Homicidal Ecologies Why has violence spiked in Latin America’s contemporary democracies? What explains its temporal and spatial variation? Analyzing the region’s uneven homicide levels, this book maps out a theoretical agenda focusing on three intersecting factors: the changing geography of transnational illicit political economies, the varied capacity and complicity of state institutions tasked with providing law and order, and organizational competition to control illicit territorial enclaves These three factors inform the emergence of “homicidal ecologies” (subnational regions most susceptible to violence) in Latin America After focusing on the contemporary causes of homicidal violence, the book analyzes the comparative historical origins of the state’s weak and complicit public security forces and the rare moments in which successful institutional reform takes place The evaluation of regional trends in Latin America is followed by the presentation of original case studies from Central America, which claims among the highest homicide rates in the world Deborah J Yashar is Professor of Politics & International Affairs at Princeton University She is lead editor of World Politics, co-chair of SSRC’s Anxieties of Democracy project, and a series editor for Cambridge Studies in Contentious Politics She is the author of Demanding Democracy (1997) and Contesting Citizenship (2005), as well as co-editor of Parties, Movements, and Democracy in the Developing World with Nancy Bermeo (2016) and States in the Developing World with Miguel Centeno and Atul Kohli (2017), both with Cambridge University Press She is the recipient of Fulbright, USIP, and other awards Cambridge Studies in Comparative Politics General Editors Kathleen Thelen Massachusetts Institute of Technology Erik Wibbels Duke University Associate Editors Catherine Boone London School of Economics Thad Dunning University of California, Berkeley Anna Grzymala Busse Stanford University Torben Iversen Harvard University Stathis Kalyvas Yale University Margaret Levi Stanford University Helen Milner Princeton University Frances Rosenbluth Yale University Susan Stokes Yale University Tariq Thachil Vanderbilt University Series Founder Peter Lange Duke University Other Books in the Series Christopher Adolph, Bankers, Bureaucrats, and Central Bank Politics: The Myth of Neutrality Michael Albertus, Autocracy and Redistribution: The Politics of Land Reform Santiago Anria, When Movements Become Parties: The Bolivian MAS in Comparative Perspective Ben W Ansell, From the Ballot to the Blackboard: The Redistributive Political Economy of Education Ben W Ansell, David J Samuels, Inequality and Democratization: An Elite Competition Approach Ana Arjona, Rebolocracy Homicidal Ecologies Illicit Economies and Complicit States in Latin America DEBORAH J YASHAR Princeton University University Printing House, Cambridge cb2 8bs, United Kingdom One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, ny 10006, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, vic 3207, Australia 314 321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi 110025, India 79 Anson Road, #06 04/06, Singapore 079906 Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence www.cambridge.org Information on this title: http://www.cambridge.org/9781107178472 doi: 10.1017/9781316823705 © Deborah J Yashar 2018 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 2018 Printed in the United States of America by Sheridan Books, Inc A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data names: Yashar, Deborah J., 1963 author title: Homicidal ecologies : violence after war and dictatorship in Latin America / Deborah Yashar, Princeton University other titles: Violence after war and dictatorship in Latin America description: Cambridge ; New York, NY : Cambridge