Public goods versus economic interests global perspectives on the history of squatting

Public Goods versus Economic Interests Squatting is currently a global phenomenon A€concomitant of economic development and social conflict, squatting attracts public attention because— implicitly or explicitly—it questions property relations from the perspective of the basic human need for shelter So far neglected by historical inquiry, squatters have played an important role in the history of urban development and social movements, not least by contributing to change in concepts of property and the distribution and utilisation of urban space An interdisciplinary circle of authors demonstrates how squatters have articulated their demands for participation in the housing market and public space in a whole range of contexts and how this has brought them into conflict and/or cooperation with the authorities The volume examines housing struggles and the occupation of buildings in the Global “North,” but it is equally concerned with land acquisition and informal settlements in the Global “South.” In the context of the former, squatting tends to be conceived as social practice and collective protest, whereas self-help strategies of the marginalised are more commonly associated with the southern hemisphere This volume’s historical perspective, however, helps to overcome the north–south dualism in research on squatting Freia Anders is student counsellor and lecturer, History Department, Johannes-Gutenberg University Mainz Alexander Sedlmaier is reader in Modern History at Bangor University Routledge Studies in Modern History For a full list of titles in this series, please visit www.routledge.com 12 The Ideological Cold War The politics of neutrality in Austria and Finland Johanna Rainio-Niemi 13 War and Displacement in the Twentieth Century Global conflicts Edited by Sandra Barkhof and Angela K Smith 14 Longue Durée of the Far-Right An international historical sociology Edited by Richard Saul, Alexander Anievas, Neil Davidson and Adam Fabry 15 Transnational Perspectives on Modern Irish History Edited by Niall Whelehan 16 Ireland in the World Comparative, Transnational, and Personal Perspectives Edited by Angela McCarthy 17 The Global History of the Balfour Declaration Declared nation Maryanne A Rhett 18 Colonial Soldiers in Europe, 1914–1945 “Aliens in Uniform” in Wartime Societies Edited by Eric Storm and Ali Al Tuma 19 Immigration Policy from 1970 to the Present Rachel Stevens 20 Public Goods versus Economic Interests Global Perspectives on the History of Squatting Edited by Freia Anders and Alexander Sedlmaier Public Goods versus Economic Interests Global Perspectives on the History of Squatting Edited by Freia Anders and Alexander Sedlmaier First published 2017 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor€& Francis Group, an informa business © 2017 Taylor€& Francis The right of the editors to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections€77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data CIP data has been applied for ISBN: 978-1-138-11897-3 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-65250-4 (ebk) Typeset in Sabon by Apex CoVantage, LLC Contents Introduction: Global Perspectives on Squatting FREIA ANDERS AND ALEXANDER SEDLMAIER PART I Crossing Hemispheres: Beyond Historiographical Divides27 Squatting, North, South and Turnabout: A Dialogue Comparing Illegal Housing Research 29 THOMAS AGUILERA AND ALAN SMART Squatting in the US: What Historians Can Learn from Developing Countries 56 JASON JINDRICH Squatting and Encroachment in British Colonial History 78 ROBERT HOME PART II Emerging Economies: Between Both Worlds97 Squatting and Urban Modernity in Turkey 99 ELLINOR MORACK Beyond Insurgency and Dystopia: The Role of Informality in Brazil’s Twentieth-Century Urban Formation 122 BRODWYN FISCHER “Right to the City”: Squatting, Squatters and Urban Change in Franco’s Spain INBAL OFER 150 viâ•…Contents Unlicensed Housing as Resistance to Elite Projects: Squatting in Seoul in the 1960s and 1970s 170 ERIK MOBRAND Living on the Edge: The Ambiguities of Squatting and Urban Development in Bucharest 188 IOANA FLOREA AND MIHAIL DUMITRIU 10 Informal Settlements in Bangkok: Origins, Features, Growth and Prospects 211 YAP KIOE SHENG WITH KITTIMA LEERUTTANAWISUT PART III Highly Industrialised Countries: Insecure Tenure under Conditions of Affluence235 11 “The Most Fun I’ve Ever Had”?: Squatting in England in the 1970s 237 JOHN DAVIS 12 Squatting in the Netherlands: The Social and Political Institutionalization of a Movement 256 HANS PRUIJT 13 Squatting and Gentrification in East Germany since 1989 278 ANDREJ HOLM AND ARMIN KUHN Contributors305 Index311 1 Introduction Global Perspectives on Squatting Freia Anders and Alexander Sedlmaier In June€2013, Japanese artist Tadashi Kawamata built eighteen crudely constructed huts in the style of a favela as part of an installation commissioned by Art Basel, one of the most important contemporary art fairs in the world The public sculpture functioned as a café and, upon completion of the fair, was supposed to become the property of the city of Basel to continue as a catering area However, it soon attracted controversy and was eventually cleared by Swiss police The artist stated that his main interest was design and structure: “I€am not concerned with poor people’s way of life, but with material, size, arrangement.”1 Already during the opening, images of decadent art lovers enjoying champagne in a fake favela in one of the richest countries of the world drew critical comments Within a few hours, posters showing starving ‘Third World’ children were pinned to the huts Activists of the group Basel wird besetzt (Basel is being occupied), which is part of the “right to the city” movement, demanded “Respect favelas”, added a few somewhat less artistic shanty shacks to the ensemble and called for an evening protest street party on the site of the fair.2 Initially, the fair organizers tolerated these activities but threatened anyone with criminal charges who failed to clear the area by pm