TRADITION-BASED NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Practice and Application in the Hawaiian Islands EDWARD W GLAZIER Pal g ve Studii es in NA ATUR R A L RESOUR R CE MAN N AGEMENT Palgrave Studies in Natural Resource Management Series Editor Justin Taberham London, UK This series is dedicated to the rapidly growing field of Natural Resource Management (NRM) It aims to bring together academics and professionals from across the sector to debate the future of NRM on a global scale Contributions from applied, interdisciplinary and cross-sectoral approaches are welcome, including aquatic ecology, natural resources planning and climate change impacts to endangered species, forestry or policy and regulation The series focuses on the management aspects of NRM, including global approaches and principles, good and less good practice, case study material and cutting edge work in the area More information about this series at http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/15182 Edward W. Glazier Tradition-Based Natural Resource Management Practice and Application in the Hawaiian Islands Edward W Glazier Wrightsville Beach, NC, USA Palgrave Studies in Natural Resource Management ISBN 978-3-030-14841-6 ISBN 978-3-030-14842-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14842-3 Library of Congress Control Number: 2019933321 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 This work is subject to copyright All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations Cover illustration: Oliver Kinney This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland This book is dedicated to Ms Julia Elizabeth Murray Stevens and to Pouli holoʻokoa ʻana a ka la —best friends always Foreword As a Native Hawaiian who has directed a federal organization that manages fisheries in Hawai‘i and the US Pacific Island Territories for nearly forty years, I have met and been moved deeply by many Hawaiian, Samoan, Chamorro, and Refaluwasch fishermen who struggle to keep their ancient traditions alive and to pass that knowledge and way of relating to the natural world to the next generation I have also worked daily with an array of scientists, versed in the Western way of perceiving the world, boiling down phenomena into mathematical equations, running complex models to understand fishery and environmental data, and searching for the best scientific information available Edward Glazier, the author of this book, is a social scientist who attempts, as I do, to bridge these two ways of perceiving the world—ancient and modern I first met Ed in 2005, when the organization I direct, the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council, contracted him to write the proceedings for a three-part series of workshops on ecosystem-based fisheries management, focused on ecosystem science and management, ecosystem social science, and ecosystem policy At the time, the Council was restructuring its species-based Fishery Management Plans into vii viii Foreword place-based Fishery Ecosystem Plans (FEPs) The workshop proceedings were published in 2011 as Ecosystem-Based Fisheries Management in the Western Pacific by Wiley-Blackwell with Ed as the editor In the preface, he notes the following: An important outcome of the social science workshop was recognition of the ongoing importance of indigenous fishery practices and traditional and local knowledge of marine resources and ecosystems… The Council’s approach to ecosystem-based management involves, among other strategies, adaptive management, emphasis on indigenous forms of resource management, and opportunities for community involvement in the management process across archipelagic sub-regions There was consensus among workshop participants that this was a valid approach and that it should continue to be emphasized by the Council as it moved forward with the FEPs In this current book, Tradition-Based Natural Resource Management: Practice and Application in the Hawaiian Islands, Ed delves into the history of colonization that threatened to obliterate indigenous communities in Hawai‘i and other Pacific Islands along with the natural resources that they had used and managed for millennia Fortunately, native people and their ties to the ocean and land are