University Press, [2018] | Series: Cambridge studies in comparative politics | Includes bibliographical references and index identifiers: lccn 2018017040 | isbn 9781107178472 (alk paper) subjects: lcsh: Violence Central America | Violence Political aspects Central America | Civil war Social aspects Central America | Crime Economic aspects Central America | Central America Social conditions | Democratization Latin America | Democracy Latin America classification: lcc hn125.2.v5 y37 2018 | ddc 303.6098 dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018017040 isbn 978 107 17847 Hardback isbn 978 316 62965 Paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate For Sarah and Rebecca Contents List of Figures and Tables Acknowledgments page x xiii part i introduction Violence in Third Wave Democracies Violence: Empirical Trends Research Design The Argument and Book Outline Appendix: Homicide Rates in the Americas, 1995–2014 Engaging the Theoretical Debate and Alternative Arguments Political Transitions: Civil Wars and Democratization Sociological Arguments Economic Incentives and Violence Historical Institutional Legacies of State Formation Conclusion Appendix: Homicide Rates and Gini Coefficients in Latin America part ii the argument about homicidal ecologies Illicit Economies and Territorial Enclaves: The Transnational Context and Domestic Footprint Forefronting and Conceptualizing the Illicit Latin America’s Illicit Economies and Organizations: Drugs, Organized Crime, and Gangs Conclusion vii 15 18 22 24 25 36 44 55 59 61 63 65 66 72 98 viii Contents State Capacity and Organizational Competition: Strategic Calculations about Territory and Violence States and State Capacity: Shaping Calculations about Illicit Geographies Organizational Territorial Competition: The Micro-Mechanisms of Violence Conclusion Appendix: Alternative State Capacity Data for Rule of Law and Corruption part iii divergent trajectories: three post-civil war cases High Violence in Post-Civil War Guatemala Violence Patterns State Capacity: Weak Law and Order Illicit Actors, Political Economies, and Organizational Territorial Competition Conclusion Appendix: Newspaper Violence Database: Guatemalan Patterns High Violence in Post-Civil War El Salvador State Capacity: Weak Law and Order Illicit Actors, Organizational Territorial Competition, and Violence Conclusion Appendix: Newspaper Violence Database: Salvadoran Patterns Circumscribing Violence in Post-Civil War Nicaragua Forging a More Capacious Set of Law-and-Order Institutions Violence and the Illicit in Nicaragua Coda Appendix: Homicide Rates by Nicaraguan Department 100 101 119 131 133 145 149 152 155 176 199 201 208 212 235 273 275 279 282 312 334 338 Contents part iv looking backward and forward Concluding with States Revisiting States and Violence Territories Big and Small: Policing National Boundaries and Subnational Enclaves Policy Implications and Future Research Conclusion Bibliography Index ix 339 341 343 357 362 368 371 399 410 Index Lee III, Rensselaer W., 83, 86, 101 Leones, Los, 182, 184 Lessing, Benjamin, 120, 121, 125, 130, 361 Levenson, Deborah T., 91, 92, 172, 173, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 192, 194, 198 Levitsky, Steven, 68, 70, 108, 335, 348, 350 Levitt, Stephen, 54, 120 Ley, Sandra, 43, 120, 355 Lima, Byron, 173 Lipsky, Michael, 106, 157, 344 Littoral/Coastal Highway, 259 Logan, Sam, 327, 331 López, Carlos, 228 López, Julie, 177 Lorenzanas, 178, 182, 184 Los Perrones, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266 Luciano cartel, 170 Lum, Pamela Phillips, 238, 239, 252, 254, 257, 265, 266, Luna Pereira, José Natividad aka Chepe Luna, 259, 261 Luna, Juan Pablo, 58 lynchings, 137, 152, 154, 349 M 18 see Calle 18/ M 18/ Barrio 18 mafia, 120, 134, 306, 365 Mahoney, James, 335, 352 Maingot (1999), 104 male violence, 145 malfeasance, 222 224 Managua, Nicaragua, 302, 305, 329, 332, 338 Mann, Michael, 117, 357 mano dura El Salvador, 229, 234, 237, 248 252, 363 Guatemala, 189 Honduras, 363 Nicaragua (not in), 300 punitive policies, 94, 97, 137, 363 364 super mano dura, 94, 248 Mansfield, Edwards D., 33, 34 Mara Salvatrucha (MS or MS 13) El Salvador, 237, 238, 239, 240, 246, 252, 256, 266, 271 Guatemala, 172, 188, 189, 192 truce (2016), 365 maras/ violent gangs, 94, 95, 186 199, 316, 358, 360, 361, 363, see also Calle 18/ M 18/ Barrio 18; Mara Salvatrucha (MS or MS 13) marijuana/ cannabis, 74, 81, 85, 124, 177, 325 maritime routes, 259, 262, 306, 326, 327 330 marketization reforms, 33, 34 Martínez Ventura, Jaime, 251 Martinez, H.E Hugo, 228 Martínez, Luis, 223 Martínez, Ĩscar, 178, 181, 182, 183, 184, 306 Marxist insurgents, 284, 293 Matagalpa, Nicaragua, 332, 338 Maurer, Noel, 125 McIlwaine, Cathy, 36 Medellín cartel, 80, 81, 85, 104, 124, 125, 365 Medrana, Juan María aka Juan Colorado, 259 Mendoza (2016), 181 Mendoza family, 178, 181, 182, 184 Mendoza, Carlos, 154 methamphetamine, 74, 81, 85, 124, 177 Mexican crackdown, 199, 265 Mexican Gulf Cartel see Gulf Cartel Mexico conviction rates, 113 corruption, 140, 143 drug trade and transit, 77, 83, 85 88, 89, 102, 104, 129, 177, 178, 181, 257, 262, 263, 265, 359 electoral competition, 120, 342 ethnic diversity, 43 gangs, 91 historical institutionalism, 57, homicide rates, 8, 12, 13, 14, 22, 342 human rights, 130 inequality, 47, 48, 49 informal agreements of mutual toleration, 365 kingpin strategy, 130, 177, 264, 265, 363, 364 neoliberal reforms, 52 non homicide crime, non urban areas, 58 opium production, 74 organizational competition, 125 organized crime, 80, 85, 147 police, 109, 111, 136, 139, 307, 309, 354 355 subnational variation, 89 weak states, 344 Index Meyer, Maureen, 85, 86 Michoacán, Mexico, 86 migration, 37, 93, 94, 145, 187, 189, 341 Miguel Insulza, José, 198 Mijango, Raúl, 253 military conclusions on, 343, 345 demobilization and arms, 26 demobilized groups, 259, 341, 352 El Salvador, 212, 215, 222, 224 227, 228, 249 Guatemala, 156, 164 167, 173, 184, 259 Honduras, 298, 352 illicit institutions, 70 Nicaragua, 259, 284, 285, 286 287, 288, 289 293, 295, 305, 331, 332, 336 police and the, 109, 111, 164 167, 184, 216, 222, 227, 228, 249, 286 287, 349 post civil war transition arguments for violence, 26 state capacity, 109 millennium challenge compact, 214 MINUGUA (Misión de Naciones Unidas para Guatemala), 157, 158, 159, 167, 173 Molina Vaquerano, Fabio, 211, 270 money laundering, 150, 169, 214, 222, 235, 259 monopoly, territorial, 119, 125 Montealegre, Franco, 294 Morales, David, 227 Morales, Sergio, 169, 172 morality, 70 Moran, Patrick J., 147, 157, 166, 189, 215, 216, 222, 257 Morazán, El Salvador, 209, 267, 270, 276 Moreno Molina, Alfred, 174 Moser, Caroline, 36 Munguía Payés, David, 224, 227, 252 Murillo, Victoria Maria, 335 mutilation, levels of, 203 Myrna Mack Foundation, 171, 173 Naím, Moisés, 68, 70 Narayan, Deepa, 38 narco barriles, 258 national boundaries, 357 362 National Drug Threat Assessment, 98 Naylor R.T., 99, negotiations, 364 366 neighborhood watches, 175 411 neoliberal reforms, 25, 52 54, 77, 187, 189 Newspaper Violence Database, 17, 148 El Salvador, 155, 217, 220, 223, 240, 243, 245, 246, 251, 257, 258, 269, 275 Guatemala, 148, 155, 183, 192, 194 196, 201, 275 Nicaragua accountability, 366 civil societies, 37 civil war, 28 corruption, 140, 143, 282, 296, 306 307, 331, 337 crime as barrier to investment in, 197 democratization, 35 deportation from US (gang members), 93 drug trade and transit, 259, 263, 306, 307, 325 334, 367 extortion, 296 gangs, 92, 300, 301, 302 304, 317 325, 327 gun rates, 30, 204 homicide clearance rates, 112, 163, 310, 327 homicide rates, 6, 13, 22, 29, 279, 