The event ended in a bloody confrontation between protesters and police who used tear gas, pepper spray and rubber bullets.3 A€lucid comment compared the event with “real squatting”: “It’s built on public land, gets inhabited by people who don’t have legal permission to be there, who are tolerated or ignored for a while, and who then get attacked and dispersed by riot police when someone with power decides it’s time for them to go.”4 The events in Basel highlight the wavering boundary between art and reality They raise questions as to what constitutes art and what it is allowed to do; the same goes for political dispute Moreover, they show the variety of needs, interests and political claims that are usually articulated and accumulated in unauthorized occupations of space The Swiss protest activists were not only declaring their solidarity with the poor of the world, but they were also demanding their share of public space, both for political activity and for a festive culture that is not wholly dominated by commercial considerations The conflict dynamics that emerged from this provocative 2â•… Freia Anders and Alexander Sedlmaier appropriation of a provocative art event contains a number of elements that can also be recognized in many other conflicts over squatting on land and in buildings This pertains to the legally controversial occupation, by persons who are not formally authorized to so, of land or buildings that are either in the public domain or can at least be seen to serve the common good in one way or another Such acts of temporary appropriation—at most ignored or tolerated—usually trigger a negotiation process, which at least implicitly, questions existing property and power relations and often culminates in the threat or application of state violence concerning eviction, clearance or demolition A concomitant of economic development and social conflict, squatting has attracted public attention because—implicitly or explicitly—it questions property relations from the perspective of the basic human need for shelter Usually, it involves competing and contested claims and notions of legitimacy and entitlement Issues of political economy lay at the heart of frequently occurring conflicts between squatters—often part of larger social movements—and the landowners, municipal authorities, police and judiciary forces they were facing Sustained squatting has provoked far-reaching decisions by political and legal institutions concerning social and economic interests Squatting can therefore not be reduced to a mere problem of legality but has always been part of debates over the legitimacy of certain ways of appropriating space and of political expression, far beyond local contexts Squatting can thus have elements of resistance involved, but many who lived on land without full title or in buildings they did not own or rent were in the first place interested in the material reality of accommodation and sought to be included in a ‘mainstream’ housing market they were unable to access with conventional means rather than challenging it in principle Different research traditions have placed diverging emphasis on the importance of resistance for the phenomenon of squatting, a topic that needs further comparative discussion Squatting is used for many purposes, and the conditions for identifying it as ‘resistance’ or ‘protest’ need to be carefully spelled out Squatting has been a form of human habitation since the earliest systems of land tenure Wherever land or buildings could be owned, there was the possibility of occupying and using these—if they were unoccupied, unused, unsupervised or abandoned—without permission or title At present, land and living space are more than ever subject to capital development This holds true for the metropolises of the Global North just as for the informal settlements of the Global South Especially in densely populated urban centres, land or buildings that are completely unoccupied, unused, unsupervised or abandoned have become increasingly rare Modern-day squatting is usually the act of taking a position in a complex web of property relations by making a corporeal claim to the residential use of a piece of land or building which, at least potentially, has multiple claimants including those that base their claim on ownership For most squatters, the decisive characteristic of Introductionâ•… their form of habitation (sometimes including agricultural or commercial uses) is insecurity of tenure On a more abstract level, squatting is often seen as something illegal that is to be overcome or even exterminated It is also something out of which the upper classes cannot easily make money.5 Research on squatting is still in its infancy So far largely neglected by historical inquiry, squatters have played an important role in the history of urban development and social movements, not least by contributing to change in concepts of property and the distribution and utilisation of urban space The topic has been studied on multiple levels, most importantly under the perspective of poverty, urban development, legal issues and social movements There is extensive literature on slums and urban poverty in developing countries A€high-profile 2003 UN report titled The Challenge of Slums put the total population of slum dwellers in the developing world at about 900€million people, 43 per cent of the urban population in these countries.6 According to these data, around 20 per cent of all households in the world were squatters in 2003 Two-thirds of these lived in insecure tenure The remaining third enjoyed relative tenure security because of their ascent on the “formal–informal housing continuum” where, short of being granted formal title, they enjoyed relative persistence, protection, acceptance or even semiformal recognition of their settlement In contrast to these considerable figures, squatting in Western Europe and other highly industrialised countries is clearly a minority phenomenon: per cent of all households according to the UN habitat report.7 The literature differentiates between “squatter slums” that have emerged from