Tools and techniques of leadership and management meeting the challenge of complexity

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT Many of today’s books on the tools and techniques of leadership and management provide descriptions of long lists for use in decision-making, leading, coaching and project management This book takes a completely different approach It contests the claims that the tools and techniques are based on evidence and explains why human activities of leading and managing are simply not amenable to scientific proof and, consequently, why the long-term futures of organizations are unpredictable The book undertakes a critical exploration of just what these tools and techniques are about, showing that while they may lead to competent performance, they cannot go further to expert performance because expertise involves going beyond rules and procedures Ralph Stacey investigates the many questions that are thrown up as a result of this new approach, such as:     How we apply this new way of thinking? What are the practical tools and techniques it gives us? What is the role of leaders in an unpredictable world? How does complexity affect the way organizations are structured and function? This book will be relevant to students on courses and modules that deal with leadership, decision-making, and organizational development and behaviour, as well as professional leaders and managers who want to develop their own understanding and techniques Ralph Stacey is Professor of Management and founding member of, and currently supervisor on, an innovative Master and Doctoral programme in complexity, leadership and organizational change at the Business School of the University of Hertfordshire in the UK He is also a member of the Institute of Group Analysis Ralph has published numerous titles, many of them with Routledge, and is co-editor of Routledge’s series on Complexity as the Experience of Organizing TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT Meeting the challenge of complexity Ralph Stacey First published 2012 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2012 Ralph Stacey The right of Ralph Stacey to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Stacey, Ralph D Tools and techniques of leadership and management: meeting the challenge of complexity / Ralph Stacey p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-415-53117-7 (hardback)–ISBN 978-0-415-53118-4 (pbk.)–ISBN 978-0-203-11589-3 (ebook) Leadership Management I Title HD57.7.S7133 2012 658.40 092–dc23 2011049078 ISBN: 978-0-415-53117-7 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-415-53118-4 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-203-11589-3 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Taylor & Francis Books CONTENTS Preface Introduction The split between managers and leaders Outline of the book The theory of complex responsive processes: understanding organizations as patterns of interaction between people Introduction Chaos and unpredictability 11 From the complexity sciences: local interactions and emergent global order 13 Interdependent individuals and the interplay of human intentions 16 The emergence of Facebook in the interplay of intentions 18 Conclusion 21 Understanding organizing activities as the game: implications for leadership and management tools and techniques Introduction 23 The nature of local interactions: communication 24 The nature of local interactions: power relations 28 The nature of local interactions: ideology and choices 31 Local interaction: the impact of the social background 34 viii 23 vi Contents Implications for leadership and management tools and techniques Conclusion 38 37 The leadership and management tools and techniques of instrumental rationality: rules and step-by-step procedures Introduction 40 The management tools of instrumental rationality 42 The nature of the tools and techniques of instrumental rationality 48 Conclusion 52 The limitations of the tools and techniques of instrumental rationality: incompatibility with expert performance Introduction 54 Competence, perhaps, but not proficiency or expertise 54 Critique of the tools and techniques of instrumental rationality and responses to the critique 57 The tools and techniques of leadership: development programmes and models of leadership 62 Leadership models 63 Conclusion 65 The leadership and management techniques of disciplinary power: surveillance and normalization Introduction 66 Disciplinary power 67 The effects of disciplinary power in organizations 73 Thinking about leadership programmes 74 Conclusion 77 Taking the techniques of disciplinary power to the extreme: domination and coercive persuasion Introduction 79 Coercive persuasion 80 The techniques of coercive persuasion 81 Complex responsive processes