The making of the classical theory of economic growth

The Making of the Classical Theory of Economic Growth One of the defining features of the modern world is the way we take economic growth for granted We worry, of course, but we worry about a slow down in growth, or about falling behind in the race to grow It was not always so Before the late eighteenth century, economic growth in its modern sense, that is, continuing growth in income and output over indefinitely long periods of time, was simply not on the intellectual map The ‘classical’ theory of economic growth, magisterially set out in Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations in 1776, marked an epochal change in the way we think about economic life and, indeed, about human society This collection of Professor Anthony Brewer’s essays focuses on the critical developments in thinking that put the study of economic growth on the agenda It includes essays on David Hume and on Smith’s debt to him, on A R J Turgot’s achievement and on his relation to Smith, on various controversial aspects of Smith’s theory, and on Edward West’s neglected contribution to developing the theory further in the generation after Smith It was Smith’s contemporary, Adam Ferguson, who hinted at a role for technical change (‘invention’) as a source of growth and it was John Rae, two generations afterwards, who was the first to present a coherent account in which invention plays the primary role This aspect of the story is covered by essays on Ferguson, on Rae’s critique of Smith, and on his treatment of invention This collection is tied together with a rigorous introduction and a new chapter on capital accumulation and will be of interest to postgraduates and researchers focusing on the History of Economic Thought and Economic Growth Professor Anthony Brewer taught economics at the University of Bristol from 1967 onwards, with spells as an academic visitor at Duke University, Chuo University, and elsewhere He is now retired, but still active in the subject, with the title of Emeritus Professor of 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temporary lead over imitators and can gain a corresponding temporary profit before competition is restored and the gains from innovation spread among the generality of consumers This provides the incentive for innovation Whether this incentive is sufficient to ensure an optimal level of innovation – a matter of great concern to Rae – is a question that Schumpeter did not address directly The returns to innovation not constitute a “supply price” of entrepreneurship, he argued, since such a thing does not exist (Schumpeter [1911] 1961: 154) They may be much greater than is required to call forth the amount of entrepreneurship actually observed (which, of course, says nothing about whether the observed level of innovation is optimal), even though the possibility of success acts as a “stronger incentive than is rationally justified by its magnitude multiplied by the coefficient of probability” (ibid 155) Entrepreneurial profit is the main source of upward social mobility in a capitalist society; the “rich” are the successful entrepreneurs and their heirs (ibid 155–6) One might add that the ability to innovate successfully was, in Schumpeter’s view, rare, but even in a business cycle downturn it takes only “one or a few” of these rare individuals to turn the tide and pave the way for more (ibid 228) Given this perspective, a lack of incentives to innovate does not seem a matter of concern Rae’s view was quite the opposite He stressed the extra costs incurred by the first to something new, especially (as noted above) the costs involved in starting local production of previously imported goods These costs he saw as virtually prohibitive for the individual, even where the potential long-run gain to the community as a whole would amply justify the costs This makes perfect sense in his framework The gains from invention last for ever (though they are, presumably, eventually incorporated into later developments) and accrue to the whole community More specifically, those who copy can appropriate the benefits without incurring the special costs faced by the innovator One can readily translate this argument into the language of modern economics – innovation has the character of a public good and the free-rider problem inhibits individual provision or, to make the same point from a different point of view, there