land invasion and “informal slums” where dwellers have the explicit or tacit consent of the owner of the land but this owner is legally in no position to extend this permission because the settlements not meet building regulations, for example, when shanties are built on agricultural land without building permission.8 The collective term for both types is “informal settlements”.9 This means that the term ‘squatter’ has two meanings: in the narrower sense it means only those dwellers who lack permission from both owner and authorities, while the broader sense includes those who have the permission of the owner, many of whom are informally paying rent.10 The total number of squatters in the narrower sense is tending to decrease in the course of economic development, while unauthorized settlements are on the increase.11 Both types have in common that squatting occurs when people have no claim to the land or building where they have erected their habitation that can be upheld in law.12 We have not prescribed any strict definitions to the authors of this volume but have respected their terminological preferences when, for example, they wanted to avoid the pejorative connotations often attached to ‘illegal squatters’ (which we not share) and also because it makes sense to regard squatting as a part of the formal– informal housing continuum that should not be seen in isolation Squatting, however, has played a role in virtually all informal settlements, especially in their historical dimension 304â•… Andrej Holm and Armin Kuhn Marquardt, Nadine, Henning Füller, Georg Glasze, and Robert Pütz “Shaping the Urban Renaissance: New-build Luxury Developments in Berlin” Urban Studies 50 (2013): 1540–1556 Mitchell, Peter “Socialism’s Contested Urban Space: A€Study of East German Squatters” March€2012, http://spaceandsocialrelations.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/ peter-mitchell-socilamisms-contested-urban-sapces.pdf Nägler, Laura Gentrification and Resistance: Cultural Criminology, Control, and the Commodification of Urban Protest in Hamburg Münster: LIT, 2012 Patterson, Clayton, ed Resistance: A€Radical Political History of the Lower East Side New York: Seven Stories Press, 2007 Pigorsch, Stephanie, and Matthias Lack Kulturelle Nischen erobern die Stadt: Implizites Handlungswissen soziokultureller Initiativen in Potsdam, 1980−2012 Opladen: Verlag Barbara Budrich, 2015 Pruijt, Hans “The Logic of Urban Squatting” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 37 (2013): 19−45 Reimann, Bettina Städtische Wohnquartiere: Der Einfluss der Eigentümerstruktur Eine Fallstudie aus Berlin Prenzlauer Berg Opladen: Leske + Budrich, 2000 Rink, Dieter “Der Traum ist aus? Hausbesetzer in Leipzig-Connewitz” Jugend, Politik und Protest: Vom Widerstand zum Kommerz? ed Roland Roth and Dieter Rucht, 119−140 Opladen: Leske + Budrich, 2000 Rink, Dieter “Schrumpfen als Transformationsproblem: Ursachen und Verlaufsformen von Schrumpfung in Ostdeutschland” Stadtumbau komplex: Governance, Planung, Prozess, ed Matthias Bernt, Michael Haus and Tobias Robischon, 58–78 Darmstadt: Schrader Stiftung, 2010 Smith, Neil The New Urban Frontier: Gentrification and the Revanchist City New York: Routledge, 1996 Squatting Europe Kollective, ed Squatting in Europe: Radical Spaces, Urban Struggles New York: Minor Compositions, 2013 Streich, Bernd Stadtplanung in der Wissensgesellschaft: Ein Handbuch Wiesbaden: Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2011 Zischner, Romy “Gentrification in Leipzig-Connewitz? Theoretische GentrificationAnsätze und deren Gültigkeit in Städten der neuen Bundesländer” Degree thesis: University of Leipzig, 2003 Zukin, Sharon Naked City: The Death and Life of Authentic Urban Places Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010 Contributors Thomas Aguilera teaches at the Institut d‘Etudes Politiques in Toulouse He received his PhD from the Centre d’Etudes Européennes at Sciences Po Paris in 2015; the title of his thesis is “Gouverner les illégalismes urbains: Les politiques publiques face aux squats et aux bidonvilles dans les régions de Paris et de Madrid” His publications include: “Innover par les instruments? Le cas du gouvernement des squats Paris”, Les instruments d’action publique: Controverses, résistances, effets, ed Charlotte Halpern et€al (Paris: Presses de Sciences Po, 2014): 417−433; “Configurations of squats in Paris and the Ile-de-France Region: diversity of goals and resources”, Squatting in Europe: radical spaces, urban struggles, ed SQEK (New York: Autonomedia Minor Compositions, 2013) Freia Anders is in charge of student counselling at the History Department of Johannes-Gutenberg University Mainz, where she teaches contemporary history Pursuing a special interest in legal history, she works on the history of violence and the history of social movements, especially the autonomist movement Her publications include: Strafjustiz im Sudetengau (Munich: Oldenbourg, 2008); “Wohnraum, Freiraum, Widerstand: Die Formierung der Autonomen in den Konflikten um Hausbesetzungen Anfang der achtziger Jahre”, Das alternative Milieu: Unkonventionelle Lebensentwürfe und linke Politik in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und Westeuropa 1968–1983, ed Sven Reichardt and Detlef Siegfried (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2010): 473–498; “The Limits of the Legitimate: The Quarrel Over ‘Violence’ Between Autonomist Groups and the German Authorities”, Writing Political History Today, ed Willibald Steinmetz et€al (Frankfurt: Campus, 2013): 291–316 (with Alexander Sedlmaier) John Davis is fellow of the Queen’s College at the University of Oxford where he teaches modern British history His special interests are the 1960s and 1970s in London, looking not just at the ‘swinging city’ but also at the impact of economic, social and cultural change upon what was fast becoming a world city His publications include: “Communes in Britain and Denmark”, Cultural and Social History 8, (2011, with Anette 306â•…Contributors Warring); “Containing Racism? The London Experience, 1958–1968”, The Other