strong, so remnants of these native cultures have not only survived but are in a period of restoration and growth The Ho‘ohanohano I Nā Kūpuna Puwalu series, which brought together more than a hundred traditional practitioners from throughout the Hawaiian Islands, is one of many endeavors in recent times to help with this renaissance The Council, in partnership with other organizations, hosted these and subsequent puwalu (gatherings) to integrate indigenous resource management and community involvement into today’s governance and educational systems Ed was invited to participate in these meetings as an observer, and so his writing reflects not only his academic background as a social scientist but also his having witnessed kūpuna (elders), lawai‘a (fishing) and mahi‘ai (farming) experts, and their ‘ohana (families) sharing knowledge as they passionately sought guidance and wisdom from one another and their ancestors on ways to move forward to ensure their culture thrives Foreword ix The State of Hawai‘i in 2012 officially recognized the traditional ‘Aha Moku system of resource management as a direct result of the many puwalu described in this book and the dedication of those who attended them This success story reflects one of the Council’s many initiatives advocating for native fishing and management rights Soon after its establishment by Congress in 1976, the Council formed a Fishery Rights of Indigenous People Standing Committee On its recommendation, the Council commissioned five studies, published in 1989 and 1990, on the legal basis for preferential fishing rights for native peoples in Hawai‘i, American Samoa, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands The Council was instrumental in having the reauthorized MagnusonStevens Fishery Conservation Management Act acknowledge the native people of Hawai‘i and the US Pacific Islands and include development, demonstration, and educational programs to assist them in attaining and retaining traditional fishing and fishery management opportunities Council staff members, such as former indigenous coordinator Charles Ka‘ai‘ai, communications officer Sylvia Spalding, and program officer Mark Mitsuyasu, have dedicated countless hours to support indigenous communities and traditions not only through these programs but also through other supporting traditional ecological knowledge and climate change symposia; sea turtle and marine planning workshops; community-based fishery management plans; traditional lunar calendars and videos; student art, photo and essay contests, and lesson plans on traditional knowledge; traditional knowledge research; and outreach work regarding a fishing code of conduct based on the testimony and approval of puwalu participants The Council also catalyzed the creation of the Traditional Knowledge Committee within the National Marine Educators Association as well as the International Pacific Marine Education Network, which promotes both traditional knowledge and Western fisheries science in classrooms and educational policies Other organizations and individuals have worked in other ways to stem the traumatic, intergenerational impact Western colonialization has had on native people and indigenous land and ocean resources In Tradition-Based Natural Resource Management, Ed elucidates traditional practices that have survived many and various historical constraints From the resurgence of non-instrument navigation and traditional x Foreword voyaging canoes to familiar activities like the baby lua‘u and other pa‘ina (celebratory feastings), Ed shows that the continuation and reclaiming of indigenous culture occurs on many levels and involves both Native Hawaiians and those who have come to call Hawai‘i home I hope reading this book encourages you to become an agent of change by joining this movement Seek to learn from kūpuna and expert practitioners in your ahupua‘a and moku (traditional district), and then mālama (care) for and enjoy the resources in your locality, with due respect for the ancestors, for contemporary elders, and for generations to come Imua (onward)! Honolulu, USA February 2019 Kitty M Simonds Index 267 Europeans 8, 24, 31–34, 39, 40, 45, 49, 61–63, 66–68, 74, 78, 83, 89, 127, 158, 169 eutrophication 172 