RED CHINA’S GREEN REVOLUTION Red China’s Green Revolution TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION, INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE, AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT UNDER THE COMMUNE Joshua Eisenman Columbia University Press New York Columbia University Press Publishers Since 1893 New York Chichester, West Sussex cup.columbia.edu Copyright © 2018 Joshua Eisenman All rights reserved E-ISBN 978-0-231-54675-1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Eisenman, Joshua, 1977- author Title: Red China’s green revolution: technological innovation, institutional change, and economic development under the commune / Joshua Eisenman Description: New York: Columbia University Press, [2018] Identifiers: LCCN 2017054574 | ISBN 9780231186667 (hardcover and pbk.: alk paper) Subjects: LCSH: Green Revolution—China | Communes (China) | Agriculture—Economic aspects—China | Agriculture and state—China Classification: LCC S471.C6 E37 2018 | DDC 338.10951—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017054574 978-0231-18666-7 (hardcover) ISBN 978-0231-18667-4 (paperback) ISBN 978-0231-54675-1 (e-book) ISBN A Columbia University Press E-book CUP would be pleased to hear about your reading experience with this e-book at cup-ebook@columbia.edu Cover design: Noah Arlow To the memory of Richard Baum, who taught me how to seek truth from facts CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES FOREWORD BY LYNN T WHITE III PROLOGUE: CHINA’S MISSING INSTITUTION Chapter One Introduction: Assessing Commune Productivity Part I Creating China’s Green Revolution Chapter Two Institutional Origins and Evolution Chapter Three China’s Green Revolution Part II Sources of Commune Productivity Chapter Four Economics: Super-Optimal Investment Chapter Five Politics: Maoism Chapter Six Organization: Size and Structure Chapter Seven Burying the Commune Chapter Eight Conclusion APPENDIX A NATIONAL AND PROVINCIAL AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION DATA, 1949–1979 APPENDIX B SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS FOR CHAPTER APPENDIX C ESSENTIAL OFFICIAL AGRICULTURAL POLICY STATEMENTS ON THE COMMUNE, 1958–1983 I COMMUNE CREATION a August 29, 1958: CPC Central Committee, “Resolution on the Establishment of People’s Communes in the Rural Areas” b November 3, 1960: CPC Central Committee, “Urgent Directive Concerning Present Policy Problems in Rural People’s Communes” c September 1962: CPC Central Committee, “Working Regulations of Rural People’s Communes” (a.k.a., The Sixty Articles on Agriculture) II COMMUNE REFORM AND GOVERNANCE d December 11, 1970: State Council, “Report of the State Council on the Northern Districts Agricultural Conference” e December 26, 1971: Central Document No 82, “CPC Central Committee Directive Concerning the Question of Distribution in the Rural People’s Communes” f October 15, 1975: Central Document No 21, Hua Guofeng’s Abridged Report on the First Dazhai Conference, “Mobilize the Whole Party, Make Greater Efforts to Develop Agriculture and Strive to Build Dazhai-Type Counties Throughout the Country” III DECOLLECTIVIZATION g May 31, 1980: Deng Xiaoping, “On Questions of Rural Policy” h September 27, 1980: Central Document No 75, “CPC Central Committee Directive Concerning Several Issues in Further Strengthening and Perfecting the Production Responsibility System in Agriculture” i October 12, 1983: CPC Central Committee and State Council, “Circular on Separating the Local Government from Communes and Setting Up Township Governments” NOTES BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES FIGURE 0.1 Xiaogang Contract No 1, displayed at the National Museum of China as viewed in December 2000 and May 2013 FIGURE 0.2 Xiaogang Contract No 2, displayed at the Xiaogang Village Museum and published online by the People’s Daily on November 11, 2008 FIGURE 1.1 Total agricultural production: grain, edible oil, and pigs FIGURE 1.2 Agricultural production per unit land: grain, edible oil, and pigs FIGURE 1.3 Agricultural production per unit labor: grain, edible oil, and pigs FIGURE 1.4 National comparison of grain production FIGURE 1.5 National comparison of pig inventory FIGURE 1.6 National comparison of life expectancy at birth FIGURE 3.1 Investment in agriculture FIGURE 3.2 “The Production Team’s Agricultural Research Small Group,” 1973 FIGURE 3.3 Population and commune labor FIGURE 3.4 Commune population in selected provinces FIGURE 3.5 Number of cities by population size FIGURE 3.6 Technical and teacher training FIGURE 3.7 Primary, middle, and high school student enrollment FIGURE 3.8 Students in secondary vocational training FIGURE 3.9 Total arable land and average arable land per commune worker FIGURE 3.10 Arable land per commune worker in select provinces FIGURE 3.11 Total fertilizer production and use per Ha FIGURE 3.12 Total pesticide production FIGURE 3.13 Percentage area sown with high-yield seed varieties FIGURE 3.14 Irrigation infrastructure FIGURE 3.15 Mechanized cultivation FIGURE 