are positive externalities attached to innovation, so social benefits exceed private benefits In some cases, he argued, the potential benefits may eventually rise so high that the return to the individual “projector” is enough to justify investment, but in this case the potential social benefits must have been positive much earlier, so even where private initiative does the job, it does it too late (Rae 1834: 54) What can be said about these conflicting views? It is clear that the total social benefit accruing from an innovation is only partly captured by the innovator That much seems to be common ground – one might see the difference between Rae and Schumpeter as the difference between saying a glass is half full or half empty Schumpeter’s approach would be appropriate for the case in which an innovation depends on an almost costless, albeit rare, act of creative insight.9 Provided the return is enough to induce the potential entrepreneur to act, and enough to enable him to raise the money to prove the idea in practice, that is enough There is no need for the whole of the social gains (which might be very large) to accrue to Invention 197 the lucky individual who had the original idea Rae’s argument, on the other hand, would fit cases in which the outcome is reasonably predictable, but in which there are substantial initial costs Modern, organized, research and development programs often fit this pattern, bur were almost unknown in Rae’s time That is presumably why he concentrated on the case of import substitution, where observation of the foreign industry and of the local market for imports gives a fairly clear idea of the potential private and public gains His argument also requires a particular structure to the costs of transmission of information – it must be costly to gain detailed knowledge of the processes used elsewhere and/or costly to adapt that knowledge to local conditions (making life hard for the trailblazer), but cheap to transfer the knowledge from firm to firm within a particular area or country (making copying easy for those who follow) When Rae was writing, his implicit assumptions about the costs of information transfer made sense, since long-distance transport was slow and expensive while the relevant technical knowledge was often embodied in the craft skills of workers, who were reluctant to move far afield but easily tempted to change employers within a single locality Rae faced a problem In order to support his main argument – against Adam Smith and in favor of government support for infant industries – he wanted to emphasize the difficulty of establishing something new, but he made the point so strongly that it seemed almost impossible for anything new to get started at all He then had to explain how progress had in fact happened The altruistic genius of the opening pages of the chapter on the causes of invention provided an answer of sorts, but offered no real basis for the desired policy conclusions His solution was to point to special circumstances in which normal channels of trade were disrupted, for example by war, or in which political upheavals forced skilled workers and other specialists to emigrate, taking their skills with them Disturbances of this sort are bad for accumulation, since insecurity discourages investment, but good for invention, since the normal bias towards imitation loses its force when the normal sequence of events is broken (Rae 1834: 222) When normal sources of supply fail, people have to make for themselves what they can no longer get from others and they have to find new materials to replace those that have become unavailable Economic growth proceeds irregularly, with periods when accumulation is interrupted but invention stimulated, followed by peaceful interludes in which accumulation exploits the fruits of (previous) invention Government policy, on the other hand, can stimulate invention without the costs which disruption imposes Rae hoped that the world might become a more peaceful place, so intervention would become the only means of stimulating invention This is an ingenious solution to the problem, but it is still rather hard to square with some of Rae’s examples, such as his account of the essentially smooth development of steam power (discussed above) One might, perhaps, argue that disruption of normal patterns of trade (or government assistance) is needed in the specific but (Rae thought) particularly important case of