evangelism 75, 91 evolution 48 evolutionary isolation 66 Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) 174 exogenous sources of change 39 expanding empires 69 experts 5, 33, 34, 46, 49, 79, 82, 99, 101, 105, 116, 131–133, 177, 183, 186, 201 exploitation 8, 122, 138 exports 102 external enforcement 139 external influences 33 externally induced challenges 89 extinction 23, 79 extirpation 25 F family 3, 4, 8, 16, 43, 85, 88, 103, 108, 112, 134, 135, 145, 162, 163, 167, 223, 229 family rights and responsibilities 88 farming 47, 109, 110, 162, 182, 231 farming techniques 179 fatalism 157 federal government 113, 225, 233 federal jurisdiction waters 174 fee simple 83, 84, 88 fences 125 field systems 25, 44 Fiji 32, 33, 77, 121 filter feeders 172 financing 69, 103, 144 finite resources 170 Finney, Ben 12, 13, 30–33 first language speakers 8, 178 Firth, Raymond 26 fish bones 121, 126 fisheries production 168 fishery scientists 169 fishhooks 46, 121, 140 fishing gear 16, 46, 126, 170 fishing grounds 46, 124, 125, 128, 133, 183, 224 fishing line 119, 126, 141 fishing seasons 135, 176 fishing skills 66, 114 fishing techniques 179 fishing vessels 141, 143, 144 fishing villages 108 fishing with hands 119 fish ponds 4, 22, 47, 119, 170, 171, 181 fish stocks 138, 168, 170 fitness 3, 21, 105 flawed claims fleas 61 flesh 20, 104, 127 flooding 44 flora and fauna 65 flow 30, 38, 39, 87, 172, 193 food 1–4, 15, 16, 22, 26–28, 33, 34, 40, 42–44, 46, 66, 67, 85, 107, 109, 110, 112, 120, 121, 125, 127, 130, 138, 143–145, 160, 161, 169, 193, 242 food distribution 161 food-gathering 15 food production 4, 21, 22, 27, 41, 102, 112 food security 2, 3, 9, 25, 44, 161 268 Index foreign/foreigners 6, 8, 16, 59, 60, 62, 63, 68, 72, 74, 75, 79, 80, 83, 84, 87, 89, 90, 92, 100–102, 104, 108, 155, 158 forests 22–24, 33, 35 fringing reef 121, 123 fruit 27, 41, 45, 61, 65, 112, 127 funding 226, 233, 239, 241 fur traders 64 future, the 1, 23, 104, 160, 171, 188, 192, 211, 227, 241–243 G gardening 110 gates 125 gear restrictions 240 generational 8, 166, 201, 207 generations 3–5, 8, 11, 25, 30, 35, 46, 47, 60, 70, 77, 91, 106, 109, 110, 125, 155, 158, 160, 162, 165, 172, 180–182, 200, 204, 239, 242 Geographic Positioning System (GPS) 134 gill net ban 183 giving 87, 112, 131, 132, 160 GL Limited 113 global economies global market demand 170 goats 66 god 35, 36, 39, 43, 44, 61, 70, 71, 73, 101, 132, 134–136, 139, 140 gonorrhea 61 government-to-government relationship 182 grandparents 133 Gross State Product 144 group identity 157 growing pains 236 Guam 3, 174 H habitat 23, 40, 120, 134, 138, 139, 172, 173, 175, 205 habitat degradation 172 habitation 23, 28 Hāʻena 196 haku 38, 88, 132, 133 Halawa Valley 128 Haleakalā National Park 233 Haleʻiwa 136, 242 hānai 164 handlines 115, 120, 123, 126 hands-on learning 187 Handy, E S Craighill 15, 38, 47, 86–88, 91, 92, 110, 137 haole/haoles 16, 60, 63, 69, 70, 74, 75, 80, 82, 83, 85, 87, 89, 91, 102, 105, 109, 116, 125, 142, 158, 160, 169 harvest 4, 17, 20, 21, 27, 40, 44, 115, 130, 145, 169 harvesting 1, 3, 4, 17, 20, 21, 46, 138, 144, 180 harvesting at the appropriate time 18 harvesting, random 22 Hauanio, Aku 144 Hauanio, Ben 144 Hauʻofa, Epeli 29, 30 Hawaiian Board of Health 105 Hawaiian Civic Clubs 7, 177, 196 Hawaiian cosmology 70 Hawaiian-Creole-English 90 Index 269 Hawaiian diet 127 Hawaiian Homelands Commission Act 125 Hawaiian kingdom 6, 83 Hawaiian language 8, 73, 74, 91, 100, 101, 106–109, 122, 155, 159, 166, 186 Hawaiian lifeways 9, 91 Hawaiian lunar calendar 180 Hawaiian monarchy 92, 160, 170, 179 Hawaiian newspapers 107, 119, 168 Hawaiian values 73, 191, 201, 204 Hawaiʻi Boundary Commission, Territorial 118 Hawaiʻi Island 13, 32, 44, 48, 64, 88, 111, 114, 121, 124, 128, 143, 144, 146, 162 Hawaiʻi Ocean Resources Management Plan (ORMP) 192, 193 Hawaiʻi Tourism Authority 7, 177, 226 healing 104–106 health 69, 106, 164–166, 200, 201, 205 health care 166 hegemony/hegemonic 69, 70, 75 heiau 36, 135, 136 Helm, George 156 heritage 29, 108, 180, 192, 194, 227 Hervey Islands 100 hierarchies 112 Hilo 113, 128 historical trauma 165, 166 hōʻihi 9, 180 holiday 163, 189 holism 167 holistic management approaches 187 Holocene 11 holoholona 4, 162 homelessness 164, 165, 190 Hommon, Robert 35, 39, 63, 