3.16 Tractors and agricultural horsepower FIGURE 3.17 Agricultural machinery FIGURE 3.18 Commune electricity production and usage FIGURE 3.19 Commune and brigade hydropower FIGURE 3.20 Rural transportation capital FIGURE 4.1 GLF Commune Goal, 1958–1961 FIGURE 4.2 GLF Commune Reality, 1958–1961 FIGURE 4.3 Rightist Commune, 1962–1964 FIGURE 4.4 Leftist Commune, 1965–1969 FIGURE 4.5 Green Revolution Commune, 1970–1979 FIGURE 4.6 Decollectivization, 1980–1983 FIGURE 4.7 Lewis modified classical model FIGURE 4.8 Commune collective income distribution FIGURE 4.9 A market-goer in Guang Li Commune makes a cash purchase, 1973 FIGURE 4.10 A seller in Guang Li Commune market weighs out a sale, 1973 FIGURE 4.11 A shopper in Guang Li Commune market buys a goose, 1973 FIGURE 5.1 Shakers performs collective dances and songs as part of their worship FIGURE 5.2 “Destroy the Old World; Forge a New World,” 1967 FIGURE 5.3 “Mao Zedong Thought is the peak of contemporary Marxism and Leninism,” 1968 FIGURE 5.4 “Achieve greater victories on the road to continuous revolution!” 1970 FIGURE 5.5a Lapel pin that depicts Mao overseeing agricultural modernization and hydropower generation FIGURE 5.5b Lapel pin that depicts Mao above a stalk of grain, a machine gear, and a bowl of food 1968 FIGURE 5.5c Lapel pin that depicts Mao above a handheld tractor 1968 FIGURE 5.6 At times the atmosphere of Maoist worship was akin to a religious revival FIGURE 5.7 Farmers recite from Mao’s Little Red Book before starting work, 1967 FIGURE 5.8 Performers sing songs glorifying Mao FIGURE 5.9 An old farmer explains the hardships of old society during an yikusitian meeting FIGURE 5.10 “Chairman Mao Teaches Us: We Should Not Only Keep a Strong Formal Army, But Also Organize Contingents of People’s Militia on a Big Scale,” 1967 FIGURE 5.11 Markets convened by communes and brigades, like this one in the Guang Li Commune amphitheater in 1973 FIGURE 5.12 A child shouts “Long Live Chairman Mao!” 1970 FIGURE 6.1 Distribution of agricultural total output across Henan counties, 1958–1979 FIGURE 6.2 Rural governance structure in commune-era China FIGURE 6.3 Average numbers of communes and brigades in Henan counties, 1958–1979 FIGURE 6.4 Average commune relative size and average team size in Henan counties, 1958–1979 FIGURE 6.5 A map of China indicating the location of Henan Province TABLE 6.1 Commune Dynamics and Agricultural Output (Baseline Results) FIGURE 6.6 Marginal effects of team size conditional on mean centered commune relative size FIGURE 6.7 Predicted crops production against mean centered team size, conditional on commune relative size TABLE 6.2 Robustness and Falsification Analysis FIGURE 6.8 Predicted (dis)advantage of each observation in comparison to a pseudo case with sample mean commune relative size and mean team size FIGURE 7.1 The 1975 National Conference on Learning from Dazhai in Agriculture FIGURE 7.2 Hua (right) and Chen Yonggui (left) inspect grain on the sidelines of the 1975 Dazhai Conference FIGURE 7.3 High school students rally in Fuzhou, Fujian, 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Abramitzky, Ran, 148, 149 abundance, false sense of, 41 “Achieve greater victories on the road to continuous revolution!,” 158 adverse selection, 148–49, 152, 153, 169, 174, 180, 254 Agrarian Reform Law (1950), 33 agricultural horsepower, tractors and, 100 agricultural machinery: capital depreciation, 98–101; mechanized cultivation, 99; tractors and agricultural horsepower, 100 Agricultural Machinery Stations (AMS), 47, 57–58 agricultural mechanization: controversy over, 127; expansion of, 103, 119, 222–23, 233; with falling labor demand, 137; in media, 59; opposition to, 64; with reformers versus loyalists (1977–1978), 228 agricultural modernization: literacy and, 249; without support, 259; surpluses with, 248–49 Agricultural Producer Cooperatives (APCs), 32, 33–36, 182 agricultural production: (dis)advantage for, 208, 209; variables, 197–99, 204–5 See also People’s Commune, agricultural productivity hypotheses Agricultural Science Institute, 70 agriculture, 62; All-China Conference on Professional Work in Agriculture, 217; ASAE, 16; CSAM, 16; data assessment, 19– 24; food production and, 15–17; Henan Agricultural Statistics, 1949–1979, 195; Henan counties, distribution of total output, 183; investment in, 30, 66, 105, 126; Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 216; NDAC, 6, 31, 62–66, 66, 178, 214, 251; “Production Team’s Agricultural Research Small Group, The,” 69; products, 135; reforms, 6–7, 59; research and extension system in, 66–72, 254 See also Regulations on the Rural People’s Communes All-China Conference on Professional Work in Agriculture, 217 Amana commune (1843–1933), 185 American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE), 16 AMS See Agricultural Machinery Stations Andrews, Edward, 151, 185 animal husbandry, 78, 101, 112, 133, 135–37, 223 An Pingsheng, 238 Anti-Rightist Campaign, 5, 96 Antonioni, Michelangelo, 75, 135 APCs See Agricultural Producer Cooperatives ASAE See American