312, 313, 314, 331, 332, 333, 338 human rights, 336 impunity, 311 inequality, 47, 49 knife/ machete violence, 202 law and order institutions, 282 312 mano dura, 300 military, 259, 284, 285, 286 287, 288, 289 293, 295, 305, 331, 332, 336 Newspaper Violence Database, 155, 313, 329, 330 non homicide crime, organizational territorial competition, 281, 315, 331 organized crime, 305 306, 325 334, 337 peace process, 27, 290 perceptions of security, 114, 310 police, 109, 112, 114, 136, 139, 160, 215, 216, 217, 281, 282 312, 327, 331, 334 337, 350 351, 370 prisons, 302, 308 rates of young people, 39 reason for comparative study on, 16 rule of law, 134, 283, 284, 333 subnational variation, 305, 306, 327 330 weak states, 279, 327, 332, 351 Nicaragua Nuestra, 300 412 Index nonaggression pacts, 256 non homicide violence, North, Douglas, 55 Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, 89 null hypothesis, 362 363 Obama administration, 75 76 O’Donnell, Guillermo, 117, 290, 344, 357, 369 Olson, Mancur, 125, 360 ONUSAL (United Nations Observer Group in El Salvador), 217, 219, 232 opium production, 74, 78 Organization of American States (OAS), 72, 79, 83, 87, 103, 170 organizational coherence, 108, 110, 111 organizational territorial competition see also Chapter conclusions on, 342, 361 El Salvador, 237, 252, 255, 256, 259 264, 269, 274 Guatemala, 178, 185, 195, 197, 199 in general, 119 131 Nicaragua, 281, 315, 331 organizational competition, 19, 65, 99, 101 organizations, focus on, 24, 25 organized crime see also Drug Trafficking Organizations (DTOs); specific organizations as a business, 102 background on rising drug trade, 74 81 conclusions on, 350, 361 courts/ judicial system, 169, 337 drug trade and transit, 87 El Salvador, 215, 223, 228, 235, 250, 256 264, 265, 269, 277 gangs, 90, 96, 198 Guatemala, 147, 157, 169, 173, 174, 178, 181, 183, 184, 197, 199, 266 Honduras, 266, 354 illicit economies, 72, 73 infrastructure, 135 Mexico, 80, 85, 147 Nicaragua, 305 306, 325 334, 337 organizational competition, 125 punitive policies, 363 state capacity, 102 Ortega Menaldo, General Luis Francisco, 165, 174 Ortega, Humberto, 290, 291 292, 297 Ortega, President Daniel, 290, 292, 293, 334, 336, Osorio, Javier, 120, 125 PAHO (Pan American Health Organization), 8, 9, 12, 23, 143, 150, 242, 267, 268, 312 Panama conviction rates, 112 corruption, 140, 143 drug trade and transit, 98, 105, 257, 259 gangs, 92 gun rates, 30, 204 homicide rates, 6, 13, 22 inequality, 48, 49 non homicide crime, perceptions of security, 310, 315 police, 139, 283, 309 rates of young people, 39 PanAmerican Highway, 245, 259 pandillas/ youth gangs, 90 98, 126, 186, 187, 190, 192, 193, 250, 303, 316, 360 Paraguay drug trade and transit, 102 homicide rates, 13, 22 inequality, 48, 49 non homicide crime, police, 307 rule of law, 134 Paraiba, Brazil, 14 paramilitary groups, 349 parastatal groups, 73, 95, 118, 128 Park, Bethany, 17, 148, 243, 275 Parra Torrado, Mónica, 41 Pasaco, Los, 172 peace accords conclusions on, 299 El Salvador, 27, 208, 212, 213, 215, 216, 228, 230, 234, 351 Guatemala, 150, 156, 157, 158, 163, 164, 165, 168, 190, 351 Nicaragua, 27, 290 peace zones, 253 Peacock, Susan C., 166, 168, 170, 173, 174, 175, Peña, Uzziel, 239, 240 241 perceptions of security, 97, 315, 316 Pereira, Anthony, 56 Pérez Molina, Otto, 200 Pérez Orlando, J., 249 Pérez Santos, Felipe, 183 Index permissive political environments for violence, 35 Perrones, Los, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266 Peru cocaine production, 75 corruption, 140, 143 drug trade and transit, 102 drugs, 77 ethnic diversity, 42 homicide rates, 8, 12, 13, 22, 29 non homicide crime, police, 109, 139, 307, 309 Petén, Guatemala, 30, 89, 152, 161, 167, 171, 178, 181, 182, 183 184, 201, 202, 266 Pinheiro, Paulo Sergio, 97 Plan de Protección