Special Relationship: Race, Rights and Riots in Britain and the United States, ed Robin D.G Kelly and Stephan Tuck (New York: Palgrave, 2015) Mihail Dumitriu is an architect and graduate of the master’s programme “Urban Management for Competitive Cities” of the Ion Mincu University of Architecture and Urbanism, Bucharest He has been studying the relations between housing, social exclusion and reintegration He is developing urban intervention projects with Quantic Association, Bucharest Brodwyn Fischer is professor of Latin American history at the University of Chicago She is a historian of Brazil and Latin America, especially interested in cities, citizenship, law, migration, race and social inequality Her publications include: A Poverty of Rights (Stanford University Press, 2008); Cities From Scratch, ed with Bryan McCann and Javier Auyero (Duke University Press, 2014); “The Red Menace Reconsidered: A€Forgotten History of Communist Mobilization in Rio’s Favelas, 1946–1956”, Hispanic American Historical Review 94, (2014): 1–33 Ioana Florea has a master’s in anthropology and community development (2008) and a PhD in sociology from the University of Bucharest (2011) She has been researching on the socio-spatial dynamics of poor neighbourhoods in Romanian cities, youth experiences of outdoor public spaces and spatial processes of social differentiation She has contributed to the research activities of the research unit “Inequalities, Migrations and Territories” at the Centre for Research and Studies in Sociology, University Institute of Lisbon Since 2006, she has been working with several grassroots organizations in Bucharest in projects of participative planning and urban education for children and youth Andrej Holm is a research fellow at the Humboldt Center for Social and Political Research at Humboldt University, Berlin His research focus is on urban renewal, gentrification and housing His publications include: Wir bleiben alle! Gentrifizierung: Städtische Konflikte um Aufwertung und Verdrängung (Münster: Unrast 2010); Reclaim Berlin: Soziale Kämpfe in der neoliberalen Stadt (Berlin: Assoziation A, 2014); Mietenwahnsinn: Warum Wohnen immer teurer wird und wer davon profitiert (Munich: Knaur, München 2014) Robert Home is professor of land management and teaches environmental law and planning subjects at Anglia Ruskin University He has researched widely on planning and land management topics in Europe and the Third World He also contributes to the UN-Habitat Global Land Tools Network and has undertaken many overseas consultancies His publications Contributorsâ•… 307 include: Of Planting and Planning: The Making of British Colonial Cities (New York: Routledge, 2nd ed 2013); “Squatters or Settlers? Rethinking Ownership, Occupation and Use in Land Law”, Papers in Land Management (2007, together with Hilary Lim); Demystifying the Mystery of Capital: Land Tenure€& Poverty in Africa and the Caribbean (London: Glasshouse Press, 2004, ed together with Hilary Lim) Jason Jindrich is a geographer with the United States Census Bureau As an independent scholar, he publishes papers on historic suburbanization His works include: Establishing the Diversity of Late Nineteenth-century Suburbs: A€Metropolitan Context for the Railroad Era Urban Fringe (PhD, University of Minnesota, 2009); “The Shantytowns of Central Park West: Fin de siècle Squatting in American Cities”, Journal of Urban History 36, (2010): 672–684 Armin Kuhn is a research associate for the parliamentary group of the Piratenpartei at the Abgeordnetenhaus of Berlin He is interested in political theory and social movements with a focus on South and Central America and urban spaces His publications include: Militär und Politik in Süd- und Mittelamerika: Herausforderungen für demokratische Politik (Berlin: RLS-Stiftung, 2006, with Raimund Krämer); “Squatting and Urban Renewal: The Interaction of Squatter Movements and Strategies of Urban Restructuring in Berlin”, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 35, (2011): 644–658 (with Andrej Holm); Vom Häuserkampf zur neoliberalen Stadt: Besetzungsbewegungen in Berlin und Barcelona (Münster: Westfälisches Dampfboot, 2014) Erik Mobrand is assistant professor of political science at the National University of Singapore His research focuses on Chinese and Korean politics, especially on issues of urban development, money politics and democratic dysfunction His publications include: “Struggles Over Unlicensed Housing in Seoul, 1960–1980”, Urban Studies 45, (2008): 367– 389; “Explaining Divergent Responses to the North Korean Abductions Issue in Japan and South Korea”, Journal of Asian Studies 69, (2010): 507–536 (with Brad Williams); “Legitimizing and Contesting Exclusion: Discussions About Shiminhua in Urban China” China: An International Journal (2015) Ellinor Morack is assistant professor in Turkology at the University of Bamberg Between 2013 and 2015 she was a fellow of the Martin Buber Society at Hebrew University, Jerusalem, and between 2009 and 2013, she was a member of the Graduate School Muslim Cultures and Societies at the Free University Berlin Her dissertation “Migrants, Locals and the State in Izmir and Its Hinterland” looks at the events that followed the population exchange between Greece and Turkey between 1923 and 308â•…Contributors 1925 Her publications include: “The Ottoman Greeks and the Great War: 1912–1922”, The World During the First World War, ed Helmut Bley and Anorthe Kremers (Essen: Klartext, 2014): 213–228 Inbal Ofer is senior lecturer in modern European history at the Open University of Israel She concentrates on modern Spanish history with a focus on the politics of gender She is the recipient of several research grants from the Israeli Science Foundation Her publications include: Señoritas in Blue—The Making of a Female Political Elite in Franco’s Spain: The National Leadership of the Sección Femenina de la Falange, 1936–1977 (Eastbourne: Sussex Academic Press, 2009); Echoes of the Spanish Civil War in Palestine (Eastbourne: Sussex Academic Press, 2014, with Ranaan Rein) Hans Pruijt is assistant professor in