Society of Agricultural Engineers Bangladesh, 14 baochan daohu See Household Responsibility System barley, 145 Barro, Robert, 113 Baum, Richard, 96–97, 215, 229, 233, 243, 245 beekeeping, 44, 136, 178 Bennett, Gordon, 130 Bernstein, Thomas, 80 Blecher, Marc, 153, 171, 175 blight, arable land and, 93–94 boats, 104 body, fusion of mind and, 147 Bo Yibo, 37–38, 50, 64, 215 brain drain, 3, 148–49, 152, 169, 174, 180 Bramall, Chris, 13, 14 brigade hydropower, commune and, 103 brigade markets, 170–71, 171 brigades, 130, 172; enterprises, 76–80; in Henan counties (1958–1979), 187; size, 192, 195 See also Dazhai Brigade Brinck, Per, 90 Buddha, 157 Butler, Steven, 79, 130, 138, 192 camaraderie, 147, 162 Canton Evening News (newspaper), 55 capital depreciation: agricultural machinery, 98–101; electricity generation, 102–3; increased rate of, 95–104; physical investment and, 97–101; policy responses, 97–104; transportation, 104; water management, 97–98 capitalism, eradication of, Carillo, Phoebe, 189 “Carry out rural economic policy” (luoshi nongcun jingji zhenge), 232 Central Discipline Inspection Commission (CDIC), 243 Central Document No 1, 244 “Chairman Mao Teaches Us: We Should Not Only Keep a Strong Formal Army, But Also Organize Contingents of People’s Militia on a Big Scale,” 168 chemical fertilizer See fertilizer, chemical Chen Boda, 152, 243 Chen Ruoxi, 155 Chen Village, Guangdong, 43, 44, 45–46 Chen Xilian, 215 Chen Yonggui, 52, 215, 227, 232–33; with Dazhai Conference (1975), 216, 222–24; with Dazhai Conference (1976), 231; with grain inspection, 219; religiosity of Maoism and, 152 Chen Yun, 64, 215, 229, 233, 243 Chi Biqing, 238 children, 33; commune collapse and, 151–52; education of, 83, 84; social pressure and, 173, 174; youth, 80–81, 170, 234 China Tractor and Internal Combustion Engine Industrial Company, 48 China Tractor and Internal Combustion Engine Spare Parts Company, 48 China Youth Daily (newspaper), 81 Chinese Society for Agricultural Mechanization (CSAM), 16 Chung Kuo (documentary film), 75 Cina (documentary film), 135 “Circular on Separating Government Administration and Commune Management and Setting Up Township Government,” 244–45 cities, population size and number of, 75 coal mines, 77 collective investments, 63, 180, 189 collective labor, 128, 137, 258 collective remuneration, 174–79 collective singing, 162 collectivization, 34, 238; before, 97; Gold on, 146; large-scale, 184; Mao Zedong and, 29, 42, 227; opposition to, 224; support for, 59, 223 commune: children and collapse of, 151–52; New Harmony, 143–44, 150, 155, 185; religious views of, 143, 144, 149–52; with resilience, 149–52; typologies, 143–47; values, 147, 151 See also People’s Commune Communist Party of China (CPC), 6, 33; disagreements, 229; factions and, 214; Liberation Daily, 215; Ten-Year Plan of, 222, 233–34, 247, 257 cooperatives, 182 corn, 129, 137; hybrid, 16, 93; production, 145; seed, 91, 93 cottage industries: introduction of, 250–51; role of, 2, 5, 30, 60, 134, 136, 138 “Counterattack the Right-Deviationist Reversal-of-Verdicts Trend” Campaign, 224 CPC See Communist Party of China credit cooperatives, rural, 132–40 “Criticize Deng Campaign,” 225 crops: oil-bearing, 222; production with team size, 203; with size variables, lagged effect, 204–5 See also corn; rice; sorghum; wheat CSAM See Chinese Society for Agricultural Mechanization cultivation: mechanized, 99; vegetable, 69–70 Cultural Revolution: with communes or trusts, 49; Gang of Four and, 225, 226, 230, 240, 241, 243; Leftist Commune (1965– 1969) and, 57–59; rural economy and, Dalton, Dan R., 190, 191 dams, 40, 50, 96–97, 103 dances, religiosity of Maoism and, 162, 163, 255 Dazhai, 62; leadership, 212; model, 25, 54, 251; struggle over, 51–54 Dazhai Brigade, 52–54, 65, 176, 215, 217 Dazhai Conference (1975), 212; grain inspection, 219; with loyalists versus radicals, 216–24; meeting hall, 218 Dazhai Conference (1976), 227, 231 Dazhai workpoint system (remuneration methodology), 51–52, 60, 249; collective remuneration and, 174–79; super-optimal investment, 128–31, 252–53 decollectivization, 11, 29; agricultural output increased after, 193; commune and, 257–59; defined, 25–26; Democracy Wall Movement and, 212, 234–36, 246; Document No 75, 213, 236–40; industrialization and urbanization with, 1; Mao Zedong, burying of, 240–45; with power consolidation (1979–1983), 234–45; problems with, 126–27; Solow–Swan model, 120; support for, 119, 210–11 See also collectivization Democracy Wall Movement, 212, 234–36, 246 Deng Liqun, 64, 215 Deng Xiaoping, 11, 13, 30, 42, 53, 210; criticism of, 225, 226–27; Dazhai Conference (1975) and, 218, 220–22; decollectivization and, 258; Democracy Wall Movement and, 235–36, 246; Document No 75 and, 213, 240; on economy, 237; Gang of Four and, 243; Mao Zedong and, 220–22, 224–26, 240–44, 246; with People’s Commune, abandonment of, 25, 211, 260; in People’s Daily, 224; purge of, 224–26, 225; remuneration methodology and, 60; return of, 228–34; Rightist Commune and, 116; rise of, 217; support for, 64 Deng Zihui, 64 depreciation