–45 heavily modified waterbodies and artificial waterbodies 45–46 regulation and regulators 43–45 river standards 45, 46 road run‐off and RSTs 45 WFD 41–42 United Kingdom Environment Agency (UK EA) 40 University of Reading, irrigation of sedum with greywater experiment 216–217 University of Technology, Sydney (UTS) 139–140 Urban animal housing, odour control 86–87 Urban dust (UD) creation 371 geochemical and mineralogical analyses 372–373 metal enrichments 373–374 metal‐bearing phases 375, 376 phase composition 374–375 sampling 372 Urban gardens 108, 110 See also Green roofs Urban geochemical cycles, street and road dusts 98–99 Urban heat island effect 131 factors 135 human health and 135–137 India 343 Urban meadows brownfield sites benefits 188, 420 biodiversity 189, 191, 192 creation opportunities 195– 196 cutting 194 flower‐rich 189–192 growth expectations 194 legislation 196 livestock grazing 194 management 193–195 pollinators 194–195 soils 192–193 successful examples 188–189 lost meadows replacement 187 native species planting 188 pictorial 187–188 Urban morphology, urban pollution impact 389–391 Urban planning climate context 392 land and resource allocation 385–386 SDG air quality targets 389, 390 SSA 389–392 urban pollution mitigation 391–392 441 442 Index Urban playgrounds 108–110, 418 Urban pollution See also specific types China acid rain 328 air pollution 327–331, 333–335 case studies 333–336 NPF 330–331 population growth and urbanisation increasing 327 soil pollution 332, 335–336 vehicle emissions 329 waste production, disposal, management 332– 333 cities with most construction materials innovation mitigating 235–243 deaths 2 definition 1, 386 developing countries 418–419 diffuse compared to point sources 161–162 ES enhancements mitigating 203–206 examples 2–4 forensic science investigation and control 161–169 future trends 421 historical 7–20, 30, 33 India air pollution 3, 297– 298, 342–344, 346–348 case studies 342–345 issues 341–342 marine debris 349–350 noise pollution 350 POPs 342, 349 reduction techniques 350–351 soil pollution 345 urban heat island effect 343 urban wastewater pollution 345–346 waste disposal 345–346 water pollution 342– 343, 348–350 population growth and 1–2, 235, 327 SSA 386–389 stakeholder education 391–392 street level 204 types 161–164 UK legislation on ES 202–203 urban morphology impact 389–391 urban planning mitigating 391–392 Urban soils See Soil pollution Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive (UWWTD) 51, 52, 63, 180 Urban wastewater See also Greywater BOD 120, 121 cholera outbreak 119–120 deaths 119 EU treatment policy 51, 52 India 345–346 legislation 164 management 2 developed countries treatment and disposal 121–124 developing countries collection 119, 120 importance 120 Lebanon 401–402 sludge treatment and disposal, developed countries 124–125 treatment effluent discharge stage 123–124 inlet stage 121 plant design/layout 121 primary stage 122–123 screening stage 121–122 secondary stage 123 tertiary stage 124 zeolite uses 251 WASH in developing countries 120, 125–127 Urbanisation air pollution from 134–135 Brazil 356 China 419 economic growth 132 ES impact 201–202 global trends 417, 418 India 341, 419 Lebanon 397, 400–401, 404–408 population growth increasing with 131– 132, 327, 397, 400–401 soil pollution from 132– 133, 135 water pollution from 133–135 Urtica dioica (common nettle) 192 UTS See University of Technology, Sydney UWWTD See Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive v Vanadium (Va) 346 Vapi, India Vapour mitigation systems 319–321 Vehicle emissions China 329 current factors 34–35 historical trends 18–19 India 347–348 national vehicle fleet turnover 35 soil pollution from 132–133 Index street and road dusts 94–95 types 164 Vent trenches 83 Ventilated biopiles 285, 286 Ventilation systems, ground gases 77–79 Verification, gas protection 82 Vermiculture 277 Virtual Curtain system 84–86, 278, 279 Visual pollution 386, 389 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) 164, 279, 280, 329, 335 Volunteer biological monitoring 302 See also Citizen science Vulnerably compliant SMEs 295 w WAC See Waste Acceptance Classification Wales 203 Walley Hawkes Paisley Trigg (WHPT) score 178 Wandle Trust 185 WASH See Water, sanitation, and hygiene Waste developed countries generation 223, 224 disposal China 332–333 controlled dumps 226, 227 costs of improper 223, 228 developing countries 222–223, 225–227 India 345–346 landfills 226–230 open dumps 225, 226 semi‐controlled dumps 225–226 diversion techniques 222 global generation 223, 224 hierarchy 222 incineration ashes 239–240 management China 332–333 developing countries 222–223, 225–227 disposal 