social sciences at Erasmus University, Rotterdam His research focus is on information technology, the organization of work and social movements His publications include: Job Design and Technology: Taylorism vs Anti-Taylorism (London: Routledge, 1997); “Is the Institutionalization of Urban Movements Inevitable? A€Comparison of the Opportunities for Sustained Squatting in New York City and Amsterdam”, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 27 (2003), 133–157 Alexander Sedlmaier is reader in modern history at Bangor University, Wales Focusing on the history of Central Europe and North America, he works on the history of violence, consumption and social movements His publications include: Consumption and Violence: Radical Protest in Cold-War West Germany (Ann Arbor: Michigan University Press 2014); “â•›‘1968’ as a Catalyst of Consumer Society”, Cultural and Social History 8, (2011): 255–274 (with Stephan Malinowski); “Berlin als doppeltes ‘Schaufenster’ im Kalten Krieg”, Selling Berlin: Imagebildung und Stadtmarketing von der preußischen Residenz zur Bundeshauptstadt, ed Thomas Biskup and Marc Schalenberg (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2008): 227–244 Alan Smart is professor of anthropology at the University of Calgary His research interests include political economy, urban anthropology, anthropology of law, Hong Kong, China and North America He published a lot of articles on squatting, public housing, illegal economies, planning and Hong Kong investment in China in international journals His publications include: Making Room: Squatter Clearance in Hong Kong (Hong Kong University Press, 1992); The Shek Kip Mei Myth: Squatters, Fires and Colonial Rule in Hong Kong, 1950−1963 (Hong Kong University Press, 2006); “Housing Support for the ‘Undeserving’: Moral Hazard, Contributorsâ•… 309 Fires, and Laissez Faire in Hong Kong”, Ethnographies of Social Support, ed Markus Schlecker and Friederike Fleischer (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014): 17−37 Yap Kioe Sheng is honorary professor of housing and urban development at Cardiff University In 2009, he retired from the United Nations in Bangkok, where he was chief of the Social Protection and Social Justice Section of the Poverty Reduction Section and of the Human Settlements Section He joined the United Nations in 2000 after thirteen years at the Asian Institute of Technology in Bangkok, where he was a professor of housing and urban development Between 1982 and 1987, he worked at UNCHS (Habitat) in Nairobi His publications include: “Squatter Settlements”, The Encyclopedia of Housing, ed Willem van Vliet (Thousand Oaks: Sage, 1998), 554–556; Access to Basic Services for the Poor: The Importance of Good Governance (Bangkok: ESCAP, 2007); Urbanization in Southeast Asia: Issues€& Impacts, ed with Moe Thuzar (Singapore, ISEAS, 2012) This page intentionally left blank Index 15-M Movement€45 ‘1968’ 16, 150, 176↜–↜8, 180,€237 abandoned land/buildings 2, 66, 68, 85↜–↜6, 103↜–↜4, 110, 113, 129, 196↜–↜8, 215, 243,€269 Abrams, Charles 57↜–↜8, 66,€70 adverse possession 79,€82 Almere€260 Alsayyad, Nezar 5,€41 alter-globalization movement€7 Amsterdam 18, 34, 256↜–↜73 anarchism 18, 32, 34, 78, 123, 132, 237, 244↜–↜7,€ 258 anarcho-syndicalism€134 Angel, Shlomo€216 Ankara 11, 99, 106,€110 Antalya€110 anti-squatting industry 18, 269↜–↜73 Arnoriaga, Martin€159 Arraes, Miguel€133 arson 65, 102,€220 Artaud, Antonin€238 Asian Coalition for Housing€223 Australia 10, 65, 78↜–↜9, 82↜–↜4,€86 Austria-Hungary€100 autonomists 7↜–↜8, 17↜–↜18, 45, 260, 278, 283, 291,€293 Bailey, Ron 237↜–↜8, 240, 242,€247 Bangkok 15, 211−28; Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) 212, 216; community-based organizations (CBOs) 222−3, 225,€227 Barcelona 16, 153,€297 Basel 1,€20 Beatrix of the Netherlands€266 Beijing 66↜–↜7 Belo Horizonte€136 Benjamin, Stanley€216 Berlin 16, 19, 39, 278↜–↜9, 282, 285↜–↜8, 292↜–↜5; East Berlin 19, 278, 282, 295; Kreuzberg 287, 294; Prenzlauer Berg 285↜–↜6; West Berlin 286, 288,€293 Bidagor, Pedro€153 Bilgin, İhsan€112 Birke, Peter€7 Blackmar, Elizabeth 61↜–↜2,€68 Blackstone, William€80 Bogota€36 Boonyabancha, Samsook 223↜–↜5 Borja, Jordi€164 Botshabelo€88 Bourdieu, Pierre€15 Brasilia€127 Brazil 11↜–↜3, 43, 59↜–↜60, 122↜–↜42; Communist Party 16, 133↜–↜4; Estado Novo 136; military coup, 1964€132 Britain see United Kingdom Broun-Ramsay, James, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie€84 Brown, Celia€243 Bucharest 14, 188↜–↜207; Carol 53 15, 203↜–↜6; Communal Society for Cheap Housing 191↜–↜2 Buenos Aires€127 Buffalo€70 Bulgaria€101 chabola/chabolismo 13, 155↜–↜9, 163,€165 Camara, Helder€133 Cammelbeeck, George 259,€263 Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament 17,€237 Canada 82,€86 Cape Town 87,€89 312â•…Index capitalism 4, 19, 34↜–↜5, 39, 45, 78, 108, 113, 123, 125, 131, 151, 196, 203, 223↜–↜4, 242, 245, 264, 279↜–↜81 Caracas€123 Castells, Manuel 6,€123 Castro, Josué de€133 Chatterjee, Partha€183 Chemnitz (Karl-Marx-Stadt)€278 Chicago 66,€127 Chicago School 57↜–↜8 Chile€43 China 5, 10, 36↜–↜8, 66; Chinese Communist Party€4 church 61, 164, 190↜–↜2, 266, 270,€293 citizenship 12↜–↜3, 104, 122, 124↜–↜8, 130↜–↜1, 134, 139↜–↜42 civil rights 130; civil rights movement (East Germany) 283, 285↜–↜6, 296; civil rights movement (USA)€123 Clare, John€81 clearance 1↜–↜2, 13, 33, 41, 57, 64, 67↜–↜9, 87, 159↜–↜60, 175↜–↜6, 191, 201, 239, 241, 249; see also eviction Cleveland, Ohio€70 Cobb, Neil€6 colonialism 10↜–↜1, 13, 36, 78↜–↜90, 125, 127, 170, 173; British Colonies 10↜–↜1, 66, 78↜–↜90; see also Hong€Kong Comaroff, Jean and John L.