See capital depreciation “Destroy the Old World; Forge a New World,” 156 Document No 21, 222, 224 Document No 75, 213, 236–40 Doyle, Arthur, 18 Du Runsheng, 238, 239 East Is Red, The (national anthem), 155 econometric method, 199–200 economy: “Carry out rural economic policy,” 232; commune productivity and, 8–17; commune size and structure with, 184– 88; Deng Xiaoping on, 237; grain prices, 242; Green Revolution and, 72–104; money and, 33, 48, 64, 138, 144, 175; politics and, 36; rural, 9–12, 132, 146, 232, 242 See also Solow–Swan neoclassical economic growth model; superoptimal investment; taxes education: basic and vocational, 82–85; literacy and, 82, 249; primary, middle, and high school student enrollment., 83; SEM, 20, 51, 54; Socialist Education Campaign, 164, 179, 251; social pressure in, 173, 174; students in secondary vocational, 84; technical and teacher training, 83 elderly, 68, 135, 179, 255 electricity generation: capital depreciation, 102–3; commune and brigade hydropower, 103; commune production and usage, 102 Eleventh Party Congress, 119 Engels, Friedrich, 157 Ephrata Cloister, 149 Esmay, Merle, 16 Essenes community, 143 factional politics, 214–16 Fairbank, John K., 9, 21 falsification test, 205–6 See also robustness and falsification analysis family planning, 7, 73–74 famine: farmers and, 9, 10–11; GLF Commune and, 30, 116, 182, 196, 205; rural markets and, 110 farmers: APCs and, 34; Dazhai Brigade and, 52–53; famine and, 9, 10–11; income of, 126, 140; land contracts and, 45–46; rural economy and, 9–12; work days, 32 farming techniques, 50–51, 68 farm mechanization, 216 Fei Hsiao-tung, 12 Fei Xiaotong, 174 fertilizer, chemical: production, 89; use, 14, 39, 70, 76–77, 81, 88–91, 119, 214 floods: control, 14, 69; damage, 85; drainage, 93; land recovery after, 87; zones, 94 food: famine, 9, 10–11, 30, 110, 116, 182, 196, 205; production, 15–17; security and life expectancy, 14; seed varieties, highyield, 90–93 Four Big Freedoms, 217, 235–36 Four Cardinal Principles, 229, 235 Four Cleanups work team, 52–54, 177 Four-Good Campaign, 167, 168–69 Four Modernizations, 221 Four Olds, 155 free markets, 6, 13, 30, 44–45, 250–51 free-rider problem, 8, 41, 43, 148, 189–90, 194 fruit trees, 44, 69 fusion, of mind and body, 147 Galston, Arthur, 85, 88, 173 Gang of Four, 225, 226, 230, 240, 241, 243 Gansu, 6, 59, 231, 238 gibberellin, 90 GLF See Great Leap Forward Gold, Michael, 146 Goldman, Merle, 9, 21, 235 Gooding, Richard, 188, 189, 190 governance structure: rural, 186; Shakers, 185 grain: grinder, 100; inspection, 219; lapel pin, 159; as payment, 135; prices, 242 grain production, 19; increase in, 20, 22, 23; as priority, 17; tools for, 100–101 Great Leap Forward (GLF; 1958–1961), 2, 60; cooperatives and, 182; data assessment, 20–21; evolution of, 30; famine, 30, 116, 182, 196, 205; HAPCs and, 36–37; as phase 1, 36–41; red-over-expert policies and, 5, 65–66, 96; Solow–Swan model and, 114, 115 Green Revolution (1970–1979), 2, 61, 62; with capital depreciation, increased rate of, 95–104; commune productivity and, 13–17, 248; economic challenges and policy responses, 72–104; land, decreasing arable, 85–95; NDAC, 63–66 and; origins of, 30, 31, 251; population growth, 72–85; productivity of, 252; research and extension, 66–72; Solow–Swan model, 118 growth-regulating hormones, 90 Guangdong, 6, 15, 16, 19, 43, 46, 50; Chen Village, 43, 44, 45–46 handicrafts, 5, 44 See also cottage industries Han Dongping, 69 Han Guang, 46 HAPCs See Higher-Level Producer Cooperatives Harding, Harry, 76, 133 healthcare, 15, 188 Heath, Edward, 218 He Hongguang, 10 Henan Agricultural Statistics, 1949–1979, 195 Henan counties: agricultural output, 183; commune and team size in (1958–1979), 187; communes and brigades in (1958– 1979), 187; location, 196; reasons for studying, 195–97 Henan Province, 4, 18, 97 Higher-Level Producer Cooperatives (HAPCs), 34–37, 40 Hongweibing (newspaper), 155, 157 hormones, growth-regulating, 90 household farming See Document No 75 household land contracts, 210, 239, 240, 246 household private plots (ziliudi), 5, 17, 30, 40, 44, 60, 250 household registration (hukou) system, 7, 75, 169, 174, 180, 255 Household Responsibility System (HRS, baochan daohu, RHLC), 1, 8, 11–12, 193 households: with agricultural investments, 126; income, 5; taxes on, 125 See also private household sideline plots household savings: extraction of, 4, 25, 60, 110–11, 128, 131, 133, 141; increased, 65, 97, 109, 118, 152, 249 household sideline farming, 133–38 HRS See Household Responsibility System Hua Guofeng, 25–26, 212, 258; criticism of, 236–37; Dazhai Conference (1975) and, 216, 218, 222–24; Deng Xiaoping and, 229–30; on Gang of Four, 241; with grain inspection, 219; loyalists versus reformers (1977–1978) and, 226–28; religiosity of Maoism and, 152; resignation of, 243; support for, 240, 241; Ten-Year Plan and, 233–34, 247 Huang Jing, 64 Huang Yasheng, 13 Huarong County, Hunan, 68 Hubei, 54–56 Hubei Province, 18 hukou See household registration system Hunan, 6, 19, 59, 68, 78 Hutterites, 152, 184 Hu Yaobang, 