225–228 importance 222 sorting, collection, reuse, recycling 223–225 Waste Acceptance Classification (WAC) 77 Waste Carrier licence, EA 165 Waste clay, innovations 238–239 Waste disposal, rivers for 173 Waste foundry sand, recycling 236 Waste glass, recycling 236 Waste paper sludge construction materials 240–241 Waste rubber tyres, recycling 236 Waste timber, recycling 236 Wastewater See Urban wastewater Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) 405–406 Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) 120, 125–127 Water Framework Directive (WFD) 40–42, 49–51, 177–178, 203 Water hog‐louse (Asellus aquaticus) 176 Water policy See also Sustainable Drainage Systems EU Brexit potential impact 53 drinking water 51 groundwater protection regulations 51 urban wastewater treatment 51, 52 WFD 40–42, 49–51, 177–178, 203 frameworks 39, 40 future 51 Brexit potential impact 53 climate change and water quality 52–53 guidelines 40, 41 legislation 40 regulation 40 EU 51 UK 43–45 standards 40 SuDS 46–49 UK 41–46 Brexit potential impact 53 chemical parameters 43 country status 42 drinking water 42–43 groundwater protection regulations 43–45 heavily modified waterbodies and artificial waterbodies 45–46 regulation and regulators 43–45 river standards 45, 46 road run‐off and RSTs 45 WFD 41–42 Water pollution See also Greywater; Urban wastewater Brazil CONAMA regulations 357–359 Curitiba, Paraná case study 364–365 ecological risk assessment approaches 359 443 444 Index Water pollution Brazil (Contd.) Paraná state environmental study 360–362 Rio Grande Sul state environmental study 362–363 São Paulo state environmental study 363–364 sources 356–357 Camelford incident 298–299 deaths 2–4 ES mitigating 205–206, 420 green roofs mitigating 133–135 groundwater 161, 162 India 342–343, 348–350 Litani River Basin, Lebanon impact and mitigation of 408–409 London, UK 3–4 marine debris 349–350 Minamata, Japan NEPs 361, 364 sources 386 SSA 387–389 surface 161, 162 urbanisation causing 133–135 Water quality bioavailability 40 climate change impact 52–53 determining 40–41 Lebanon 402–403 Litani River Basin case study 406–408 Water Resources Act of 1991, UK 41, 43 Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations, UK 42–43 Weirs, fish 181 Wells, gas monitoring in 74 WFD See Water Framework Directive WHO See World Health Organization WHPT score See Walley Hawkes Paisley Trigg Wildlife, Litani River Basin, Lebanon 408 World Bank 401, 402, 409 World Health Organization (WHO) 30, 31, 41, 350, 385 WWTPs See Wastewater treatment plants x X‐ray chemical microanalysis 166 X‐ray powder diffractometry (XRD) 372, 374, 377 y Yellow rattle (Rhinanthus minor) 191 z Zeolites agriculture uses 252–254 animal husbandry uses 252–254 cancrinite 249–250 environmental remediation application 249–255 heavy metal removal 249–250 HZSM‐5 250 nuclear clean‐up uses 251–252 organic clean‐up uses 252 pesticide removal 250 safety 254, 255 as slow release drug agents 254 transport uses 250–251 urban wastewater treatment 251 ZSM‐5 252 Zinc (Zn) 94–95, 361, 374–376, 378–379 ZSM‐5 zeolite 252 Figure 11.3 Las Vegas lights pollutes the sky well over 100 miles away Adapted from Falchi et al., 2016 10 Sodium (mg/g) Box Average Na mg/g (50:50 Mains water) Box Average Na mg/g (50:50 Greywater) Box Average Na mg/g (50:50 Treated Greywater) Box Average Na mg/g (80:20 Greywater) Box Average Na mg/g (20:80 Greywater) Figure 16.1 Longitudinal changes in plant leaf sodium concentrations for differing watering regimes; ‘50:50’ refers to a plant substrate of 50 parts growing medium to 50 parts compost; ‘80:20’ refers to a plant substrate of 80 parts growing medium to 20 parts compost; and ‘20:80’ to a plant substrate of 20 parts growing medium to 80 parts compost 2 Sep 2015 21 Nov 2015 Feb 2016 Date 29 Apr 2016 Urban Pollution: Science and Management, First Edition Edited by Susanne M Charlesworth and Colin A Booth © 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Published 2019 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd ... industrial and urban past A general history of urban air pollution is presented, supported by evidence Urban Pollution: Science and Management, First Edition Edited by Susanne M Charlesworth and Colin... 25.2 Urban Air Pollution in China 327 25.3 Urban Land/Soil Pollution 332 25.4 Municipal Waste Contamination in Urban China 332 25.5 A Case Study of Urban Pollution in Beijing 333 25.5.1 Air Pollution. .. Related to Urban Pollution in India 341 26.3 Pollution from Solid Waste and Wastewater in Indian Urban Areas 345 26.4 Air Pollution in Urban Areas of India 346 26.5 Water Pollution in Urban Areas
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