128, 129 Homo sapiens Honolulu 79, 87–89, 140, 164, 224 Honolulu Harbor 239 Hoʻohanohano I Na Kupuna Puwalu series 192, 224, 227 Hoʻokena 143 Hoʻo Lei Ia Pae ʻĀina 206 horticulture 27, 120 House Committee on Water and Land, State of Hawaii 234 hui 187, 230 Hui Mālama O Moʻomomi 230 hula 5, 72, 73, 101, 103, 104, 108, 155 human agents 139 human bone 46, 119, 125 human day human resources 229, 240 human roles 19 humor 163 huna 9, 133 hunger 20 hunter-gatherers 27 hunting 2–4, 20, 109, 145, 162, 231 Hunt, Terry 19, 24 Hurricanes 194 I ʻiako 143 ‘ike 5, 91, 99, 118, 179 ʻili 41, 88, 118, 132, 138 270 Index imbalance 28 immigration 89, 91 immune response 77 immunity 24, 61 impacts, environmental 181, 194, 240 impacts, social 23, 24 imperialism 68, 91, 92 impetus 178 imu 163 incarceration 164 indicators, ecological 21 indigenous fishing rights 201 indigenous North Americans 157 indigenous people 17, 30, 101, 109, 166, 168, 175, 182, 192, 198, 207, 242 indigenous scholars 37, 39, 41 indigenous societies 8, 9, 157, 166, 175 individual agency 157 infertility 79 informal economy 161 inherent rights and duties 200 inheritance 192 injustice 159, 160 Inouye, Senator Daniel 107 inshore resources 115 intellectual 70, 157 intentional resource management 17 inter-generational impacts 165 inter-generational transmission of knowledge 109, 139 interjurisdictional fisheries research 175 intermarriage 92, 158 internal guidance 139 intrusion 179 invasive species 181, 189 inventory of diverse cultural practices 187 investment 5, 144, 145 iron 60, 64, 104, 140 irrigated lands 87 irrigation 49, 110 island districts 17, 41, 42, 115, 186, 229 island people 62 isolation 11, 31, 78, 167 isotopic analysis 29 iwi 168 J Japan/Japanese 90, 140, 141, 143, 161 jet skis 181 jobs 145 K Kaʻaiʻai, Charles 115, 133 Kahananui, Dorothy 107 Kahāʻulelio, Daniel 16, 46, 116, 126, 127, 129 Ka Hoku Pakipika 109 Ka Holomua ʻAna O Ka ʻAha Moku 226 Kahoʻolawe 29, 156, 178, 198, 226, 239 Kahoʻolawe Island Reserve Commission 156, 178, 239 kahuna 60, 82 kāhuna lawaiʻa 99, 138 kaiāulu 162, 164 Kailua Hawaiian Civic Club 196 Index 271 Ka Lae 121, 124, 125, 136 Kalākaua, King David 104, 105 kalekale 123 kalua pig 163 Kamakau, Samuel Mānaiakalani 22, 36, 43, 46, 60, 61, 67, 80, 104, 114, 122, 129, 132, 133, 135 Kamana, Kauanoe 107 Kamehameha I, King 23, 64, 65, 67, 78, 111, 196 Kamehameha III, King 83–86, 103 Kamehameha IV, King 103 Kamehameha Schools 7, 42, 113, 159, 177, 182 Kanaka Maoli 74–76, 91, 92, 114, 158–160, 165, 167, 172, 179, 190 Kanakaʻole, Edith 107 kānāwai 82, 135, 137, 203, 230 Kane, H.K 38, 39 Kāne 14, 122, 135 Kaneohe Bay Master Plan Task Force 172 Kaniakapūpū 86 Ka Nupepa Kuakoa 109, 116 kapa 28, 43 kapu 8, 23, 38–40, 43, 45, 46, 65, 67, 82, 115, 118, 135, 137–139, 183, 203, 207 kapu-based system of management 138, 183 Kaʻū 86, 88 Kauaʻi 6, 13, 64, 77, 89, 119, 127, 194, 234 Kawainui Marsh 196 Kealakekua Bay 64, 66 Keawaʻula 124, 183 keiki 164, 186, 193 Ke kumu ʻIke Hawaiʻi 186, 190 Kimura, Larry 107 kings 47, 83, 85, 90, 102 Kinks 234 kinship 34, 39, 46, 161 Kippen, Colin 190, 191 kipuka 143 Kirch, Patrick V 11–13, 15, 16, 19, 23–26, 28, 39, 40, 42, 120–122, 125, 126, 135, 138 koa 128, 133, 143 ko‘a 46, 127 Kohala district 110, 111 kokua 167 Kona 42, 44, 108, 128, 143, 162 konohiki 34, 45, 46, 48, 82, 84, 85, 110, 124, 131, 138–140, 183, 194, 195, 204 Kūkaniloko Birthing Stones 196 Kukulu Ka Upena 199 kuleana 46, 88, 105, 124, 167, 190, 207, 230, 240 Kuleana Act 84 Kuloloio, Leslie Aipalena 234, 239 Kumulipo, The 112, 241 kupuna/kūpuna 133, 143, 239 L labor 2, 4, 36, 41, 43, 48, 69, 71, 83, 87–89, 91, 110, 112, 145, 239 Lahaina 79, 233 lāhui 74 Lānaʻi 89, 178 land claims 69 landings data 141 landmarks 26, 46, 134 land parcels 17, 71 272 Index land use 41, 85, 113, 162, 166, 239 land-use permits 181 language immersion 107 Lapita 10, 11 large fish 21, 130 laulau 163 Lawelawe Hana Ke `Aha Moku 225 Laws of the Republic of Hawaii 106 leeward 43, 124, 126, 162, 229, 233 leftovers 164 legislation 7, 84, 103, 104, 106, 178, 193, 224 legislature 107, 188, 198, 208, 239 leprosy 81 lessons 7, 61, 112, 187, 189 licensure 105 life and death implications 160 life experience 229 Liholiho, King Alexander 67, 82, 103 limited access 166 limited entry 