11, 12, 210, 215–16; Document No 75 and, 213, 239, 240 hydropower, 103 ideology, commune, 64–65, 149–50 See also Maoism incentives, 1, 13; lack of, 8; weakness of, 9, 193 income: of brigade enterprise workers, 78; commune collective distribution of, 127; of farmers, 126, 140; households, 5; of laborers, 76, 95 India, 14, 20 Indonesia, 14 industrialization, with decollectivization, Inner Mongolia, 6, 59, 238 institutional change, 249–51 institutions, antecedent: APC, 33–36; MATs, 32–33 interest-free loans, 132 interest rates, 32, 33 investment: in agriculture, 30, 66, 105, 126; capital depreciation and physical, 97–101; collective, 63, 180, 189; under commune, 125–40; rural, 71, 259 See also super-optimal investment irrigation: canals, 40; infrastructure, 92; systems, 98, 103 isolation, communes with collective, 150–52 Jesus (biblical figure), 143, 157 Jiang Qing, 212; Dazhai Conference (1975) and, 218, 220–21, 223; radicals and, 215, 217; religiosity of Maoism and, 152 Jiangsu Province, 18 Ji Dengkui, 215 Jin Chunming, 160 Jones, E L., 109 Kaldor, Nicholas, 124 Kang Sheng, 152 Kanter, Rosabeth, 147, 184, 185 Kimberly, John, 190 Kopelman, Richard, 189 Kung, James Kai-sing, 193 Kuo, Leslie, 128–29 labor: agricultural mechanization and falling demand for, 137; collective, 128, 137, 258; elderly and, 135; land and, 124–25; mobilization, 39–40; population and commune, 73; power and mechanization, 50; supervision, 193 See also Dazhai workpoint system laborers, income of, 76, 95 “Labor for Labor,” 144 land, 11; contracts with farmers, 45–46; floods and recovery of, 87; household land contracts, 210, 239, 240, 246; household private plots, 5, 17, 30, 40, 44, 60, 250; labor and, 124–25; reform, 33; seizures, 33 land, arable: agricultural inputs, 87–90; blight and, 93–94; decreasing, 85–95; fertilizer production, 89; per commune worker, 86; per commune worker in select provinces, 87; pesticide production, 89; policy responses, 87–93; reclamation, 93–95; seed varieties, high-yield, 90–93 land washing, 94 lapel pins, Mao Zedong on, 159 Lardy, Nicolas, 72 Lau Siukai, 127 Leftist Commune (1965–1969), 2, 60; creation of, 251; Cultural Revolution and, 57–59; with Hubei and proposal, 54–56; as phase 3, 54–59; Solow–Swan model, 117 Lenin, Vladimir, 157, 158 Lewis, W Arthur, 252 Lewis modified classical model, 111–12, 121–25, 122 Liao Luyen, 38, 46 Liberation Daily (CPC publication), 215 Lieberthal, Kenneth, life expectancy: at birth, national comparison of, 24; food security and, 14 Li Fuchun, 64 Li Huaiyin, 130–31, 179 Li Lanqing, 240, 241 Lin, Justin Yifu, 71 Lin Biao, 152, 226 Lippit, Victor, 191 literacy: agricultural modernization and, 249; rate, 82 Little Red Book, The (Mao Zedong): circulation, removed from, 258; publishing of, 163–64; religiosity of Maoism and, 160–61, 160–61, 163–64, 169, 258 Liu, William, 172 Liuists, 64 Liu Shaoqi, 30, 42, 53, 224, 236; criticism of, 220, 226; Hubei and, 54–55; religiosity of Maoism and, 152; remuneration methodology and, 60; Rightist Commune and, 116; trusts and, 47–48, 55 Li Xiannian, 64, 229 loans, 19, 77, 175; interest-free, 132; interest rates on, 32, 33; micro credit, 136; RCC, 133 Lowery, Richard, 111 loyalists, versus radicals (1975–1976): with commune, abandonment of, 216–26; Dazhai Conference, 216–24; Deng, purge of, 224–26, 225 loyalists, versus reformers (1977–1978): with commune, abandonment of, 214–15, 226–34; Deng Xioping, return of, 228–34; Hua and, 226–28 Loyalty Campaign, 155 lunsheng (time rate system), 130 luoshi nongcun jingji zhenge (“Carry out rural economic policy”), 232 machinery: agricultural, 98–101; AMS, 47, 57–58 Madsen, Richard, 153–54, 162, 173, 177 Maoism: collective remuneration and, 174–79; commune collective action problems, 147–49; as commune ideology, 64–65, 149–50; commune productivity, political sources of, 152–79; commune resilience, attributes of, 149–52; communes and, 13, 14, 25, 31; commune typologies, 143–47; in context, 142, 179–80; elimination of, 257; People’s Militia and, 166–69; politics and, 254–55; religiosity of, 142, 152–66; repudiation of, 258; self-reliance and, 169–71, 180; social pressure and, 171–74; trusts and, 56 See also religiosity, of Maoism Mao Yuanxin, 215, 225 Mao Zedong, 7; APCs and, 34; assessment of, 244; collectivization and, 29, 42, 227; decollectivization and burying of, 240– 45; Deng Xiaoping and, 220–22, 224–26, 240–44, 246; GLF Commune and, 38–40; lapel pin, 159; mechanization and, 29, 37–40, 222; in People’s Daily, 216; on political power, seizure of, 248; SEM and, 54 See also Little Red Book, The Mao Zedong Thought, 154, 158, 162, 243 “Mao Zedong Thought is the peak of contemporary Marxism and Leninism,” 158 market-goer, seller with, 138, 139, 140 markets: brigade, 170–71, 171; free, 6, 13, 30, 44–45, 250–51; rural, 1, 31, 35, 44, 70, 110, 133–34, 137, 138, 139, 140 marriage, 134, 245 Marxism, 74, 158 Ma Shichun, 90 MATs See Mutual Aid Teams mechanization, 14, 17, 42, 46, 54, 77, 227; conference, 55; CSAM, 16; farm, 216; labor power and, 50; Mao Zedong and, 29, 37–40, 222; semimechanization, 