of discipline 85 Taking the application of the techniques of disciplinary power to extremes: institutionalized bullying 87 Further thoughts on taking the application of discipline to extremes: ‘Doublethink’ and ‘Newspeak’ 89 Conclusion 91 40 54 66 79 Contents vii Institutions and the techniques of leadership and management: habits, rules and routines Introduction 92 The nature of institutions 92 Institutional change 94 Power and institutions 95 The differences between the theory of complex responsive processes and the theories of institutions 98 Institutions and complex responsive processes: patterns of human interaction 102 Institutional techniques 105 Conclusion 105 The leadership and management ‘techniques’ of practical judgment: reflexive inquiry, improvisation and political adroitness Introduction 107 ‘Technique’ as a mode of inquiry: narrative and reflexivity 110 Participation in conversation: group processes as ‘techniques’ of widening and deepening communication 113 ‘Techniques’ of spontaneity and improvisation 115 ‘Techniques’ of ordinary, everyday politics: rhetoric and truth telling 117 Conclusion 120 92 107 10 Conclusion: frequently asked questions 122 Appendix: reflexive narrative inquiry: movements in my thinking and how I find myself working differently as a consequence Notes Bibliography Index 133 160 166 174 PREFACE Colleagues and I take up insights from the complexity sciences to argue that organizationwide stability and change emerges in many, many local interactions between members of the organization and between them and members of other organizations such as suppliers, consumers, competitors, regulators and governments Organizations are patterns of interaction between human beings and these patterns emerge in the interplay of the intentions, plans, choices and actions of all involved To say that organization-wide patterns emerge in this interplay is to say that these organizational patterns are unpredictable So what the new sciences of uncertainty, the sciences of complexity, make clear is that long-term futures are in a very important sense unpredictable Since they have to confront uncertain futures, that is, since they cannot predict the long-term consequences of their actions, and since they cannot control the interplay of intentions, it follows that leaders and managers cannot choose the future of their organizations, no matter how much planning and envisioning they The view we have been expressing problematizes the dominant discourse built on the notion that, in one way or another, the powerful can determine what will happen; indeed it problematizes all the tools and techniques of the dominant discourse However, if they cannot achieve what they want simply by planning, then what are they and everyone else doing to accomplish whatever it is that they accomplish? This question directs our attention to what people in organizations actually rather than what they say they or what academics and consultants claim they should With this focus on what people actually do, it becomes clear that they accomplish their work in ambiguous and uncertain situations through ongoing conversation with each other in which they establish patterns of power relations that reflect their ideologies, which are also reflected in the choices they make Whenever I present this view in conference addresses, seminars and workshops, I am pressed to provide the alternative set of tools and techniques to replace the ones I claim not work I immediately explain that the view I am presenting invites reflection on what people are already Preface ix doing Reflecting on what we are already doing cannot yield in an uncertain world the kinds of generalities appropriate for all contexts that can only apply to a certain world This explanation does nothing to diminish the pressure Recently, at the suggestion of one of our staff group, we started blogging It was striking how any blog on tools and techniques attracted a lot of attention and led to sometimes lengthy exchanges of view Similar pressures to those described above were exerted in the blog conversation It was these pressures which attracted me to writing this book, in which I will try to explain what the problem is with the conventional tools and techniques of leadership and management, and where I will also try to point to the kind of ‘techniques’ that are available for sustaining and developing the expertise of leaders and managers I am very fortunate in having belonged, and continuing to belong, to a group of very insightful colleagues I express my great thanks to them for their contributions to what we are together doing and for their comments on this book I am also grateful to the members and graduates of the Doctor of Management programme who constantly point to new areas of interest Finally, I want