€6 communism 4↜–↜5, 123↜–↜4, 132↜–↜41, 161, 164, 172, 192, 195, 197, 202, 206, 222,€258 community/communities 5, 15, 17, 32, 34, 57↜–↜8, 61, 65↜–↜70, 72, 79, 84, 87↜–↜9, 111, 134, 136↜–↜7, 141, 151, 155↜–↜9, 161↜–↜2, 165, 172, 180, 197, 199↜–↜200, 222↜–↜3, 225↜–↜6, 228, 242↜–↜9, 251, 257, 271↜–↜2,€ 279 comparison 7↜–↜8, 10, 29↜–↜31, 35↜–↜7, 40↜–↜5, 56↜–↜7, 59↜–↜60, 64, 100, 107, 113, 127, 129, 218, 239, 293↜–↜5 compensation 15, 37, 81, 103, 111, 135, 163, 190, 192, 194, 219↜–↜20,€ 228 consumption 8, 16, 34, 112, 125, 131, 161, 223, 257↜–↜8,€279 Cooper, Pete€243 Corbyn, Piers 241↜–↜2, 245↜–↜6 Costa Rica€68 counterculture 7, 18, 33,€205 crime 1, 6, 45, 66, 78, 152, 172, 188, 191, 199↜–↜200, 203, 238, 243↜–↜4, 249↜–↜50, 258, 283; criminalization 6, 17, 249, 270↜–↜3, 288; see also Anti-squatting law 2010 (Netherlands); Criminal Law Act, 1977 (United Kingdom) Crown land 78, 82↜–↜5 crisis 4, 6↜–↜7, 12, 16, 35, 41, 44↜–↜5, 70↜–↜72, 105, 111, 131, 162, 189, 197, 222↜–↜3, 240↜–↜42, 257↜–↜8, 263, 268, 293↜–↜4 Datta, Ayona€6 Davidoff, Paul€160 Davis, Mike 4↜–↜5,€57 Day, Patrick 243, 246↜–↜7 debt 4, 113, 199, 220, 222,€226 DeGoede, Koos€216 demolition 2, 6, 12, 14↜–↜5, 18, 33, 37, 67↜–↜8, 85↜–↜7, 101, 106↜–↜8, 129, 138↜–↜9, 173, 175↜–↜7, 179↜–↜80, 182, 197, 200↜–↜1, 237↜–↜40, 243↜–↜4, 257, 260↜–↜3, 283, 285, 289↜–↜91,€ 296 Dessau€278 developers 12↜–↜3, 32, 110↜–↜11, 159, 181, 199, 202↜–↜3, 206, 215, 219, 222, 228, 261, 267,€272 domestic peace 18, 259, 263,€269 Dresden 19, 278, 282, 288↜–↜91, 294↜–↜6 drugs 17, 31, 38, 164, 244, 249, 261, 267,€272 Duijn, Roel van€258 Durban€87 East St.€Louis, Illinois 69↜–↜70 education 4, 34, 108, 128, 131, 133, 135, 137, 152, 154, 163, 189, 205, 220, 242, 246, 249↜–↜50, 283,€285 elite(s) 5, 7, 14, 39, 125, 138↜–↜9, 170↜–↜1, 184, 196, 211, 222, 226↜–↜7, 246,€288 enclosure 63, 79↜–↜82,€130 encroachment 10, 78↜–↜80, 88↜–↜9 Engels, Friedrich€123 entitlement 2, 41↜–↜3, 104, 113, 161, 194↜–↜5, 245, 263,€269 European Court of Human Rights 6,€196 eviction 2, 5, 14↜–↜5, 17↜–↜8, 31, 34↜–↜5, 38↜–↜40, 43↜–↜5, 60↜–↜2, 64, 67↜–↜8, 70, 79, 85↜–↜9, 103↜–↜6, 108, 111↜–↜2, 114, 132↜–↜3, 135↜–↜6, 139, 159, 162, 165, 175↜–↜9, 183, 188↜–↜9, 196↜–↜7, 199↜–↜206, 215, 219↜–↜22, 228, 237↜–↜8, 241↜–↜2, 244↜–↜7, 249↜–↜50, 257, 259, 261↜–↜69, 271↜–↜2, 283↜–↜4, 286↜–↜7, 289, 291↜–↜3, 295; see also clearance expropriation 104, 159, 191, 222,€281 Indexâ•… 313 Falange€153 favela 1, 20, 30↜–↜1, 59, 66, 123, 129↜–↜30,€ 142 Fernandes, Edésio€124 feudalism 65, 79↜–↜81, 135,€137 Fiji€86 Fitzgerald, Thomas€69 Fitzpatrick, Peter€84 formalization 4, 33↜–↜4, 43, 59, 65, 138, 154, 178, 225,€227 Foucault, Michel€79 Fox-O’Mahony, Lorna€6 Frank, Andre Gunder€36 France 16, 38,€150 Franco dictatorship 13, 39, 150↜–↜66 Freetown, Sierra Leone€67 Freire, Paulo€133 Freitas, Octavio de€129 Freyre, Gilberto 128, 133,€137 Friedrichs, Jan-Henrik€7 Gans, Herbert 14, 188↜–↜9,€198 García de Enterría, Eduardo 160↜–↜1 gay squats 17, 243,€249 gecekondu 11↜–↜12, 99↜–↜100, 105↜–↜13; gecekondu law, 1966 12,€106 Geneva€39 gentrification 8, 17, 19, 32↜–↜3, 66, 199, 202, 204, 265, 278↜–↜97 Gera€278 Germany 19, 278↜–↜97; Federal Republic€of Germany (FGR) 8, 19, 280↜–↜1, 287, 294, 296; German Democratic Republic (GDR) 19, 278↜–↜97 Giessen, Theo van der 264,€269 Gilbert, Alan€36 Ginsberg, Alan€238 Glasgow 16,€243 Goldsmith, Trevor€154 Granmeen Bank€44 Great Britain see United Kingdom Greco-Turkish War 12,€102 Greece 12, 45, 101↜–↜4 Groningen€260 Guzman-Concha, Cesar€7 Habitat for Humanity€45 Halle€278 Hannibal, Missouri€69 Harper, Clifford 244,€248 Harris, Frank€238 Harris, Richard€4 Harvey, David€123 health/healthcare 4, 34, 38, 42, 128↜–↜9, 133, 137, 180, 188, 217, 223,€245 Ho Chi Minh€4 Holston, James 12, 124↜–↜7 homelessness 4, 14, 17, 33↜–↜4, 45, 58, 70, 78, 81, 88, 104, 127, 150, 175, 188↜–↜9, 191↜–↜2, 196↜–↜8, 201↜–↜6, 217, 220, 237↜–↜40, 242, 247↜–↜51,€ 259 homesteading 57, 63, 82, 251; Homestead Act, 1862 (USA) 4, 10,€59 Hong Kong 10, 36↜–↜8, 41, 66↜–↜7, 88; Kowloon Walled City€66 Hou, Jeffrey€32 housing shortage 16↜–↜17, 152, 154, 170, 178, 192, 196, 216, 237, 239,€265 human rights 6, 59, 90, 124, 133,€188 India 10, 44, 84, 86↜–↜7 indigenous people/native people 11, 41, 80, 84↜–↜6, 89; indigenous people’s rights 11, 59; see also Native Americans informality 4↜–↜6, 8↜–↜9, 13, 20, 30↜–↜5, 38, 40↜–↜6, 68, 82, 113↜–↜14, 122↜–↜42, 183, 198, 205; formal-informal housing continuum 3; informal settlements/ housing i, 2↜–↜6, 9↜–↜12, 14↜–↜15, 44, 56↜–↜9, 62↜–↜4, 66↜–↜7, 69, 71↜–↜2, 87↜–↜8, 105, 109, 122↜–↜42, 170↜–↜1, 173↜–↜5, 178↜–↜9, 184, 188↜–↜206, 211↜–↜28; informal sector 4, 110, 228; informal slums 3,€42 insecure tenure 3, 5, 9, 15↜–↜16, 64↜–↜5, 69↜–↜70, 81, 86, 89, 111, 133↜–↜4, 192, 196, 199↜–↜200, 203, 217, 219↜–↜25, 285,€289 International Marxist Group (IMG) 242,€246 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 4,€222 Işık, Oğuz€111 Istanbul 5, 11, 99↜–↜101, 106↜–↜7, 110↜–↜11, 113↜–↜4; Bir Mayis Mahallasi 108; Sultanbeyli 110,€114 Israel 88,€90 Italy 38, 45,€246 Izmir 11↜–↜12, 99↜–↜105, 110, 113↜–↜14 Jamaica 85↜–↜6 Janov, Arthur€243 Japan 171↜–↜3 Jefferson City, Missouri€69 Jena€278 314â•…Index Jersey City, New Jersey€70 Johnson, Jack€68 Jones, Ann€241 Kabouters 258↜–↜9 Karachi€88 Kawamata, Tadashi€1 Kenya 10, 84↜–↜8; Group Areas Act, 1950 87↜–↜8 Kerouac, Jack€238 Khayelitsha 87; see also Nairobi Khon Kaen 211, 216↜–↜17,€219 Kibera 31, 87; see also Nairobi Kim Hyŏn-ok 13, 173, 176↜–↜7, 179,€184 Kinghan, Mike 239, 241,€247 Kittikachorn, Thanom€222 Klong Toey 217,€221 Kok, Hans€267 Korea 173↜–↜4; military coup, 1961 172; North Korea 173; South Korea 11, 13↜–↜5, 170↜–↜2, 174, 183↜–↜4 Korean War 13,€172 land grabbing 11, 70, 82↜–↜4 land management 82↜–↜3,€216 landownership 2, 6, 13, 37, 58, 61, 80↜–↜2, 85, 88, 99, 101, 113, 123, 125, 136↜–↜7, 139, 158↜–↜9, 161, 206, 212, 214↜–↜16, 219↜–↜22, 224↜–↜5, 227↜–↜8; see also property land reform 224↜–↜5,€228 land sharing 221,€228 land tenure 2↜–↜3, 7, 9↜–↜10, 15↜–↜6, 34, 37, 40, 56, 61↜–↜2, 64↜–↜5, 67↜–↜70, 72, 78, 80↜–↜1, 86↜–↜9, 216↜–↜17, 219↜–↜24,€ 228 Langemeijer, Gerard E.