58 See also agricultural mechanization mechanized cultivation, 99 media: agricultural mechanization in, 59; radio, 7, 59, 65, 155, 170, 231; religiosity of Maoism and, 155–57 Meisner, Maurice, 236, 243 micro credit loans, 136 mind, fusion of body and, 147 Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 216 mobilization, labor, 39–40 modernization: agricultural, 248–49, 259; Four Modernizations, 221 money, 33, 48, 64, 138; fake, 175; “time,” 144 Mongolia See Inner Mongolia moral hazard, 152, 180, 254; counteracting, 173, 176; indications, 148; problem of, 3, 8, 149, 178 “Movement to Lighten the Peasants Burden,” 234 Movement to Study Xiangxiang Experience, 234 Mumford, Lewis, 143 Mutual Aid Teams (MATs), 32–33, 181–82, 232 National Academy of Sciences, U.S., 15–16, 67 National and Provincial Agricultural Production, 4, 20, 248 National Conferences on Learning from Dazhai in Agriculture, 62 National Industrial and Communication Work Conference, 55 Naughton, Barry, 14, 132–33 NDAC See Northern Districts Agricultural Conference New Harmony commune, 143–44, 150, 155, 185 New Republic (magazine), 146 Nie Rongzhen, 46 Nolan, Peter, 132, 232 Northern Districts Agricultural Conference (NDAC), 6, 31, 62, 178, 214, 251; Green Revolution and, 63–66; with investments in agriculture, 66 NPC See Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress oils: from crops, 222; edible, 4, 19, 20, 22, 23 One Guarantee (sa nzi yibao), 43–46, 220 Oneida people, 151 On-Site Conference on Agricultural Mechanization, 55 order, values and, 147 Orleans, Leo, 76–77, 173 Owen, Robert, 143–44, 150 Pakistan, 14 Party Secretariat Work Conference, 213 peasants, 234 See also farmers Peking Institute of Genetics, 70 Peking Review (newspaper), 168 Peking University, 85, 90 Peng Zhen, 30, 42, 47 People’s Commune: with action problems, collective, 147–49; brigade enterprises and, 76–80; as coercive institutions, 5; with collective income distribution, 127; collective isolation and shared rituals, 150–52; in context, 1, 248–49, 259–60; decollectivization and, 257–59; evolution of, 29–31, 250; historical overview, 5–8; ideology, 149–50; institutional change and, 249–51; institutions, antecedent, 32–36; investment under, 125–40; Maoism and, 13, 14, 25, 31; organization, size and structure, 256–57; phases, first three, 36–46; population, 5, 7, 21, 74; productivity growth, dynamics of, 111–25; subunits, 184, 191–95; trusts, 49–51 See also commune; Great Leap Forward; Green Revolution; Leftist Commune; Regulations on the Rural People’s Communes; Rightist Commune People’s Commune, abandonment of, 25–26, 63, 260; in context, 210–13; loyalists versus radicals (1975–1976), 216–26; with politics, factional, 214–16; power consolidation and decollectivization (1979–1983), 234–45; reformers versus loyalists (1977–1978), 226–234, 214–15 People’s Commune, agricultural productivity hypotheses: brigade size, 192, 195; commune size, 191–92; econometric method, 199–200; interaction effects, 194–95; team size, 182, 187, 193–94, 200–201, 203 People’s Commune, productivity of: case selection, 18–19; data assessment, 19–24; Green Revolution and, 248; life expectancy at birth, national comparison of, 24; pig inventory, 2, 24; politics and Maoism, 254–55; with poor performance, 8–13, 248; sources of, 252–55; super-optimal investment and, 252–54; theory testing, 18–24 People’s Commune, size and structure: agricultural production, (dis)advantage for, 208, 209; in context, 181–84; discussion and conclusion, 207–9; dynamics and agricultural output, 202; economic performance and, 184–88; findings, empirical, 200–204; organization, 256–57; robustness and falsification analysis, 204–6; strategy, empirical, 195–200; team size and, 182, 187, 193–94, 200–201, 203, 208; theory testing, 188–91 People’s Daily (newspaper), 10, 39, 54, 222, 228, 231; Deng Xiaoping in, 224; Mao Zedong in, 216; Three Small Freedoms in, 217; on trusts, 55–56 People’s Liberation Army (PLA), 166–67, 251, 255 People’s Militia, Maoism and, 166–69 perfectibility, 147 Perkins, Dwight, 34, 95 pesticide production, 89, 90 Piff, Paul, 175 pigs: inventory, 2, 24; production, 17, 19, 20, 22, 23, 70, 222 PLA See People’s Liberation Army Plato, 145, 147, 167, 185 policy responses: capital depreciation, 97–104; controlling for high-level changes, 204; Green Revolution and, 72–104; land, arable, 87–93; population, 73–85 politics: commune abandonment with factional, 214–16; commune productivity and sources of, 152–79; economy and, 36; Maoism and, 254–55; with power seized, 248 See also Maoism Politics of Agricultural Mechanization in China, The (Stavis), 17 population: commune, 5, 7, 21, 74; commune and brigade enterprises, 76–80; commune labor and, 73; control, 7, 73–76; education, basic and vocational, 82–85; growth, 72–85, 112–13, 259; number of cities by size of, 75; policy responses, 73–85; Sent-Down Campaign and, 80–81 Powell, Ralph, 166 power: decollectivization (1979–1983) with consolidation of, 234–45; Mao Zedong on seizure of political, 248; mechanization and labor, 50 prices, grain, 242 