to say thank you to colleagues at the University of Hertfordshire who have made it possible for me to what I Ralph Stacey London, October 2011 168 Bibliography ——(2008) ‘Civilization’, in Kilminster, R and Mennell, S (eds) Essays II: On Civilising Processes, State Formation and National Identity, Dublin: University College Dublin Press Elias, N and Scotson, J (1994) The Established and the Outsiders, London: Sage Feldman, M (2000) ‘Organisational Routines as a Source of Continuous Change’, Organization Science, 11(6): 611–29 Feldman, M and Pentland, B (2003) ‘Reconceptualizing Organisational Routines as a Source of Flexibility and Change’, Administrative Science Quarterly, 48(1): 94–118 Fligstein, N (1996) ‘Markets and Politics: A Sociological View of Market Institutions’, American Sociological Review, 61: 656–73 ——(2001) The Architecture of Markets: An Economic Sociology of Twenty-First-Century Capitalist Societies, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press Flood, R L (1990) ‘Liberating Systems Theory: Towards Critical Systems Thinking’, Human Relations, 43(1): 49–75 ——(1999) Rethinking the Fifth Discipline: Learning within the Unknowable, London: Routledge Flyvbjerg, B (2001) Making Social Science Matter: Why Social Inquiry Fails and How It Can Succeed Again, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Fonseca, J (2002) Complexity and Innovation in Organizations, London: Routledge Foucault, M (1977) Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, London: Penguin Books ——(2004) Society Must Be Saved, London: Penguin Books ——(2009) Security, Territory, Population: Lectures at the Collège de France 1977–1978, London: Palgrave Macmillan ——(2010) The Government of Self and Others: Lectures at the Collège de France 1982–1983, London: Palgrave Macmillan Freeman, W J (1994) ‘Role of Chaotic Dynamics in Neural Plasticity’, in van Pelt, J., Corner, M A., Uylings, H B M and Lopes da Silva, F H (eds) Progress in Brain Research, 102, Amsterdam: Elsevier Science BV ——(1995) Societies of Brains: A Study in the Neuroscience of Love and Hate, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers Freeman, W J and Barrie, J M (1994) ‘Chaotic Oscillations and the Genesis of Meaning in Cerebral Cortex’, in Buzsaki, G., Llinas, R., Singer, W., Berthoz, A and Christen, Y (eds) Temporal Coding in the Brain, Berlin: Springer Freeman, W J and Schneider, W (1982) ‘Changes in the Spatial Patterns of Rabbit Olfactory EEG with Conditioning to Odors’, Psychophysiology, 19(1): 45–56 Gabriel, Y (1998) ‘Same Old Story or Changing Stories? 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second order 37, 49, 51, 53, 58, 77, 99, 100 action learning groups 115 actions: dependence on background 52; epistemic approach to 56; mindful 110; norms and 31; and phronetic knowledge 56; relationship with thought 60; social objects and 34; values and 32 adaptation 95, 98; see also complex adaptive systems adaptive learning 81 agent-based models 15 agents 13–15; and the game 35 AI see artificial intelligence algorithms 15, 93, 108 aligning process 59–60 alliteration 119 Alvesson, M 64 antithesis 119 anxiety 114–15, 120, 149, 153–4 Apartheid 134–6 apprenticeships 108 architecture 68, 70 Aristotle 56 armies 68, 70 articulations 36–7 artificial intelligence (AI) 54–5, 108 assonance 119 Austrian school of economics 134 autonomy, myth of 99–100, 151, 154–5, 156, 157–9 behaviour: changing 46, 84; evolution from local to collective 13–14; institutions and 93, 101–2; social 24, 26 beliefs, changing 83, 84 benchmarking 44 bio politics 69 bio power 69, 104–5 Bion, W 150 blocking 88–9, 91 bodies: and feelings and language 25; interaction of 16–18, 100; power over 2, 6, 7, 58, 66, 67, 68, 69, 77–8, 79, 83, 123; relationship with mind 61, 113 bonuses 72 Boston Grid 9–10 Bourdieu, Pierre 35, 52, 116, 129 brain: as complex adaptive system 14; see also mind brainwashing see coercive persuasion British Steel 138–9 bullying 78; institutionalized 87–9 Burns, J 96 butterfly effect 12 cash flow analysis 45 causality: adaptionist 98; efficient 5, 13, 48–51, 52–3, 77; five domains of 48; ‘if–then’ structure 43, 48–9, 50, 51, 52, 122, 124, 132, 141, 142; positivist 131–2; rationalist 13, 156; sparseness of evidence when linked to techniques of instrumental rationality 50–1; transformative 98, 156 cause and effect 11, 12, 126 Index 175 CCTV see closed circuit televisions certainty 13, 21, 56, 132; and agreement 150, 151; see also uncertainty change: centralized programmes of 88, 89; closed, contained and open-ended forms of 141–2, 144–5; vs continuity 3, 4–5, 35; of culture 7, 15, 81; global 66; institutional 94–5; social 17; thinking as means of 89; tools and techniques of 1, 46–8, 74 Chaos: Making a New Science (Gleick) 11, 142 Chaos Frontier: Creative Strategic Control