120 limu 16, 121, 163, 180, 181 Lincoln, Noa Kekuewa 110–112 lineage 31, 37, 138, 179, 203 linguistic expertise 158 linguistics 48, 106 linkages 86, 92, 100, 197, 226 lithic materials 29 litigation 156 living marine resources 19, 22, 27, 145, 160, 169, 186, 240 local ecological systems 17 localized variability 115 locally governed economy 170 locally relevant rules 194 local representation 204 local society 175, 231, 232 lohe 254 lomi-lomi salmon 163 long bones 125 longlining 120, 143 loud sea 122 love 70 lūʻau 254 lures 119, 121, 126, 129, 130, 141 M macro-economic processes 164 macro-social change 91 Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act 174, 176, 186 mahele 83, 84, 86–88, 90, 118, 125, 140 mahimahi 123, 137 makaʻāinana 37–39, 45, 46, 48, 61, 71, 79, 82–87, 101–103, 132, 137 makai 42, 43 mālama 204, 233 malolo 118 Maly, Kepa 41, 49, 114, 118, 119, 127, 135, 138, 139, 142, 170, 243 Maly, Onaona 41, 49, 114, 118, 119, 127, 135, 138, 139, 142, 170, 243 mana 37–39, 72, 125, 127 management strategies 80, 118, 138, 139, 174, 205, 207, 224, 234 Mangaia 25 Māori 40, 60, 62, 69 maps 13, 199 marae 24 Index 273 marginalization marine policy 175 marine pollution 181 marine protected areas 183 marine resources 15–17, 20, 21, 42, 44, 46, 80, 115, 116, 118, 119, 121, 138, 168, 169, 173, 176, 181, 184 marine spatial planning 224, 225 maritime people 120 marlin 131, 137 Marquesas 12, 28, 29, 37 mass death 75, 80, 101 mass trauma 165 master fisherman 135 material gain 69 Maui 13, 42, 44, 64, 74, 78, 89, 119, 163, 179, 196, 198, 200, 225, 233, 239 Maui Land & Pineapple 113 Maui onions 163 mauka 42, 43, 163, 164 Mauka/Makai Watch Program 196 Mauna Kea 233 McGregor, Davianna 49, 61, 91, 114, 132, 143, 156, 238 meaning 8, 32, 47, 63, 72–74, 77, 88, 121, 163, 164, 177 measles 77, 78 meat per unit effort 119 medicinal practices 101 medicine/medical 2, 61, 79, 101, 104–106, 108, 112, 155 Medieval Warm Period 31 meetings 76, 99, 108, 160, 173, 177–180, 182, 184, 186, 190, 192, 194, 197–199, 201–203, 205–207, 224–227, 229, 232, 236 mega-fauna 27 Melanesia 11, 12, 33 mele 5, 74, 91, 104 metaphor 60 Micronesia 33 migration 11, 20, 27, 35, 37–39 Miloliʻi 237 minimally-populated island areas 178 missionaries 6, 8, 26, 31, 49, 59–62, 64, 69–73, 75, 76, 79, 80, 85, 101, 103–105, 109, 113, 158 misunderstanding 62, 63 misuse of natural resources 179 misuse of the reef 181 mixed-ancestry moana 9, 38, 72 models 19, 25, 34, 35, 115, 203 modern lifeways modern regulatory process 182 moku 41, 44, 45, 79, 121, 138, 169, 177, 179, 180, 183, 184, 190, 194–200, 202–205, 207, 224, 226, 229, 232, 233, 236, 239 molekumu 99, 108 Molokaʻi 13, 44, 111, 115, 119, 121, 128, 181, 193, 198, 200, 208, 230–233 monarchy 83, 101–103, 105, 236 monitoring 183, 189, 196, 207 monk seals 194 moʻolelo 5, 14, 50, 60, 76, 91, 104, 109, 116, 241 Moʻomomi 115, 230 moral commitment 115 morality 71, 72, 103 Mormons/Mormonism 75, 76 mortality 77, 79 274 Index mosquitoes 61 motorized vehicles 181 mountains 4, 42, 43, 45, 47, 110, 118, 134, 145, 163, 164, 201, 233 mullet 117 music 155, 156, 163 mutual responsibility 86 myths 11 N naʻauao 5, 60, 91, 99, 137 nails 140 Nā Lau Lama Education Initiative 191 Napuka 29 National Marine Fisheries Service, U.S Department of Commerce 174 National Marine Sanctuaries Act 225 National Park Service, U.S Department of the Interior 89 nation-states 63, 157 native activists 160 Native American Languages Act of 1990 107 Native Americans 108, 165, 166 Native Hawaiian Education Council 190 Native Hawaiian Government Reorganization Act 182 Native Hawaiian scholars 7, 30 native rights 190 Natural Area Partnership Program 230 natural resource management 17, 20, 22, 23, 26, 146, 173, 176, 194, 206, 211, 225, 226, 238 natural resource policy decisions 168, 201 The Nature Conservancy 230 navigation/navigators 10, 13, 27–29, 182 nearshore resources 123 nearshore zone 4, 16, 27, 120, 121, 124 negotiation 64, 77, 136, 232 nehu 126, 129 nets, fishing with nets 250 networks 46, 64, 161 New Guinea 2, 10 Nihoa 185 Niʻihau 13, 106, 108, 178, 243 NOAA Fisheries, U.S Department of Commerce 174, 177 Nogelmeier, Puakea 116 nomadism 27 non-commercial fishing 161 non-point source 193 normative fishing ethics 197 North Shore of Oʻahu 136 nursery