import substitution, because, in this case, the nascent local industry faces competition 198 Epilogue from established foreign competitors, while steam power was a real novelty, not just a transfer from elsewhere, and did not need special support It is worth noting that Rae’s account of the immediate consequences of innovation differs from Schumpeter’s In Schumpeter’s story the focus is on a single industry or market The first with a cost-reducing innovation can sell at the old price to begin with, making a large profit, while an innovator who creates a new market can sell at a monopoly price Once others copy, the price is bid down This story goes back to Ricardo and was echoed by Marx, though Marx, in a Rae-like touch, commented on the extra costs facing the innovator, so that “the trail-blazers generally go bankrupt,” leaving those who follow on, “the most worthless and miserable sort of money-capitalists,” to reap the gains (Marx [1890] 1962: 103) Rae, by contrast, was very vague about the course of prices and the nature of the gains accruing to the first-comers He argued that an invention in one industry raises returns generally, though the basis for this claim is very unclear It must presumably imply a price reduction in the industry concerned, else how would other industries benefit? Take his example of an innovation which cheapens the making of bread (Rae 1834: 259) He claimed that the bakers would have “a small additional profit,” the whole society would have cheaper bread, and returns on investment would be raised throughout society Here the innovator’s profits have clearly been eliminated, as the benefits are “very shortly” diffused throughout society He did not present any detailed discussion of pricing or profits in the intermediate stage in which the innovation has not been generally adopted, though it is hard to see how one can draw useful conclusions about the incentive to innovate without tackling these issues More generally, Rae had rather little to say about the workings of markets, and was rather clumsy in what he did say His main discussions of capital and returns are cast in terms of the physical returns, evaluated subjectively by the individual, with the market introduced only later in the argument His analysis is the weaker for it Conclusion The structure of Rae’s argument in the New Principles depends crucially on his claim: that invention has causes distinct from (and prior to) the current level of saving; that laissez-faire will generate a suboptimal level of invention; and that state intervention can and should redress the balance His attempt to demonstrate these points is somewhat confused, because he did not make clear distinctions between different types of inventive activity, and because he described the motivation of the inventor and the rewards of invention in a variety of different ways It is, of course, reasonable to think that there may be real differences between the relevant factors in different cases, but the fact that Invention 199 Rae did not distinguish clearly between the different cases he considered makes him appear simply inconsistent Taking a very broad view of invention and focusing on scientific and artistic creativity led him to an overpessimistic view in which it is hard to see how invention can progress at all Consideration of British development led to the opposite conclusion – invention seemed to proceed smoothly without outside help Import substitution turns out to be the one case which fits (or can be made to fit) his argument perfectly It requires and stimulates “invention,” but whoever initiates production in a new locality faces exceptional costs, and cannot normally be expected to so without some form of state support The potential benefits are visible and readily comprehensible, so the Legislator can reasonably be expected to understand them and to act accordingly – given, of course, an acceptance of Rae’s account of the determinants of economic growth in place of Smith’s Notes I would like to thank Robert Straw, who made very helpful comments on an earlier draft and participants in the bicentennial conference in honour of John Rae at Aberdeen in March 1996 The errors, of course, are mine I would like to thank Robert Straw, who made very helpful comments on an earlier draft and participants in the bicentennial conference in honour of John Rae at Aberdeen in March 1996 The errors, of course, are mine Whether Rae’s interpretation