for Business (Stacey) 143–7 Chaos Network 147, 149 chaos theory 11–13, 135, 137, 142–9, 154 Chenery, Hollis Burnley 135–7 civilization, development of 16–18 closed circuit televisions (CCTV) 71 CMC see Complexity and Management Centre coaching 7–8, 104, 109–10; team 46–7 cobweb theory (hog cycle) 135, 143 coercive persuasion 6–7, 79–85, 86, 91 cognitive psychology 54, 150, 154, 155 communication 23, 24–8, 85, 126, 129; ideology as 30; reducing barriers to 45–6; tools of 101; see also conversation competence: analysis of 44; vs expertise 54–7, 107, 109 complex adaptive systems 13–16, 150, 155 complex responsive processes, theory of: 2–3, 4–5, 8, 9–22, 37–8, 41–2; background to 9–16; compared to theories of institutions 98–102; development of theory 153, 155–6; difficulty of identifying organizations successfully using 125–6; Elias and 16–18, 21–2; Facebook and 18–21; frequently asked questions 122–32; not postmodern 126–7; and outcomes 123–4, 125–6; reactions to 59–60, 147, 149; techniques of disciplinary power as part of 74, 76, 77, 85–7; using insights of 124–5; see also local interaction Complex Responsive Processes in Organisations (Stacey) 156 complex systems: author’s wish to understand 155; five domains of 48; see also complex adaptive systems Complexity and Creativity in Organizations (Stacey) 150 Complexity and Group Processes (Stacey) 157–8 Complexity and Management (Stacey, Griffin and Shaw) 156 Complexity and Management Centre (CMC) 153, 156–7 Complexity and Organizational Reality (Stacey) 158 Complexity as the Experience of Organizing (Stacey, Griffin and Shaw, eds.) 158 complexity sciences 13, 15, 17, 21, 50, 89, 127, 129, 132, 149–51 computer models: agent-based 15; decision-making 45 computers: artificial intelligence 54–5, 108; surveillance of (in workplace) 71 conflict 23, 27, 76, 77, 97, 98, 144; between managers 142; ‘constructive’ 80–1; ideological 33 conformity: of cult 33; vs deviance 28; enforced 87; leadership programmes and 76, 84–5; as strategic pose 86–7, 88; see also norms consciousness 24, 25, 26, 99, 112; see also mind; self-consciousness context 49, 55, 56, 94, 97, 108, 125; social 96 continuity: vs change 3, 4–5, 35 control 2, 33, 118, 123, 141–2, 144, 145–6; from a distance 130; ideologies of 61; tools of 45; see also disciplinary power, techniques of; power conversation 37, 38, 76, 77, 109, 113–15, 124, 126, 129, 153–4; complex 114; directives and 118; and the game 117–18; of gestures 85–6, 99, 100, 101, 113, 117; prescriptive mode of 80; public 114; rhetoric 119–20; silent 113–14 creativity 28, 76, 81, 89, 114, 125–6, 150, 154 Crimson 18, 19 critical systems heuristics 48 cult values 32–3, 131; functionalization of 33, 126 cultural web 44 culture: change of 7, 15, 81; defining 103; tools of analysis 44 cynicism 88, 89 Dacapo Theatre 116–17 Dalal, Farhad 153, 156 Darwinian evolution 93–4, 95–6, 97, 98–9 decision tree 44 decision-making: muddling through and garbage can 144, 151; Stacey Diagram 151, 152–3; tools of 44–5 deontic powers 97 determinism 149 deviance 28, 31, 89; good and bad 32 diagrams 44, 46 176 Index difference 23, 26, 76, 89 directives 118, 124 disciplinary power, techniques of 6, 7, 66–78, 104–5, 106, 120, 123; coercive persuasion 6–7, 79–85, 86, 91; complex responsive processes and 85–7; Doublethink and Newspeak 64, 89–91; effects in organizations 73–4; extreme forms of 76, 78, 79–92, 123; Foucault on 66, 67–74, 76, 80, 84, 85, 86, 90, 104; institutionalized bullying 87–9; knowledge created by 73–4, 78; leadership programmes and 74–7 dissipative structure theory 146 diversity 26, 28 Doctorate of Management programme 133, 156–7, 158, 159 doing see actions dominant discourse 1–2, 3, 4–5, 38, 40–1, 127–9; definitions of tools and techniques 42; and discipline 86; on leadership 63; and organizational change 46–7; and second order abstraction 37 Doublethink 64, 89–91 Dreyfus, Hubert and Stuart 54–6, 57 Dynamic Strategic Management for the 1990s (Stacey) 141–2 Eccles, M 50 Ecole Militaire, Paris 69 economics 134–8; cycles 135–6 economists: and chaos theory 144; evolutionary 93–4, 95–6, 98; institutional 92–3, 95–6, 98; positivist 128 efficient causality 5, 13, 48–51, 52–3, 77 Elias, Norbert 16–18, 21–2, 28, 52, 85, 102, 129, 136, 153, 156 emails 71 emergence 15, 18, 21–2, 128, 148 empiricism 132 encoding and decoding 46 energy, input of 145 environment: bio politics and 69 environmental analysis 1, 40, 43 epistemic thinking 56, 57 equilibrium 135; far-from-equilibrium theory 145 ethics 31–2, 103–4, 120, 121, 123; of coercive persuasion 80, 84, 91 evidence: difficulty of providing for outcomes of complex responsive processes 122–3, 131–2; inadequacy on effectiveness of techniques of instrumental rationality 50–1 evidence-based techniques 91 evolution: Darwinian 93–4, 95–6, 97, 98–9; Hegelian 