Printz, Peggy, 130, 135 private household sideline plots, 2, 31, 43, 134, 250–51 production quotas, 43, 135 “Production Team’s Agricultural Research Small Group, The,” 69 productivity See People’s Commune, agricultural productivity hypotheses; People’s Commune, productivity of profitability, 52, 79; agricultural investments based on, 30; as essential, 42, 45, 47 “Provincial Party Committee Six-Point Proposal,” 230–31 purge, of Deng Xiaoping, 224–26, 225 Putterman, Louis, 14–15, 64, 105 Qingming, 224 Quemoy Island, 166 radicals, 214–15, 217 See also loyalists, versus radicals radio, 7, 59, 65, 155, 170, 231 Radio Shanghai, 59 RCCs See rural credit cooperatives Red Flag (magazine), 59, 217, 223, 232 Red Guards, 80, 234 redistributive policies, super-optimal investment and, 131–32 red-over-expert policies, 5, 65–66, 96 Reform and Opening Up, 13, 258 reformers, 214, 215–16 See also loyalists, versus reformers Regulations on the Rural People’s Communes (Sixty Articles on Agriculture), 6, 30, 42, 60, 137, 185, 213 religion: communes and, 143, 144, 149–52; Shakers, 144, 150, 151–52, 162, 184–85 religiosity, of Maoism: “Achieve greater victories on the road to continuous revolution!,” 158; in context, 142; dances and, 162, 163, 255; “Destroy the Old World; Forge a New World,” 156; lapel pins, 159; leaders of, 152–53; The Little Red Book and, 160–61, 160–61, 163–64, 169, 258; Loyalty Campaign, 155; Mao Zedong Thought and, 154, 158, 162; media and, 155–57; political sources of commune productivity and, 152–66; as religious revival, 160–61, 160–61; rituals with, 157, 160, 162; songs and, 162, 163, 255; yikusitian meetings, 164–66, 165 remuneration methodology See Dazhai workpoint system Ren Zhongyi, 239 Republic (Plato), 145, 185 research and extension system: in agriculture, 66–72, 254; reformed, 65 reservoirs, 40–41, 50, 96–97 revolution, 158 See also Cultural Revolution; Green Revolution Revolutionary Committees, 57, 59 RHLC See Household Responsibility System; Rural Household Land Contract Ricardo, David, 124 rice, 137, 166; growth-regulating hormones on, 90; production, 40, 50; research on, 70, 91–92 rice mills, 78 Rightist Commune (1962–1964), 2; Dazhai and, 51–54; as phase 2, 41–54; Solow–Swan model, 116; Three Small Freedoms and One Guarantee, 43–46; trust or, 49–51; trusts, rise of, 46–48 Riskin, Carl, 9, 41 rituals: commune with shared, 150–52; with religiosity of Maoism, 157, 160, 162 robustness and falsification analysis: controlling for high-level policy changes, 204; falsification test, 205–6; GLF famine, exclusion of, 205; size variables, lagged effect of, 204–5 Rozelle, Scott, 91 Rural Capital Construction Conference, 228, 234 rural credit cooperatives (RCCs), 132–40 rural economy: “Carry out rural economic policy,” 232; farmers and, 9–12; reforms, 11–12; taxes and, 132, 146, 242 rural governance, structure of, 186 Rural Household Land Contract (RHLC), 11 See also Household Responsibility System rural investments, 71, 259 rural markets, 1, 31, 44; famine and, 110; HAPCs and, 35; RCCs and, 133–34, 137, 138, 139, 140; vegetables at, 70 Saich, Tony, 11 Sala-i-Martin, Xavier, 113 sa nzi yibao See One Guarantee savings See household savings savings rates, increased, 119, 125–28, 252 Schmalzer, Sigrid, 14, 68 science: Agricultural Science Institute, 70; National Academy of Sciences, U.S., 15–16, 67 Science (magazine), 15–16, 136 scientific small groups, 67 Scott, James C., 145–46 Second Taiwan Strait crisis, 166 seeds: corn, 91, 93; high-yield varieties, 90–93 Selected Works (Mao Zedong), 226–27 self-reliance, 77, 82, 169–71, 180 seller, with market-goer, 138, 139, 140 SEM See Socialist Education Movement semimechanization, 58 Sent-Down Campaign, 80–81, 170, 234 Shakers, 144, 150, 151–52, 162, 184–85 Shandong, 6, 40, 59, 68, 69, 79, 88, 94 Shanxi Province, 6, 52, 95 Sheeks, Robert, 90, 91, 95 singing, collective, 162 Sixty Articles on Agriculture See Regulations on the Rural People’s Communes size See People’s Commune, size and structure Skinner, William, 37 Socialist Education Campaign, 164, 179, 251 See also Four Cleanups work team Socialist Education Movement (SEM), 20, 51, 54 socialist view, of communes, 143 social pressure, Maoism and, 171–74 Socius, 208 SOEs See state-owned enterprises soil erosion, 52, 87, 93, 95 Solow–Swan neoclassical economic growth model: decollectivization (1980–1983), 120; GLF commune goal (1958–1961), 114; GLF commune reality (1958–1961), 115; Green Revolution (1970–1979), 118; Leftist Commune (1965–1969), 117; Rightist Commune (1962–1964), 116; role of, 110–11; super-optimal investment, 112–21 songs, religiosity of Maoism and, 162, 163, 255 sorghum, 10, 16, 93 Spence, Jonathan, 20 Sprague, George, 15–16, 136 Stalin, Joseph, 157 Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress (NPC), 47 state-owned enterprises (SOEs), 30–31, 47, 49 state taxes, 125 State Technical Commission, 38 Stavis, Benedict, 17, 188, 191 Steinle, Paul, 130, 135 Stone, Bruce, 16–17, 87–88, 92, 124 strategy, commune size and structure: econometric method, 199–200; Henan counties, reasons