€270 Latin America 6, 12, 31, 40↜–↜1, 58, 122↜–↜42,€ 155 Lefebvre, Henri 123, 150↜–↜1,€165 legalization 4↜–↜5, 12, 14, 18↜–↜19, 33↜–↜5, 39, 100, 104, 106, 109, 111↜–↜12, 114, 126, 129, 151, 159↜–↜64, 183, 192, 194, 198↜–↜9, 205, 265, 267↜–↜9, 272, 278, 281, 283, 286↜–↜7, 289↜–↜90, 292, 295↜–↜7 legitimacy 2, 6, 8↜–↜9, 18, 20, 31↜–↜2, 44, 58, 72, 80, 85, 87, 102, 104, 109, 141, 153, 194, 202, 204↜–↜5, 245, 256↜–↜7, 259, 261, 280↜–↜1,€ 293 Leipzig 19, 278, 282↜–↜5, 291, 294↜–↜6 Lelystad€260 lesbian squats€243 Lima 57, 66, 125,€174 Loach, Ken€240 London 17↜–↜18, 67, 78, 237↜–↜51; All London Squatters Federation 246; Big Flame squat 244; Camden 241, 244, 247, 249; Centre for Advanced Television Study 247, Chiswick Women’s Aid 243; Drury Lane Arts Lab 238, Greater London Council 248; Islington 242, 245↜–↜6; Lambeth 241↜–↜7, 249↜–↜50; London Squatters Campaign (Family Squatters Advisory service) 17, 237, 240; Redbridge 237↜–↜8; Richmond 243; Squatters Action Council 242; Tower Hamlets 244, 248, 250; Tolmers Square 242; Westminster 241, 244↜–↜6, 249↜–↜50 Los Angeles€65 Lotta Continua€246 Maastricht€272 Madrid 13, 38↜–↜9, 41, 123, 150↜–↜66; Cañada Real Galiana 38↜–↜9; Orcasitas 13, 154↜–↜66 Magalhães, Agamenon€137 Magdeburg€278 Manaus€127 Manchester€243 Manila€67 Manjikian, Mary€6 Mao Zedong 4; Maoism€107 Maricato, Erminia€124 market 4, 7↜–↜8, 14, 37, 42, 45, 63, 67, 87, 103, 158, 181, 183, 200, 213, 215, 223↜–↜5, 228, 245, 258, 262, 280↜–↜1, 295↜–↜6; black market 105; free market 4, 56, 196↜–↜7, 199, 203; housing/property market 2, 8, 14, 32, 37, 110, 178, 199, 221↜–↜5, 228, 243, 247, 281↜–↜9, 292, 294↜–↜296; market economy 5, 19, 196,€206 Marxism 5, 107,€125 Martínez, Miguel€35 Mau-Mau uprising€85 Mersin€110 migrants/migration 5, 11↜–↜12, 15, 31, 33↜–↜4, 38, 40, 57, 61, 63, 69, 78, 83, 87, 99↜–↜107, 110↜–↜14, 123, 127↜–↜9, 131, 137, 139, 150↜–↜2, 154↜–↜8, 170, 173↜–↜5, 190↜–↜1, 198↜–↜9, 212, 214↜–↜15, 220, 228, 239, 249, 260, 280↜–↜3,€285 militancy 8, 18, 140, 155, 160, 264, 266↜–↜9, 272, 283↜–↜5 Milwaukee 65↜–↜6 Minneapolis€69 Indexâ•… 315 minority/minorities 14, 17, 107, 215,€243 monastery 190↜–↜1,€ 216 Montenegro€101 Monterrey€123 Morant Bay rebellion, 1865€85 Mostardinha, Manuel d’Oliveira 135,€137 Mumbai€5 Nairobi 5, 31, 57, 87; see also Khayelitsha, Kibera Natakun, Boonanan€226 nationalism 11↜–↜2, 102↜–↜3, 107,€ 113 nationalization 14, 192↜–↜4, 196, 200, 206,€280 Native Americans 59, 82,€86 neighbourhood 12, 13, 19, 32, 34, 41, 65↜–↜6, 68↜–↜70, 87, 107↜–↜8, 110↜–↜12, 123, 132, 135, 137↜–↜8, 152, 155↜–↜7, 159↜–↜65, 176↜–↜7, 183, 190↜–↜1, 193↜–↜5, 100↜–↜200, 202, 211, 214, 256, 260↜–↜5, 267↜–↜8, 271↜–↜2, 278↜–↜9, 281↜–↜5, 287↜–↜90, 292↜–↜7 neo-liberalism 7, 19, 57, 113, 124, 220, 251, 280,€294 Netherlands 6, 16, 18↜–↜19, 256↜–↜73; Anti-squatting law 2010 18, 270; Supreme Court 18, 259, 269↜–↜70 New Jersey Land Co-Operative 61↜–↜2 New Orleans€70 New York 44, 46, 60↜–↜2, 67↜–↜8, 70, 279; Brooklyn 67↜–↜8, 71; Central park 61↜–↜2, 68; Queens€61 New Zealand€86 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) 10, 15, 39↜–↜1, 43↜–↜5, 114, 200, 217, 220↜–↜3,€225 Nottingham 239,€243 Neuwirth, Robert 5,€57 Occupy movement€46 one-night house 63, 69, 81, 99; see also gecekondu Osborn, Tom€245 Ottoman Empire 12, 100↜–↜2; Ottoman land law, 1865 12, 99↜–↜1,€114 Palestine 10, 88,€90 Paris 34, 39, 102,€191 Park Chung-hee 13, 172, 176,€182 Peru 43,€125 Pimenta, Joaquin 133↜–↜4 Pınarcıoğlu, Melih€111 Pizzey, Erin€243 Platt, Steve 247, 250↜–↜1 police 1↜–↜2, 8, 18, 31, 39, 41, 69, 81, 104, 108, 135↜–↜6, 162, 172, 176↜–↜7, 181, 198, 200, 202, 206, 227, 237↜–↜8, 242, 249, 259, 261, 263↜–↜8, 271↜–↜2, 280, 283, 286, 288↜–↜9 political economy 2, 8, 10, 35↜–↜40, 43, 184, 224,€279 Portugal€45 Potsdam 19, 278, 282, 290↜–↜5 poverty 1, 3↜–↜5, 12, 14↜–↜16, 20, 29, 31↜–↜3, 42, 45↜–↜6, 58, 61, 63↜–↜4, 66↜–↜7, 70, 78, 80↜–↜1, 85↜–↜6, 88↜–↜9, 100, 104, 106, 108, 110↜–↜11, 122↜–↜8, 132↜–↜7, 139↜–↜142, 155, 173, 176, 179, 182↜–↜3, 188, 194, 196↜–↜205, 211↜–↜12, 215↜–↜28, 240, 256, 285,€288 preservation 15↜–↜6, 18↜–↜9, 137, 256, 260↜–↜1, 272, 278, 280, 289,€296 privatisation 4, 14, 20, 32, 196↜–↜7, 220, 280↜–↜1, 287,€ 294 property: absentee property/ownership 59, 78, 83, 85, 88; concepts of i, 3, 79↜–↜80, 108; property law 5↜–↜6, 72, 106, 109, 128, 189, 270; private property 19, 56, 61, 68, 78, 104, 106↜–↜9, 113, 136, 139, 162, 192, 196, 200↜–↜204, 214, 239↜–↜41, 280↜–↜1, 289, 292; property regime/relations/ system i, 2, 19↜–↜20, 32, 36, 56, 59, 129, 193, 294; property rights 11↜–↜12, 15, 35, 56↜–↜7, 60, 78↜–↜80, 86, 88, 90, 100, 104, 106, 109↜–↜10, 112, 124↜–↜6, 132, 136, 154, 188, 192↜–↜3, 216, 272; public/state property 1, 17, 19, 30, 78, 103, 109, 113↜–↜4, 191, 193, 200, 239, 241, 244, 250↜–↜1, 289, 292, 295, 297; see also landownership; land tenure; title/ titling protest 1↜–↜2, 8↜–↜10, 12↜–↜13, 16↜–↜17, 33, 45↜–↜6, 62, 88, 104, 106, 138, 164↜–↜5, 170, 176, 183, 205, 220, 224, 237↜–↜8, 246, 259↜–↜60, 262↜–↜7, 269↜–↜70, 272, 278↜–↜9, 284, 287, 289↜–↜91, 294↜–↜6 Provo 18,€258 Pruijt, Hans 16, 18, 33,€278 public land 1↜–↜2, 11, 15, 19, 59, 70, 78, 82, 84, 110↜–↜11, 129, 134↜–↜5, 174, 176, 216↜–↜17, 225,€227 public services 4↜–↜5, 30, 34, 36, 39↜–↜40, 44, 65↜–↜7, 87, 131↜–↜5, 137, 141↜–↜2, 316â•…Index 150, 152↜–↜3, 156, 161, 164, 174, 177, 180, 182↜–↜3, 195, 198, 215, 221↜–↜2, 228, 257↜–↜60, 262, 294; see€also education; health/healthcare public space i, 1, 8, 20, 232, 70,€164 Purcell, Mark€151 Quartermain, Barry€238 Rachmanism€240 Radford, Jim 238, 242,€247 Rama I, King of Thailand€212 Recife 12, 122, 126↜–↜42 redevelopment 8, 111↜–↜12, 183, 248, 256,€272 Reeve, Kesia€7 regulation(s) 3, 10↜–↜13, 16, 18, 36↜–↜8, 69, 83, 88, 99↜–↜100, 102↜–↜3, 122, 124, 129↜–↜30, 135, 137, 142, 171, 188, 190↜–↜2, 200, 205↜–↜6, 211, 215, 217, 221, 226↜–↜7, 239, 249, 251, 290, 293; deregulation 4, 12,€110 renting 2↜–↜3, 15↜–↜7, 32, 36↜–↜7, 58, 61↜–↜2, 64↜–↜8, 70, 81, 103↜–↜4, 110, 112, 134↜–↜5, 137, 155↜–↜6, 158↜–↜9, 161, 174, 183, 190↜–↜4, 196↜–↜201, 204, 215↜–↜16, 219, 225↜–↜6, 228, 238↜–↜41, 243↜–↜6, 250↜–↜1, 256↜–↜7, 260, 262↜–↜3, 265, 271, 268↜–↜9, 278↜–↜9, 281↜–↜4, 286↜–↜9, 291↜–↜2, 295↜–↜7 repression 8, 15, 29, 33↜–↜5, 38, 41, 134, 136, 140, 155, 160, 182↜–↜4, 272, 285,€292 resettlement 14, 41, 88, 155, 159, 161, 194,€206 resistance 2, 7↜–↜9, 14, 16, 18, 29, 34↜–↜5, 38↜–↜40, 87, 102, 104, 108, 123, 132↜–↜4, 141, 150, 165, 170↜–↜84, 220↜–↜1, 247, 249, 260↜–↜1, 263↜–↜7, 269↜–↜70,€ 272 restitution 14, 196↜–↜7, 200↜–↜1, 281, 287↜–↜9,€ 295 Rey, Félix López 160,€164 “right to the city” 1, 13, 19, 33, 122↜–↜8, 130, 132↜–↜3, 135, 138, 140, 142, 150↜–↜1, 165,€ 293 Rio de Janeiro 5, 31, 66, 127, 129↜–↜30, 134, 136↜–↜8,€ 141 riot(s) 14, 18, 160, 181↜–↜2, 263↜–↜4, 266↜–↜7 Rolnick, Raquel€124 Roma 5, 14, 29, 34, 78, 112, 193, 198↜–↜204,€ 206 Romania 11, 14, 101, 188↜–↜9, 192, 196↜–↜8, 200, 203,€205 Rosenzweig, Roy 61↜–↜2,€68 Rostock€278 Roy, Ananya 4↜–↜5, 8, 30,€41 Ruggiero, Vincenzo€194 rule of law 10, 37, 43, 81,€89 Russia 100↜–↜1 Russo-Turkish war, 1877↜–↜8€101 Saemaŭl movement 172,€182 St.