of Smith is correct is a secondary issue in this context, since Rae, not Smith is under discussion For a fuller discussion of Rae’s critique of Smith, see Brewer (1991 [ch 11 above]) This can clearly be made true by definition: define wealth as value of assets, define saving as income minus expenditure, and define income so as to include all capital gains and windfalls Adam Ferguson ([1767] 1967) or even David Hume (1955) might be cited as possible precursors of the view that growth is driven by technical change, but neither developed any substantial economic analysis to back up this insight (see Brewer 1997 [ch above]) Turgot ([1788] 1973) and others perhaps saw unlimited scope for human advance, but in terms of the advance of knowledge rather than in a specifically economic context Neither Smith nor Rae seems to have considered the possibility that the state could directly affect the aggregate rate of saving, say, by saving itself out of tax revenues, or by somehow compelling individuals to save Though I will argue later that Rae’s discussion of import substitution implicitly assumes that setting up a new industry required far more than just importing the necessary machines Population and labour supply are treated as endogenous, as in Smith The socially determined subsistence wage affects the return on investment and hence the equilibrium stock of instruments, but Rae said little about the determinants of wages The masculine (“man” of genius) is Rae’s I shall generally use the masculine to avoid artificiality Take the example (cited by neither author) of the wheelbarrow This very useful device depended only on the prior invention of the wheel but was unknown in classical antiquity, despite the existence of large building projects where it would have been very valuable Once the idea came to some anonymous person in the Middle Ages, the use of the wheelbarrow spread rapidly throughout Europe 200 Epilogue References Ahmad, S (1996) “Smith’s division of labour and Rae’s ‘invention’: a study of the second dichotomy with an evaluation of the first,” History of Political Economy, 28(3): 441–58 Brewer, A (1991) “Economic growth and technical change: John Rae’s critique of Adam Smith,” History of Political Economy, 23(1): 1–11 [This volume, chapter 11] —— (1997) “An eighteenth-century view of economic development: Hume and Steuart,” European Journal of the History of Economic Thought, 4(1): 1–22 [This volume, chapter 3] Ferguson, A ([1767] 1967) An Essay on the History of Civil Society, ed D Forbes, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Hume, D (1955) Writings on Economics, ed E Rotwein, Edinburgh: Nelson Marx, K ([1890] 1962) Complete Works, Vol 3, Capital, translated from the 3rd edition of Das Kapital edited by Friedrich Engels, Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House Rae, J (1834) Statement of Some New Principles on the Subject of Political Economy, Exposing the Fallacies of the System of Free Trade and of Some Other Doctrines Maintained in the “Wealth of Nations,” Boston: Hilliard Grey Reprinted (1964) New York: Kelley; and (1965) in R W Jones (ed.), John Rae, Political Economist, vol 2, Aylesbury, Toronto: University of Toronto Press Schumpeter, J A ([1911] 1934) The Theory of Economic Development, tr R Opie, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press Reprinted (1961), New York: Oxford University Press Smith, A ([1776] 1976) An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Edition cited: A H Campbell, A S Skinner and W B Todd, Oxford: Clarendon Press Turgot, A R J ([1788] 1973) “Philosophical Review of the Successive Advances of the Human Mind,” in R Meek (tr and ed.), Turgot on Progress, Sociology and Economics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Index Babbage, C 186 Barber, W 129 Beccaria, G 32 Beckett, J 139 Béraud, A 129 Berry, C 78 Bladen, V 78 Blaug, M 164–5, 173, 185 Boisguilbert, P de 15–16, 18, 23, 113 Boss, H 78 Braudel, F 31 Brewer, A 5, 16, 26–7, 30–3, 78, 80, 89, 92, 109, 138, 140, 155, 160, 185, 199 Cannan, E 165, 173, 186 Cantillon, R 5, 14, 16–17, 18, 27, 41, 106, 109, 113, 160, 185 capital: accumulation of 4, 6, 25, 28, 29–30, 50–1, 55–6, 69, 89, 101–2, 111–24, 178–82, 187–8; mobility of 4, 29, 69, 114, 119–20; theory of 114–15, 181–2, 188–9 Casarosa, C 166, 171 Child, J 15, 27, 31, 32, 117 classes 44, 129–42 Colander, D 129 Coleman, D 32 Dalrymple, J 82 Davis, R 32 development 7, 21–3, 83–5; agricultural 