areas 172 nutrient loading 172 nutrition 26, 121, 161, 223 O Oʻahu 13, 14, 22, 36, 48, 49, 68, 74, 76, 78, 86, 93, 119, 124, 131, 162, 171, 173, 182, 183, 234, 242 observation 5, 19, 22, 23, 138, 139, 145, 183, 229, 231 ocean access 144 Oceania 10–13, 22, 23, 30, 33, 62, 63, 100, 168, 170, 173, 176, 241 Index 275 octopus 120, 127, 163 Office of Hawaiian Affairs, State of Hawaiʻi ʻohana 5, 43, 44, 49, 79, 80, 86, 88–91, 105, 109, 112, 125, 131–133, 143, 145, 160, 162, 164, 168, 179, 183, 199, 236, 239, 241, 243 ʻōiwi 77, 108 Ola Honua I ke Kūpa’a Kanaka 227 Old Hawaii 35, 47 oligarchy 75, 82 olona 43 olonā (Touchardia latifolia) 126 ono 123 ‘ōpakapaka 16, 123 ʻŌpelu 117 open access 170 open ocean 29, 119, 122, 123, 128, 169, 183 open ocean fisheries 119, 122, 130 opportunism 1–3, 7, 19, 88, 105, 159, 160, 167, 169, 172, 178, 184, 187, 188, 204, 226, 232, 240 oppression 8, 100, 165, 166 optimal health 165, 167 oral tradition 12, 14, 28, 41, 61 ordinance 205, 239 Osorio, Jonathan 71, 85, 156 outreach 186 outsiders 9, 179, 180 overfishing 172, 181 overharvesting 169, 170 overthrow, of the Hawaiian Kingdom 101, 102, 170 P Pacific islands 5, 9, 12, 17, 19, 24, 28, 29, 48, 63, 69, 101, 110, 114, 132, 175, 176 Pacific Northwest 16, 21, 163 paddling 32, 163 pain 164 pāʻina 163, 164 pandanus 28, 111 paradox 182 parasitism 172 parks 163, 165, 233 participatory planning 176 pathogens 77 Pearl Harbor 102, 143 pelagic fishing 128, 133 pelagic species 16, 114, 119, 121, 123, 124, 126, 130 pelagic zone 42, 120, 122, 126, 240 penalties 140 permanent closures 183 perseverance 92 persistence 49, 70, 100, 114, 161, 162, 231, 241 petroglyphs 68 Philippines 90 pidgin 90 pigs 15, 42, 130, 163 pineapple 144 pineapple industry 144 Pitcairn 29 place-based resource use 178 place-based system of resource management 180, 211 place-specific prohibitions 276 Index Plantation era 49, 90, 109, 113, 114, 140, 141 planting at the appropriate time 180 plant materials 4, 126 plant resources 16, 104, 105 poi 112, 163, 193 poke 163 pole and line 121, 144 policy 161, 188, 191 policy debates 159 policy-makers 191 political control 33 political goals 41 political influence 158, 159 political legitimacy 83 political machinations 83 politics 6–8, 34, 41–44, 48, 50, 64, 65, 74, 76, 82, 90, 103, 106, 123, 140, 156–160 pollution 113, 173 Polynesia 9–12, 14, 16, 23, 28–33, 36–38, 48, 61, 62, 68, 69, 71, 100, 101, 110, 121, 156 Polynesians 4, 10–15, 24, 27–29, 31–35, 37, 48, 59, 61, 62, 68, 70, 77, 92, 104, 107, 108, 110–114, 120, 121, 132, 146, 155, 166, 223, 228, 241 pono 37, 38, 41, 60, 72, 73, 167 population decline 24 population density 25, 26, 173 population expansion 34, 82 population growth 26, 33, 34, 36, 65, 180, 241 population loss 6, 77–80, 102 populous island areas 109, 144 portable economy 10, 120 Positioning 5, 6, 9, 23, 35, 45, 47, 84, 134, 144, 190 positive reinforcement post-contact history 166 poverty 6, 161, 162, 164, 190 poverty-level 161 power 6, 30, 33, 36–39, 41, 45, 62, 71, 72, 74, 102, 106, 125, 129, 140, 155, 158, 163, 167, 170, 236 prayer 104, 108, 135 preservation of fish ponds 181 pressures 4, 9, 11, 34, 67, 108, 109, 126, 157, 168, 170 pride 156, 158 priests 79, 82, 131, 140 prime lands 125 private land 84 private ownership 71, 88, 113 privatization 175 procedural rules 226 productivity 21, 25, 34, 121, 169–171 profit-based economy 170 proper behavior 115 Protect Kahoʻolawe ʻOhana (PKO) 156, 239 Protestant missionaries 70, 83 psychospiritual methods of healing 101 puaʻa 42 public health 6, 165, 166 public high schools 107 public participation 175 public policy 182 public trust 175, 206 Puerto Rico 90 Pukui, Mary Kawena 45, 74, 86–88, 91, 92, 107, 127, 131, 133–135, 137, 139, 142, 155 pule 257 Index 277 pumpkins 67, 128 Pūnana Leo 107 Punchbowl 257 punishment 75, 140 Puritan evangelists 100 purposive exploration 12 Puʻuhonua O Hōnaunau 143 Puʻu Olaʻi Wetland Management Association 196 Puwalu 99, 177, 186, 191, 193, 194, 196, 224, 227, 229, 236 Q Queen Liliʻuokalani 102 queens 73, 101 quota 120, 138, 176 R radiocarbon dating 14 Rapa Nui 24, 31, 32 rapport 47, 189 reciprocal 2, 82, 168 reciprocity 109, 132, 164, 167 Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 90, 102 recreation 2, 82, 120, 144, 223 redemption 