for studying, 195–97; variables, dependent, 197; variables, independent, 198–99 structure See People’s Commune, size and structure students: against Deng Xiaoping, 225; enrollment for primary, middle, and high school, 83; in secondary vocational training, 84 subunits, 184, 191–95 Sui Kang Brigade, 78, 130, 172 Sun, Warren, 218, 221, 239 Sun Yixian, 164 super-optimal investment: under commune, 125–40; commune productivity and, 252–54; in context, 109–11, 141; Dazhai workpoint system and, 128–31, 252–53; Lewis modified classical model, 111–12, 121–25, 122; with productivity growth of commune, dynamics, 111–25; RCCs and, 132–40; redistributive policies and, 131–32; savings rates, 119, 125–28, 252; Solow–Swan neoclassical economic growth model, 110–21 supervision, labor, 193 surpluses, with agricultural modernization, 248–49 Synanon (1913–1997) commune, 185 Taiping Qiao Brigade, 78–79 Taiwan, 166, 170 Tan Chenlin, 39, 46 Tang, Anthony, 16–17 Tang Ying, 165–66 Tan Qilong, 40 Tan Zhenlin, 80 taxes, 35, 36, 91; bills, 21; revenue, 39; rural economy and, 132, 146, 242; state, 125 teacher training, technical and, 83 teams, 10, 69; Four Cleanups work, 52–54, 177; MATs, 32–33, 181–82, 232; size, 182, 187, 193–94, 200–201, 203, 208 technical training, teaching and, 83 Teiwes, Frederick, 210, 218, 221, 239 Ten-Year Plan, of CPC, 222, 233–34, 247, 257 theory testing, commune size and structure, 188–91 Thornton, Richard, 166–67, 225 Three Small Freedoms, 30, 43–46, 217, 220, 249; RCCs and, 133–40 See also animal husbandry; cottage industries; free markets; household private plots; private household sideline plots; rural markets threshers, 50, 58, 101 Thurston, Anne, 10–11 Tiananmen Square, 224 “time money,” 144 time rate system (lunsheng), 130 tractors, 99–100, 100; companies, 48; lapel pin, 159 training: students in secondary vocational, 84; teacher and technical, 83 transportation capital, 104 trucks, 47, 104, 170 trusts: commune or, 49–51; rejection of, 55–56; rise of, 46–48 Unger, Jonathan, 12, 43, 44, 46, 129, 130, 176–77 United Nations Population Commission, 74 United States, 15–16, 20, 40, 56, 67, 70, 189 urbanization, 1, 25, 72, 75–76 Urgent Directive Concerning Present Policy Problems in Rural People’s Communes, 137 USSR, 20 utopia, 143–44, 149, 150, 244 values, communes, 147, 151 variables, agricultural production: dependent, 197; independent, 198–99; lagged effect of size, 204–5 vegetables, cultivation of, 69–70 Verdery, Katherine, 146–47 vocational education, 82–85 Vogel, Ezra, 12, 214, 237, 238 Vohs, Kathleen, 175 wages See income Wagner, John III, 188, 189, 190 Wang, Tuo, 164 Wang Dongxing, 215, 218, 236 Wang Heshou, 64 Wang Hongwen, 215, 217 Wang Renzhong, 76 Wang Tuo, 154 Wang Zhen, 215, 229 Wan Li, 11, 210; criticism of, 232–33; Document No 75 and, 213, 239, 240; “Provincial Party Committee Six-Point Proposal” and, 230–31; reformers and, 215; rise of, 236–37 water management: capital depreciation, 97–98; hydropower, 103; irrigation and, 40, 92, 98, 103 See also dams; irrigation Water Margin, The (novel), 220 Wei Guoqing, 229 Wei Jingsheng, 235 wheat, 19, 145, 161; research on, 91, 93; scab, 90; yields, 88 White, Gordon, 132, 232 White, Lynn T., III, 14 women, marriage and, 245 Wong, John, 14 work days, farmers, 32 worker absenteeism, 189 workpoint system See Dazhai workpoint system World Bank, 20 Wu, Yuan-li, 90, 91, 95 Wu De, 215, 226, 236 Wu Jiang, 233–34 Wu Jicheng, 218 Xiang Nan, 16, 50 Xiaogang Production Team, 10 Xidan Wall, 235 Xin Tang Brigade, 78 Xi Zhongxun, 239 Xu Shiyou, 229 Yang, Dali, 196 Yang Feng, 208, 257 Yang Yichen, 238 Yan Junchang, 10 Yao Wenyaun, 215 Yao Wenyuan, 223, 225 Ye Jianying, 229, 235, 242 yikusitian meetings, 164–66, 165 youth, Sent-Down Campaign and, 80–81, 170, 234 See also children Yusuf, Shahid, 34 Zhang Chunqiao, 215, 224 Zhang Dong, 161 Zhang Tiesheng, 215, 223 Zhao Ziyang, 11, 210, 215, 230–31, 245; Document No 75 and, 213, 239, 240; rise of, 236 Zhejiang Province, 18 Zhongshan University, 85 Zhou, Kate Xiao, 9–10, 13, 133 Zhou Enlai, 6, 30, 46, 224, 229; Dazhai and, 54; decline of, 217; NDAC and, 251; population growth and, 73; with reforms, 59; religiosity of Maoism and, 152; on reservoirs, 40–41 ziliudi See household private plots Zionists movement, 151 Zweig, David, 152–53, 155, 217; decollectivization and, 236; reformers versus loyalists and, 225, 230, 232, 234; on reforms, 242 .. .RED CHINA’S GREEN REVOLUTION Red China’s Green Revolution TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION, INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE, AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT UNDER THE COMMUNE Joshua Eisenman Columbia... Names: Eisenman, Joshua, 1977- author Title: Red China’s green revolution: technological innovation, institutional change, and economic development under the commune / Joshua Eisenman Description:... (GLF) Commune (1958–1961), the Rightist Commune (1962–1964), the Leftist Commune (1965–1969), and the Green Revolution Commune (1970–1979) Each of these phases was distinguished by its size, mandate,