98; see also social evolution examination, the 72–3 exclusion see inclusion–exclusion dynamic executives: and leadership programmes 75 experience: articulations of 36; and formation of values 32; and interplay between immersing and abstracting 36–7; narrative of 100; phronetic knowledge acquired through 56; reflecting on 111, 128–9; of work 38 ‘expert’: definition of 57 expertise 54–7, 103, 106; importance of mentoring 109; learning 108; nonreliance on rules 54, 58; as phronetic knowledge 56, 57; and practical judgment 107, 108, 109; stages of development 55–6; unethical use of 121 Facebook 18–21 Facemash.com 18–19 facts 132 far-from-equilibrium theory 145 fascist power structures 6, 7, 66, 80, 89, 91, 126 feedback 46, 94, 149, 150; damping and amplifying 145, 146; loops 145, 148 feelings 25, 32, 60, 88 Feldman, M 96, 97 first order systems thinking 47 flow charts 45 Flyvbjerg, B 56 Fonseca, Jose 156 forecasting 10–11, 45, 69, 129, 137, 138–9, 140, 142, 143; see also futures, desired; outcomes Foucault, Michel 6, 7, 66, 67–74, 76, 80, 84, 85, 86, 90, 104, 120 future: relationship with past 24 futures, desired 1, 40, 43, 47, 52–3, 61, 67, 109, 120, 122; see also forecasting; outcomes game, the 26, 35–6, 49, 52, 102–3, 117–18; influencing 127–31 Gant charts 45 Geertz, C 103 generalized other 26, 34, 35, 52, 101, 102–3 gestures: conversation of 85–6, 99, 100, 101, 113, 117; and response 24–7 Goldstein, Jeff 147 gossip 30, 38, 88 governments 130, 131, 137; influencing 128 Index 177 Griffin, Doug 152–3, 154, 155, 156, 157 Grimshaw, J M 50 group analytic theory 155 groups: dynamics of 110, 114–15, 121, 143, 148–9; inclusion and exclusion from 29–31, 99, 115, 118; meetings 115; relationship with mind 60 Guastello, Stephen 147 habits 77, 93, 94, 95–6, 98–100, 101, 123 habitus 34–5, 36, 52, 58, 101, 102–3, 105 Hahn, Frank 135 harmony 76 Harrod, Roy Forbes 135 Harvard University 18–20 Hay Group 63 healthcare sector: and bio power 69, 104–5; implementation strategies 50; leadership programmes 63; as pastoral form of power 86; see also hospitals Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich 98, 153, 156 Hertfordshire, University of: Business School 140, 143, 152; Complexity and Management Centre (CMC) 153, 156–7; Doctor of Management programme 133, 156–7, 158, 159 hierarchical observation 70–1 hierarchy 6, 59, 70–1, 78, 96, 131 history 26–7, 35, 112; themes and variations 27–8 Hodgson, G 101 hog cycle see cobweb theory Holmes, J 118 Honneth, A 33 hospitals 33, 64, 70, 73, 104, 125 Huddleston, Trevor 135 Human Resources (HR) 62 humour 118, 119 hyperbole 119 ‘I’ 26, 29, 61, 99, 111–12; imperative form 118 idealization 32–3, 36, 64, 76, 131 identity 29, 30–1, 61; destabilized by coercive persuasion 83, 91 ideological recognition 33 ideology/ideologies 28, 29–34, 60, 122, 124, 126, 128, 129, 130, 131; of control 61; and experience of work 38; first order vs second order thinking 47; of improvement 136; institutions and 101, 103–4; norms and values 31–4; understanding distorted by 33–4 ‘if–then’ causality 43, 48–9, 50, 51, 52, 122, 124, 132, 141, 142 IGA see Institute of Group Analysis imagination 32 immersion 35–6, 37, 60, 102 improvisation 116–17 inclusion–exclusion dynamic 29–31, 99, 115, 118 individuals: and civilizing process 16–18; and expertise 57; and the game 35; and groups 60; and institutions 93, 95, 96, 97; interdependence of 28; myth of autonomy of 99–100, 151, 154–5, 156, 157–9; partitioning of 69–70; powerful 35, 67, 79, 81, 83, 85; relationship with society 28, 98, 100–1, 154–5 indoctrination 81 industry life-cycle models 43 innovation 76, 89, 125, 146, 154 input–output model 135–6 inquiry, reflexive 108, 110–13, 115, 133–4, 138, 139–40, 152–4 Institute of Group Analysis (IGA) 143, 148–9, 152, 153–4, 156–7, 159 Institute of Leadership and Management 62 institutional economic sociology 96, 98 institutions 7, 92–109; and change 94–5; and cult values 33; definition of 73; effects of disciplinary power in 73; nations as 35; nature of 92–4, 96, 101; organizations’ relationships with 93, 94, 95, 105; and patterns of human interaction 102–5; as population-wide patterns 101, 102, 105; power and 95–8; theories of, compared to theory of complex responsive processes 98–102 instrumental rationality, tools and techniques of 5–6, 40–53, 107–8, 120, 122; concern with outcomes 57–8, 77; decision-making tools 44–5; and development of expertise 55; and disciplinary power 66, 67, 78; efficient causality and predictablity 48–51, 52–3; as fiction in everyday life 51; generalized motivation tools 45–6; ideologies of control and 61; and leadership 62–3; limitations of 54–65; monitoring and control tools 45; nature of 48–52; no guarantee against catastrophes 57; planning and strategy tools 43–4; reactions to critique of 58–60; reflect techne way of knowing 