101 red pepper 163 reef fish assemblages 168 Refaluasch refrigerator, ocean as 243 regulation 5, 110, 120, 139, 169, 170, 181, 190, 203, 225 relaxation 223 religion 61, 75, 101 religious significance 127 religious sites 135 renovation of fish ponds 181 reporting requirements 208 representation 166, 174, 177, 194, 195, 202, 203, 234, 241 resistance 60, 62, 75, 76, 80, 83, 92, 100, 103, 104, 108, 137, 155, 156, 158, 165, 182, 229, 231, 238, 241 resolutions 184, 207, 208, 224–226 resource availability 20, 44 resource base 184 resource dynamics 23, 115 resource managers 48, 207 resource sharing 164 respect 9, 34, 39, 46, 60, 63, 70, 73, 133, 163, 171, 179, 180, 224, 225, 236 responsibility 37, 45, 156, 167, 182, 184, 190, 204, 230, 240 Review Committee of the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act 190 review, of fishery management process 224 Richardson, William S., School of Law 230 ridgelines 42 rights 9, 46, 66, 80, 83, 85, 88, 108, 118, 124, 132, 146, 157, 159, 168, 170, 171, 175, 176, 179, 181, 182, 190, 200, 224, 233, 238, 241 ritual 39, 47, 62, 108, 118, 135 root crops 127 rugged islands 163 rules 5, 34, 63, 64, 82, 115, 139, 184, 189, 203, 207, 229, 230, 240 ruling chiefs 23, 64, 80, 83 runoff from golf courses 181 278 Index runoff from resorts 181 runoff from roads 181 rural Hawaii 162 S sadness 80 Sahlins, Marshall 16, 23, 39, 43, 44, 46, 47, 62, 70, 82–84 salt 28, 119, 127, 163 salvation 73 Samoa 11, 12, 28, 33, 36, 62, 77 sampans 143 sanctions 5, 25, 181 sandalwood 23, 60, 64, 83, 89 school instruction 101 science/scientists 19, 40, 47, 115, 126, 165, 174, 176, 197 scientific theory 157 seafood 2, 15, 16, 27, 46, 114, 120, 127, 132, 140, 141, 145, 161, 163 sea states 123, 133 seaweed 16, 22, 120, 126, 138, 163 secrecy 9, 105 Secretary of Commerce 174 sedimentation 193 selective adaptation 241 self 167 self-determination 156, 159, 190, 238 self-identity 159, 165 self-reliance 140 self-righteousness 69 Senate Committee on Hawaiian Affairs 209 sharing 2, 44, 74, 132, 135, 145, 160, 164, 168, 173, 186, 189 shellfish 22, 40, 121 shifting political climate 173 Shigella spp 77 shoreline fishing 123, 144, 163 shoreline gathering 16, 118, 132, 133, 183, 230 shoyu 163 shrines 42 siltation 181 Silva, Noenoe 60, 65, 67, 71–77, 80, 82, 84, 85, 101–104, 106 Simonds, Kitty 191 simplicity in fishing 144 skill 10, 12, 30, 43–45, 70, 114, 132–134, 156 sluice gates 119 small boats 120, 126, 135, 142 small island settings 168 smallpox 78 small-scale agriculture 2, 145, 168 small-scale farming smoking fish 130 snappers 123 social actors 22 social-ecological conditions 180 social-environmental problems 172, 179 social facts 9, 175 social groups 179 social networks 30 social organization 12, 48, 82, 103, 157 social status 37 societal superiority 69 Society Islands 12, 29 socioeconomic challenges 59, 91, 180 socioeconomics 6, 119, 122, 130, 142, 158 sociopolitical history 234 sociopolitical relations 63, 70, 82 Index 279 soil 2, 4, 26, 28, 33, 42, 45, 83, 92, 193 Solomon Islands 24 sorcery 104 source of Hawaiian knowledge 186 South America 31 sovereignty 102, 160 space 8, 202 sparse data 141 spawning 20, 21, 120, 139, 172, 180 spear fishing 142 specialization 126, 132 spirits 14, 30, 67, 137 spiritual expression 223 spirituality 61, 165 standardized terms 187 standing council 107, 177, 189, 199, 201, 202, 233, 236 State Act 212 198 state government 211, 241 state jurisdiction waters 174 State of Hawaiʻi 113, 224, 225, 227 State of Hawaiʻi Office of Planning Coastal Zone Management Program 7, 177 states 2, 5–7, 11, 22, 26, 38, 41, 45, 48, 67, 77, 79, 99, 105, 122, 123, 129, 130, 133, 139, 140, 146, 157, 159, 160, 165, 167, 168, 174, 177, 187, 189–191, 194, 204, 206, 211, 226, 230, 233, 236, 238–241 static restrictions 240 stealing of the land 185 stern approach 231 stewardship 156, 166, 182, 186, 192, 205, 231 storms 136, 172 stowaways 66 strategic investment 88 stream inflows 193 stream productivity 172 streams 43, 110, 172, 201, 205 strictures 34, 101, 103, 137, 184 struggle 5, 7, 26, 34, 40, 72, 74, 83, 102, 158, 159, 230 stylistic variety 125 subfecundity 79 sub-rosa economy 145 subsistence 4, 87, 88, 90, 92, 113, 115, 121, 141, 144, 170, 190, 230, 241 subsistence economy 15, 109, 161, 164 