147–9; Hume and Steuart on 39–57; luxury and 59–78; see also growth Devletoglou, N 30 Diatkine, D 48, 57 diminishing returns 13, 26, 102, 105, 109, 112, 115, 153–5, 160, 163–6, 171–2 Doujon, R 56–7 DuTot, C 16 Eltis, W 19, 25, 30, 31, 56, 78, 109 Fawtier Stone, J 139 Ferguson, A 5, 7, 80–92, 199; comparison with Smith 88–91 feudalism: decline of 47, 62–4, 70, 140 foreign trade 22, 51–3, 113, 171–2; see also open economy Friedman, M 142 Galiani, F 32 Garegnani, P 109 Gee, A 144, 148, 160 Glass, D 14 Gournay, V de 27, 31, 32, 117–18, 124 Gram, H 108–9 Grampp, W 173 Graunt, J 14 Groenewegen, P 25–6, 29, 32, 108–9, 115–17, 124 growth 3, 86–8, 167–73, 177–86; classical theory of 4–5, 7–9, 12, 106–7, 111–12, 163–73, 177–8; concept of 12–33, 80–92; as observed fact 42, 60, 113, 180; see also development Harris, D 129 Heertje, A 182 Hicks, J 166, 171, 173 history 140–1; four stages 64–6, 81–2 Hollander, S 144, 171, 173, 185 Hont, I 32, 57, 113 Hull, C 30 Hume, D 6–7, 12, 13, 14, 21–3, 39–57, 82, 92, 124, 141, 142, 160–1, 199; History of England 46–7, 61; and Smith 59–78, 113, 140 Hutchison, T 18, 32, 113 202 Index import substitution 193–8 interest rate 15, 25–6, 50–1, 98–9, 101–2, 115, 122–3 see also profit invention 10, 11, 85, 182, 187–200; causes of 190–3; see also technical change investment see capital, accumulation of James, R 185 Kames, Lord 82 Kettler, D 92 King, G 13, 30 Kobayashi, N 56 Kukzynsky, M 31 labour: division of 85–6, 89, 118, 178, 189; productive and unproductive 74–7; theory of value 122, 145 landlords 138–40; see also rent Landreth, H 129 Law, J 16, 31 Low, J 31, 57 Lubbock, J 78, 82 luxury 22, 23, 43–6, 53–5, 59–78, 87 Malthus, T 9, 26, 97, 107–8, 172–3, 183 Mandeville, B 18, 54–5, 92 Marx, K 109, 130–1 McCulloch, J 186 Meek, R 13, 18–20, 31, 82, 92, 113, 116, 125 Melon, J 17 Mill, J S 184, 186 money 48–9 Montesquieu, C de 18, 23, 113 Mun, T 15 Myint, H 78 O’Brien, D 33 open economy 145, 152–5; see also foreign trade Rae, J 5, 10, 33, 177–86, 187–200 Rashid, S 160 rent 45, 97, 144–61; negotiation of 19; zero margin 107–8 Ricardo, D 26, 112, 115, 141, 144–5, 155, 160–1, 183–4; classes 44, 130; rent 9–10, 97, 107–9, 158; and West 10, 163, 166, 170–3 Robbins, L 57, 186 Roncaglia, A 109 Rotwein, E 31, 56 Samuelson, P 109, 144 Savage, L 142 saving 4, 8, 129–42, 180; motives for 132–6; see also capital, accumulation of Schumpeter, J 27, 30, 108, 124, 195–6, 198 Screpanti, E 129 Sen, A 56 Senior, N, 184, 186 Skinner, A 24, 56, 78, 92 Smith, A 3–9, 12, 27–8, 32, 41, 57, 97, 109, 167, 187, 193, 197; on classes and saving 129–42; on Europe 70–3; and Ferguson 80–92; and Hume 59–78; Lectures on Jurisprudence 64–8, 90, 120–2, 134; natural progress of opulence 70, 73–4; on productive and unproductive labour 74–7; Rae’s critique of 177–86; on rent and profit 144–61; Theory of Moral Sentiments 132–6; and Turgot 111–24; and West 170–3 Spengler, J 30, 185 Steuart, J 7, 12, 14, 23–5, 30, 39–57, 78, 80 Stigler, G 173 Stone, L 139 surplus 12, 25, 45–6, 61, 74, 99–102, 109, 158; agricultural 19, 40–1, 82 Peach, T 10, 160 Petty, W 13–14, 27, 41, 57, 106, 109 population 4, 13–14, 49–50, 112, 146, 181 Prendergast, R price 5–6, 97–8; natural 121–2 profit 19–20, 45, 98–9, 115, 122–3, 136–7, 144–61; falling rate of 119–20, 150, 153–5, 167–71 taxation 105 technical change 5, 84–5, 89–91, 177–86; see also invention Torrens, R 9, 172–3, 184–5 Tsuda, T 32 Tucker, J 32, 113 Turgot, A R J 3, 5, 7–8, 12, 25–7, 29, 32, 78, 80, 82–3, 155, 199; and classical economics 97–109; and Smith 111–24 Quesnay, F 6, 13, 14, 15, 18–21, 23, 27, 57, 74–5, 105, 109, 113–14, 116–17, 155 Vaggi, G 19–20, 27, 31, 124 Vauban, S 16, 18, 23 Index Verri, P 32 Viner, J 173 wages 4–5, 8, 10, 28, 44, 98–9, 145, 167–71 Wallich, H 56 Walsh, V 108–9 West, E 9, 26, 97, 107–8, 163–73 Winch, D 78, 161 workers 137–8; see also wages Yang, H 57 Zamagni, S 129 203 ... preference theory and the global financial crisis Jorg Bibow 112 The Making of the Classical Theory of Economic Growth Anthony Brewer The Making of the Classical Theory of Economic Growth Anthony.. .The Making of the Classical Theory of Economic Growth One of the defining features of the modern world is the way we take economic growth for granted We worry, of course, but we... domain.1 The classical theory of growth For present purposes, the classical theory of economic growth2 has three essential features: (a) capital accumulation is seen as the primary source of economic