56; rules and steps 49, 51–2; second order abstractions 51; second order systems 47–8; tools for 178 Index improving and developing organization 46–7 intention, unexpected 19–20, 21 interaction 16–19, 130; bodily 100; habitual 77; patterns of 1, 3, 4–5, 99, 102–5, 107; and planning 47; see also local interaction interdependence 17, 28, 31, 60, 76, 99, 109 internal resource analysis 1, 40 International Leadership Association 62 interpretation, act of 28 interrogation 81 introspection 111–12 intuition 55, 113, 114–15 irony 119 J B Ebden Prize 136 jargon 90, 114 John Laing plc 139–40 judgment 122, 125–6; ideological 28, 29; normalizing 71–2; of values 32, 48; see also practical judgment Kant, Immanuel 156 Kauffman, S A 149 Klein, Melanie 148, 150 knowing 24, 55, 112; three modes of 56–7 knowledge: and concept of intelligent design 60; created by techniques of disciplinary power 73–4, 78; Foucault on 67, 73–4, 104; managing 46; routines and 94; as self-knowledge Kolb, A and D 111 Korean War 81 Kuhn, T 148 Lachman, Ludwig 134 language 25; in directives 118; jargon 90, 114; rhetoric 119 law 104 Lawson, T 95 leaders: loss of practical judgment 109; and supervision 71 leadership: constraints on 64; vs management 3–4, 61, 75, 90; models 62, 63–5; and mundane tasks 64; as social process 76, 77 leadership development programmes 62–5, 72, 74–7, 82, 84–5, 90–1 Leadership Foundation for Higher Education 63–4 league tables 45 learning: adaptive 81; coercive persuasion and 7, 80, 81, 82–4; generative 81, 84; organizational 46; through practical judgment 108; through reflection 111; techniques of disciplinary power and 77, 78, 80; willing 80 learning organization theory 80–1 Lehman Brothers 109 levels, metaphor of 100 linearity 11–13 living present 24, 27–8, 34, 156 lobbying 130 ‘local’: use of term 131 local interaction 13–15, 17–18, 21–2, 23, 41, 59, 60, 61, 125, 127, 129, 131; communication 23, 24–8; ideology and choices 31–4; impact of social background 34–7; implication for management tools and techniques 37–8; institutions and 101, 102–5; power relations 23, 28–31; self-organization as 148; techniques of disciplinary power and 74, 76, 77, 85–7 London School of Economics (LSE) 134, 136–8 Lorenz, Edward Norton 12 MacIntyre, A 33 McKeown, T 96 mammals 24–5 management: command and control forms of 59; concept of ordinary vs extraordinary 148, 150–1, 154; vs leadership 3–4, 61, 75, 90 managers: common belief in necessity of tools 41; development of expertise 55; loss of practical judgment 109; middle 75, 90; mundane tasks of 64; relevance of leadership programmes to 75; responses to chaos theory 147, 149; scientific Managing Chaos (also Managing the Unknowable) (Stacey) 147–8 mapping of stakeholders 44 market forces framework 43 markets 94 ‘me’ 26, 61 Mead, George Herbert 85, 113, 129, 153, 156; on consciousness 24, 26; on cult values 32–3, 126, 131; on the game 26; on generalized other 26, 34, 52; on gesture and role play 25–6, 100, 117 meaning 24; -making 36 meetings 115 mentoring 7–8, 108, 109–10, 139–40 mergers and acquisitions 31, 119 metaphors 119 Index 179 Mezrich, Ben 18, 21 micro-management 64 mind 16, 24, 25, 35, 58, 59, 60–1, 112, 113–14, 146, 150; coercive persuasion and 80, 83; relationship with body 61, 113; and subjective institutions 93; see also brain; consciousness mission statements 44 misunderstanding 28, 46, 128 models: agent-based 15; coaching 46; decision-making 45; development of expertise 55; economic 135–6, 137, 138–9; industry life-cycle 43; leadership 62, 63–5; linear vs nonlinear 11–13, 21; qualitative 143; viable systems 48 modernism 126–7 monarchy 101, 104 monitoring tools 45 motivation tools 45–6 Mowles, Chris 156, 157 Murdoch, Rupert and James 109 Myers-Briggs test 46 myths 36 Napster 20 Narendra, Divya 19 narrative 27, 36–7, 38; of experience 100; and inquiry 111, 112, 133–4; writing 109 National Health Service (NHS): Leadership Qualities Framework 63 nations: as institutions 35 natural selection 95, 97 Nee, N 96 nervous system 25 neurons 14 New Institutional Economists 92–3, 96 News of the World 109 Newspeak 90 Newton, Isaac 11 NHS see National Health Service Nineteen Eighty-Four (Orwell) 64, 71, 89–91 Nonaka, I 144 normalizing judgment 71–2 norms 31, 33–4, 103–4; institutional 95; penalties for contravening 71–2; rules as 93; see also conformity objectors 88–9 objects 37, 47, 61, 111; see also social objects observer 47, 59, 148; hidden 71; objective 102, 126, 145, 155, 159 Ofshe, Richard 83–4 open-space techniques 115 organization development (OD) 46, 115 organizational learning 46 organizations: communication in 24; concept of designing and constructing 60; difficulty of judging quality of outcomes of 125–6; dominant discourse on 1–2, 3, 4–5, 38, 40–1, 127–9; evolution of 23; as imaginative constructs 60; inclusion–exclusion