suffering 101 sugar 43, 86, 88–90, 102, 144 sugar industry 88 surface feeding 129 surfboards 252 surfing 47, 82, 137, 163 surplus economy 130 survival 2, 3, 8, 12, 19, 25, 26, 40, 47, 61, 63, 80, 82, 90, 109, 112, 114, 120, 139, 141, 165, 176, 190 sustainability 26, 174, 193, 205 sweet potatoes 16, 43, 44, 67, 111 swells 30, 82, 123, 136 symbiosis 83 syphilis 61, 78 T taboo 63 Tahiti 28, 31, 32, 36, 37, 48, 62, 77, 243 280 Index tariff 102 taro 15, 16, 35, 43, 44, 47, 50, 67, 87, 89, 112, 113, 128 taxes 85, 87, 89 tax rates 125 teachers 107, 116, 182, 186, 187 technical expertise 186 technological limits 41 technology 2, 10, 12, 14, 134, 143, 170 temples 35, 36 tenacity 8, 91 tenants 85, 88, 109 tenure 17, 31, 34, 41, 48, 82, 100, 102, 170, 179, 182 terraces 22, 110 terrestrial resources 2, 10, 17, 20, 21, 41, 109, 168, 183, 194 Territorial Board of Health 105 testimony 118, 206 theories of institutional change 240 throw-net 188, 243 Tikopia/Tikopians 25, 26 timber 28, 83 tomatoes 163 Tonga 11, 12, 28, 32, 33, 48, 100 tools 28, 31, 43, 74 torch fishing 117 tourism 145, 178 tourism economy 91 trade 29, 30, 32, 33, 46, 64, 79, 83, 91, 111, 121, 127, 130, 160, 173 tradewinds 123, 163, 242 traditional ecological knowledge 3, 9, 44, 99, 109, 110, 114, 138, 145, 176, 179, 192, 207, 223 traditional management 138 traditional massage 101, 105 traditional natural resource management 174, 234 traditional practices 162 traditional rights 176 traditions 4, 8–12, 15, 28, 32, 48, 60, 75, 76, 92, 99, 100, 105, 106, 109, 115, 142, 145, 146, 155, 161, 163, 179, 186, 190, 194, 200, 201, 203, 205, 224, 227, 242 training 155, 186, 187, 205 transmission of knowledge between generations 186 transparency 225 traps 22, 121, 133 trauma 165 treponemic infection 78 trial and error 23, 40, 139 triangulation 46, 134 tribal groups 2, 21 tribal leaders 107 tribulation 61 tribunal 170, 171 tribute 43, 46, 48, 82, 131, 132, 136 trolling 114, 123, 126, 130, 144 Tuamotus Islands 12, 29 tuberculosis 78, 79 Tuna 16, 115, 119, 120, 123, 169, 240 tutelage 164 tūtū 258 U Uchiyama, Mahealani 73, 172 ulua 117, 118, 144 ungulates 65, 66 unison 130, 177 United Nations 209 Index 281 unity 82, 167, 199 University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa 182 upcountry 198 upheaval 137 uplands 4, 22, 42, 44, 47, 121, 132, 233 urban Hawaiʻi 175 U.S Bureau of the Census 141 U.S Census Bureau 159 U.S Coast Guard 174 U.S Commission on Civil Rights 159 U.S Department of Commerce 141, 174, 177 use of knowledge 210 U.S Fish Commission 170 U.S military 155 V Vancouver, George 64, 65, 78 vegetable matter 128 VHS radio 134 vitamins 127 Vitousek, Peter 19, 23, 110–112, 114, 132, 138 Volcanic 33, 42 Volcanoes National Park 128 voyagers/voyaging 10–15, 23, 28, 31, 32, 35, 37, 110, 114 watersheds 162, 172, 201 waves 30, 37, 38, 89, 91, 136, 137, 139 wealth 30, 89, 125, 229 weaponry 60 weaving 111 well-being 6, 19, 72, 80, 90, 102, 131, 159, 164, 166, 232, 241 Western culture 104, 192 Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council 7, 99, 173, 174, 176 West Hawaiʻi 143 whalers/whaling 69, 86, 88 whales 125, 195 whaling vessels 64 white supremacy 158 whooping cough 81 wild foods 1–4, 161, 164 Wilson, Pila 107 wind patterns 11, 126 windward 15, 33, 229, 233 wire 140 wisdom 5, 9, 47, 60, 61, 73, 99, 108, 137, 139, 188, 232, 243 women 67, 74, 93, 121, 133 wood 43, 46, 125 working class 144 world powers 69, 83, 85 World War II 142–144, 155 W wai 258 Waiʻanae 123, 131 Waiheʻe, John 107 Waikīkī 123 Walker, George Eyton 93 war/warfare 27, 32–34, 45, 60, 64, 67, 91, 143 Y yams 35, 43, 67 Young, Kanalu G Terry 30 youth 133, 226, 227, 243 Yuen, Heeny 143 ... W. Glazier Tradition- Based Natural Resource Management Practice and Application in the Hawaiian Islands Edward W Glazier Wrightsville Beach, NC, USA Palgrave Studies in Natural Resource Management. .. tradition- based management of natural resources in the Hawaiian Islands Special attention is given to a particularly long indigenous history in which effective use and management of natural resources... Introduction: Traditional Resource Management and Hoʻokumu (Beginnings) Sociocultural Change and Persistence During the Historic Period 59 Traditional Use and Management of Natural Resources in