€Louis, Missouri 68↜–↜9 Salvador, Brazil 127,€136 San Francisco, California 69↜–↜70 Santa Clara, California€69 Santiago de Chile 123,€127 São Paulo 57, 124, 127↜–↜8,€130 Scheveningen€272 Schmidt, André€258 Schönbohm, Jörg 286,€292 self-help i, 4, 9, 40, 45, 108, 112, 150, 154, 222, 251, 283, 287, 295↜–↜6 Seoul 13, 170↜–↜84; Kwangju Housing Estate 180↜–↜2,€ 184 Serbia€101 shanties 1, 3↜–↜4, 13, 31, 34, 56↜–↜70, 88, 105↜–↜6, 123, 125, 135, 137, 150↜–↜1, 154, 159, 165, 173, 175↜–↜6 Shek Kip Mei 88; see also Hong€Kong Shelley, Diana€246 Shinawatra, Thaksin€223 Shining Path€4 Sierra Leone 67↜–↜8 Siguán, Miguel 152,€157 slums 3↜–↜5, 10, 30↜–↜1, 34↜–↜5, 38↜–↜42, 44, 57↜–↜8, 60, 66↜–↜7, 79, 87↜–↜8, 106↜–↜7, 112, 123, 129, 211, 217↜–↜8, 224, 226↜–↜8, 242,€ 248 Smart, Alan 9↜–↜10,€41 social housing/council housing/ low-income housing 17, 36, 39↜–↜40, 43↜–↜4, 112, 134, 138, 151, 177, 182, 191, 197↜–↜99, 203↜–↜4, 206, 222↜–↜3, 225, 227, 238↜–↜40, 243, 250↜–↜1, 256, 259, 261, 263, 267,€291 social movements i, 1↜–↜9, 12↜–↜13, 16↜–↜20, 29, 33, 35, 38↜–↜40, 42↜–↜3, 45↜–↜6, 102↜–↜3, 110, 123↜–↜128, 132↜–↜3, 136, 141↜–↜2, 160↜–↜6, 172, 182, 184, 224, 238↜–↜40, 242↜–↜3, 246, 249↜–↜51, 256↜–↜73, 278↜–↜9, 281, 283, 285↜–↜8, 290↜–↜7; see also 15-M movement; alter-globalization movement; Indexâ•… 317 autonomists; Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament; civil rights; Occupy movement; “right to the city”; Saemaŭl movement Soto, Hernando de 4↜–↜5, 12, 33↜–↜4, 41, 56↜–↜8, 78, 82↜–↜3, 123, 125↜–↜6, 139,€142 South Africa 10, 79, 86↜–↜90; Natives Land Act, 1913€86 Soweto€31 Spain 11, 45↜–↜6; Franco dictatorship 13, 39, 150↜–↜66; land law 1956/1975 152; Neighbourhood Movement (Movimiento Vecinal) 13, 160↜–↜5; Spanish Communist Party (PCE) 161, 164; Spanish Socialist party (PSOE) 165; Supreme Court 154,€162 speculation 12, 14, 18, 83, 107, 153, 181, 196, 262↜–↜3, 265, 272,€295 Squatting Europe Kollective€7 squattocracy 79,€83 Stein, Peter€244 Straw, Jack€249 Strummer, Joe€247 Taipei€67 taxes 12, 61, 101, 105↜–↜6, 111, 114, 131, 134, 190, 192, 206, 224,€238 Thailand 11, 15, 217↜–↜28; Assembly of the Poor 224; Baan Eua Arthorn 223; Baan Mankong 219, 223↜–↜7; chap chong (grab and reserve) 15, 216↜–↜17; Community-Based Organization (CBO) 222↜–↜3, 225, 227; Community Organizations Development Institute (CODI) 15, 219, 223↜–↜6; Crown Property Bureau (CPB) 216, 225; Four Regions Slum Network 224; National Housing Authority (NHA) 218; One Million Houses Programme 223; Urban Community Development Office (UCDO)€222 Tharir Square€46 The Hague 268↜–↜9,€272 Thrace 100↜–↜1 Tijen, Tjebbe van€261 title/titling (property) 2↜–↜5, 9↜–↜12, 14, 33, 57↜–↜8, 61↜–↜2, 64↜–↜7, 72, 79↜–↜85, 88↜–↜90, 101, 104, 106, 109, 126, 150, 189, 214,€224 Torrens, Robert 83↜–↜4; Torrens title system 11, 65, 83↜–↜4,€87 Trinidad€89 Trotskyism 17, 242,€246 Turkey 11, 99↜–↜114; military coup 1980 12, 108; Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi (Justice and Development Party) (AKP) 111; Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi (Republican People’s Party, CHP) 105, 107; Demokrat Partisi (DP) 105; Partiya Karkerên Kurdistanê (PKK)€110 Turner, John 43,€174 Uitermark, Justus€33 Ungsongtham, Prateep€221 United Kingdom 6, 16↜–↜18, 79↜–↜83, 237↜–↜51; Criminal Law Act, 1977 249; Housing Rents and Subsidies Act, 1975 250; Land Registration Act, 2002 82; National Front 18, 243; Vagrancy Act, 1824 81; see also colonialism United Nations (UN) 89; The Challenge of Slums report 3↜–↜4, 57; Development Programme (UNDP) 14, 198↜–↜9; Economic Commission for the Europe region 5; UN Habitat 42↜–↜4, 54, 114; UNICEF€217 United States of America (USA) 4, 10, 56↜–↜71, 78, 82, 110, 123, 128; Nicholson Land Act, 1860 83; Pre-emption Act, 1841 82; Real Property Act, 1858€84 upgrading 8, 14, 33, 35, 42↜–↜3, 87↜–↜8, 182↜–↜3, 219, 222, 225, 281↜–↜2, 290, 293↜–↜4, 296↜–↜7 urban history 5, 10, 56↜–↜8, 71,€130 urbanization 11, 31, 33, 36, 66, 71, 99↜–↜112, 128, 132, 151, 174, 192↜–↜3, 195; suburbanization 281↜–↜2 urban planning 8, 16, 18, 32, 40, 106, 110, 112, 151↜–↜5, 192, 205, 261,€268 urban renewal 14, 19, 33, 89, 256, 260, 279↜–↜80, 282, 288, 290, 294,€296 urban space 8, 16, 34, 46, 122, 124, 126, 150↜–↜1, 155↜–↜63, 165, 171, 177, 184,€293 urban studies 32, 112,€189 Utrecht€269 value 14↜–↜5, 18, 59, 63, 65↜–↜6, 69, 100, 111, 137, 161, 163, 178, 180↜–↜1, 189, 200, 211↜–↜12, 217↜–↜19, 224, 227↜–↜8, 282; valorisation 7, 17, 279, 281, 287,€297 Varley, Ann€41 318â•…Index Villanueva, Antonio 160↜–↜1 Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland€85 Videanu, Adriean€201 Vietnam Solidarity Campaign 17,€237 violence 4, 6, 8, 15, 18, 20, 31, 56, 83, 89, 103, 108, 112↜–↜13, 123, 127, 133↜–↜4, 136↜–↜7, 189, 266↜–↜7, 269, 271; non-violence 259, 264; state violence 2, 6, 8, 108, 136, 202, 206, 249,€267 Wates, Nick 239, 242↜–↜3,€247 Weed (i.e Christopher Whitehouse) 240↜–↜1, 244, 246↜–↜7 Weimar€278 West Indies€81 Wiegel, Hans€265 Wolmar, Christian 242,€246 World Bank 4, 43,€197 World War I 16, 102, 137,€191 World War II 12, 16, 66, 99, 105, 137, 189↜–↜90, 192, 205,€217 Wales€81 Ward, Colin€63 Ward, Peter€36 Young, Arthur€81 Zăbrăuţi, Aleea€198 ... contributed to the economic upgrading of the disputed quarters and thus to gentrification, they responded with the development of their concept of militancy.47 By connecting the question of the. .. legality.”32 Ayona Datta, on the other hand, refers to the downsides of the continued “conflation of illegality with informality” Drawing on the notion of “lawfare”, pioneered by the anthropologists.. .Public Goods versus Economic Interests Squatting is currently a global phenomenon A€concomitant of economic development and social conflict, squatting attracts public attention because—