dynamic in 31; as patterns of interaction 1, 3, 4–5; relationship with institutions 93, 94, 95, 105; tools for improving and developing 46–7 other see generalized other outcomes 1–2, 4–5, 40, 45, 50, 57–8, 77, 79, 95, 106, 123–4, 128, 129–30; chaos theory and 12–13; difficulty of judging quality of 125–6; see also forecasting; futures, desired paradox 91, 101, 103, 128, 142, 144, 148, 154 Parker, Sean 20–1 parresia 120 particularization: of generalized tendencies to act 34; of second order abstractions 49, 77; of techniques of disciplinary power 78; of values 32 pastoral power 67–8, 69, 86, 104, 105 Paton, Alan 135 payback analysis 44 PDSA see Planning, Doing, Studying and Acting peer pressure 82 Penny-Cooke Grieves, Wil 157 Pentland, B 97 performance appraisal 45 personality: breaking down of 80; habitus and 34, 35; structures 17, 31, 99; tests 46 persuasion 119 PESTEL framework 43 phronesis 56–7 planning 10, 142, 148, 150; and development of societies 16–18; interactive 47; tools 43–4 Planning, Doing, Studying and Acting (PDSA) 49 Plaxo 20 politeness 118 politics: bio 69; national 131; ordinary, everyday 29, 35–6, 38, 56, 110, 117–20, 124, 125, 129 population: bio politics and 69 180 Index population-wide patterns 15, 17–18, 21–2, 23, 34, 36, 41, 61, 85, 127, 129, 131; institutions as 101, 102, 104 Porter, M 43, 44 positivism 127, 131–2, 136, 138 postmodernism 126–7 power: bio 69, 104–5; over bodies 2, 6, 7, 58, 66, 67, 68, 69, 77–8, 79, 83, 123; figurations of 29; forms of 104–5; individuals and 35, 67, 79, 81, 83, 85; and institutions 95–8, 101, 104–5; local interaction and 14, 15; not necessarily negative 73, 76; pastoral 67–8, 69, 86, 104, 105; as producer 73; safe critique of 87; sovereign 67, 69, 104, 105; see also disciplinary power, techniques of power relations 23, 28–31, 60, 85, 98, 99, 113, 115, 118, 122, 124, 126, 129 practical judgment 6, 7–8, 56–7, 58, 65, 107–21, 123; learning 108; participation in conversation as ‘technique’ of 113–15; as pattern recognition 110; reflexivity as ‘technique’ of 111–13; and ‘technique’ of narrative inquiry 111, 112; ‘techniques’ of ordinary, everyday politics 117–20; ‘techniques’ of spontaneity and improvisation 115–17 pragmatist sociology 24, 127, 129, 153 predictability 127, 151; chaos theory and 12, 13, 143; efficient 48–51, 52–3; provided by routines 94; see also unpredictability Prigogine, Ilya 145 prisoners 81 problem identification, development and selection 45 process sociology 16–18, 127, 129, 155, 156 propaganda 74 property rights 93, 94 psychoanalysis 143, 144, 146, 150, 151, 154, 157–58 psychology 15–16, 73, 74; cognitive 54, 150, 154, 155; individual-centred vs relationship-focused 155 punishment 71–2 punishment–reward system 72 Rance, Chris 157 rationalist causality 13, 156 rationality see instrumental rationality, tools and techniques of reality 128; social 33 rebellion 31 recognition: ideological 33; public 45 reflection 36, 47, 76, 111, 124, 125, 139; distinction from reflexivity 112 reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action 111 reflective cycle 111 reflexivity 6, 74, 87, 129; distinction from reflection 112; leadership programmes and 84, 85; prevention of 83, 91; reflexive inquiry 108, 110–13, 115, 133–4, 138, 139–40, 152–4; second order 112–13; and theatre 116–17 reflexivity-in-action 108 reform programmes 83–4 regular irregularity 12, 114, 145 relationships, personal: and institutions 96 resistance 2, 31, 36, 51, 67, 76, 78, 79, 84, 88, 106; hidden vs public transcripts 86–7; to pastoral power 86; sullen 91 resource analysis 44 rewards 72 rhetoric 119–20 ridicule 88, 119 risk analyses 40 rivalry 33 role play: private and public 25, 27 role-training regimes 84 Roman Catholic Church 125, 128 routines 93–4, 95–6, 97–100, 101, 105, 123; examples of 106; limitations of 106 Royal Navy: leadership programme 63 rules 5–6, 49, 51–52, 77, 58, 105, 123; enforcement mechanisms 94; experts and 53, 54–5, 107; institutions and 93, 94, 95–6, 97, 103, 106; limitations of 106; phronetic knowledge and 56 salaries 72 Santa Fe Institute 149 scandal 18–19 scenarios of possible futures 43 Schein, Edgar 6–7, 79, 80–4, 85, 86, 91 Schön, D 108, 111 schools 70, 71, 73 ‘Science of Complexity, The’ (Stacey) 149–50 sciences of certainty 13 scientific method 37, 43, 50, 59, 91, 102, 136 Scott, James C 86–7, 130 Searle, J 97 second nature 34 second order abstraction 37, 49, 51, 53, 58, 77, 99, 100 second order systems thinking 47–8 Index 181 self-consciousness 17, 26, 61, 99, 112; see also ‘I’ self-control 17 self-formation 32 self-knowledge 56, 112 self-organization 13–15, 17–18, 59, 145, 147, 148, 150 Senge, Peter Michael 80, 85, 86, 148 Severin, Eduardo 18, 19–21 shaming 89 Shaw, Patricia 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157 Shotter, J 153 significant symbols 25 simulation 45 skills 94 social background, impact of 34–7 social context 96 social dynamics 98 social evolution 23, 24–6; and institutions 93–4, 95–6, 98–9; and norms 31 social networking sites 18–21 social objects 34, 52, 101, 102–3 social reality 33 social structures, institutions as 93, 96 societies, development of 16–18 society: disciplinary 76, 85; individuals’ relationship with 28, 98, 100–1, 154–5; and specialization 24; and thought 61 sociology 15–16; pragmatist 24, 127, 129, 153; process 16–18, 127, 129, 155, 156 Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) 47–8 SOSM see System of System Methodologies South Africa 134–6, 138 South African Journal of Economics 136, 138 sovereign power 67, 69, 104, 105 spontaneity 116–17, 146 SSM see Soft Systems Methodology Stacey, Ralph: studies and career 9–11, 134–63 Stacey Diagram 151, 152–3 state: and bio power 69; control by 130; and institutions 96, 97; and violence 17, 31 statistics: bio power and 69; linear regression method 137 Stellenbosch University 138 steps 49, 51–2 stories 36, 38; see also narrative strategic management 141–2; courses 9–10 Strategic Management and Organisational Dynamics (Stacey) 148, 150–1, 152, 154–5, 157, 158 strategy 35, 40, 147–8; tools 43–4 Streatfield, Phil 156 Stubbe, M 118 subsystems 142 Summers, Larry 20 supervision 70–1, 78; and practical judgment 108, 109 surveillance 70–1, 76; avoiding 87 survival anxiety 82 Sveningsson, S 64 SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) 42, 44, 49, 50 ‘system’: concept of 88, 99, 100, 128, 130, 142, 146, 158 System of System Methodologies (SOSM) 48 systemic intervention 48 systems: complex 48, 155; design of 47; first and second order 47–8; formal/ informal (legitimate/shadow) distinction 149, 150; theories of 155; see also complex adaptive systems targets 44, 45, 72, 124, 125 Tavistock Institute 143, 148, 152 Taylor, Charles 51–2 Taylor, James 64 team building 45 team work 82 techne 56, 57 techniques: differing uses of term 107; distinction from tools 42; ‘technique’ as a mode of inquiry 110–13; see also tools and techniques telephone calls 71 theatre 116–17 Thiel, Peter 20–1 thought 36, 61; as means of change 89; philosophy of the movement of 98; relationship with action 60 timekeeping 68, 71 Tobin, J 64 tools: decision-making 44–5; diagrammatic form 44, 46; distinction from techniques 42; for improving and developing organizations 46–7; as inappropriate term for processes of interaction 41; managers’ belief in necessity of 41; monitoring and control 45; motivation 45–6; planning and strategy 43–4; systems of thought as 61 tools and techniques: categories 38, 43, 49, 50; implications of complex responsive processes 37–8; limitations 54–65; relevance 127; see also disciplinary power, techniques of; instrumental rationality, tools and techniques of; techniques; tools 182 Index Total Systems Intervention (TSI) 48 totalitarianism 78, 89–90 training: compulsory 82; corrective 72, 74, 84, 87; as motivation tool 45; role 84; see also leadership development programmes transcripts: hidden 31, 76, 86–87, 88, 114; public 31, 42, 87, 114 transformative causality 98, 156 truth telling 120 TSI see Total Systems Intervention uncertainty 13, 21, 40, 41, 53, 57, 58, 108, 116, 128 understanding 51–2, 55 United Nations 137 university research programmes 82 unpredictability 21, 28, 55, 57–8,124, 127, 128–9, 130–31, 151; chaos theory and 12–13, 143, 149; practical judgment and 108, 116 value chain analysis 44 values 31–4, 103–4; changing 81, 82, 84; cult 32–3, 126, 131; functionalization of 33, 126; good and bad 32, 33 Verney, Ralph 139 viable systems model 48 violence: state monopolization of 17, 31 visions 4, 32, 61, 75, 80, 145 VRIN (value, rarity, inimitability and non-substitutability) 44 Waldrop, M 149 ‘we’ 29, 30–1, 59, 99 weather systems 12 Wheatley, Meg 147 Winklevoss, Tyler and Cameron 19, 20, 21 Winnicott, D 150 Wittgenstein, Ludwig 52 Witwatersrand, University of 134, 138 working day: narrative of 38 workplace: architecture 68, 70; as creator of knowledge 73–4; surveillance in 70–1; timekeeping 68, 71 writing 109 ‘you’ 59 Zaleznik, A Zimmerman, Brenda 147 Zuckerberg, Mark 18–21 ... many of them with Routledge, and is co-editor of Routledge’s series on Complexity as the Experience of Organizing TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT Meeting the challenge of complexity. .. Introduction 40 The management tools of instrumental rationality 42 The nature of the tools and techniques of instrumental rationality 48 Conclusion 52 The limitations of the tools and techniques of instrumental... Critique of the tools and techniques of instrumental rationality and responses to the critique 57 The tools and techniques of leadership: development programmes and models of leadership 62 Leadership