de la Vida, 272 Plan Escoba, 190 Platform for the Americas (PLISA), 9, 23 police see also conviction rates; homicide clearance rates and illicit institutions, 70 as factor of state capacity, 100 brutality and criminality, 160 capacity, 105, 106 Chile, 109, 111, 136, 139, 307, 309, 348, 355 community policing strategies, 37, 176, 283, 299 307, 349 350 complicity, 114, 116, 118, 129, 137 conclusions on, 19, 343, 344 362 corruption, 137, 158, 160, 161, 217, 222 224 democratization, 35 efficaciousness, 111 112 El Salvador, 109, 112, 139, 157, 159, 160, 212 229, 233, 236, 243, 249, 256, 257, 259, 261, 264, 271, 272, 277, 283, 307, 309, 324, 351 esprit de corps/ corporatist ethos, 110, 216, 282, 283, 295, 296, 298, 312, 334, 347 348, 351, 355 getting drawn into violence, 129 Guatemala, 109, 112, 136, 139, 156 167, 170, 176, 182, 184, 188, 191, 283, 307, 309, 324 historical institutionalism, 57, 58 Honduras, 139, 159, 160, 283, 307, 309, 324, 352 354 Mexico, 109, 111, 136, 139, 307, 309, 354 355 413 military and the, 109, 111, 164 167, 184, 216, 222, 227, 228, 249, 286 287, 349 national boundaries, 358 Nicaragua, 109, 112, 114, 136, 139, 160, 215, 216, 217, 281, 282 312, 327, 331, 334 337, 350 351, 370 Panama, 139, 283, 309 perceptions of, 114 117, 136, 159, 196, 283, 294, 295, 307, 309, 324 politicization of, 336, 349, 354 post civil war transition arguments for violence, 27 professionalization of, 111, 160, 215, 228, 282, 284, 293 294, 295, 335, 343, 349, 355 public opinion/ perceptions, 114, 136, 159, 196, 218, 283, 294, 295, 307, 309, 324 reform, 282, 346, 348, 351, 353, 354, 355 reliability of police services, 139 resource shortages, 218 role in homicidal ecologies, 334 role specification, 111 112, 156 state capacity, 109 types of, 345 voluntary police, 283 police archives (Guatemala), 155, 159 Policzer, Pablo, 348 political illicit activity, 67 political transition, as factor in higher violence, 24 political violence, 5, 26, 47, 58, 88, 146, 149, 222 Polyani, Karl, 68 Popkin, Margaret, 214, 215, 216, 217, 219, 229, 230, 231, 232, 235 popular (in)justice, 97 Portes, Alejandro, 52, 53, 68, Portillo, President Alfonso, 160, 164, 165, 166, 169, 200 ports drug trade and transit, 89, El Salvador, 269 Guatemala, 155, 181 homicide rates, 88 Nicaragua, 305 organizational territorial competition, 125, 135, 178 post civil war transition arguments for violence, 26 post colonialism, 146 414 Index poverty, 25, 39, 90 91, 238, 249, 269, 279, 330 preemptive violence, 130 preventative policy measures, 200, 249, 300 304, 335, 367, Primera Ley Orgánica de la Policía Nacional, 293 principal agent argument, 122 prisons conclusions on, 344, 345 corruption, 156, 162, 171 173, 192, 197, 198, 234 El Salvador, 216, 233 235, 251 extortion in, 246 247 gangs, 172, 190, 192, 197 Guatemala, 156, 159, 162, 171 173, 192, 197 Nicaragua, 302, 308 state capacity, 110 private security, 349 350 profit maximization motives, 69, 73, 74, 78 80, 95, 101, 119, 121, 185, 250, 332 prohibition (by law), 70, 83, 90 protection rackets, 96, 120, 246, 360 public opinion surveys, 15 public opinion/ perceptions corruption perceptions index, 140 crime, 196, 307 El Salvador, 213, 218, 224, 232 extortion, 258 most pressing issues, 281 Nicaragua, 280, 292, 307, 333 police, 114, 136, 159, 196, 218, 283, 294, 295, 307, 309, 324 safety/ security, 27, 310, 334 trust in institutions, 136, 159, 218, 224, 283, 324 public transport extortion of drivers of, 194, 196, 202, 240, 245 246 homicides related to, 277 Puerto Barrios, Guatemala, 181 Puerto Rico drug trade and transit, 86 homicide rates, 13, 22, 29 punitive policies, 363 364, see also anti gang approaches; crackdowns; kingpin strategy; mano dura; war on drugs purges, 161, 223, 228, 244 Putnam, Robert D., 38 Quezada, Daniel, 259 Quezaltepeque, 247, 271 RAAN region, Nicaragua, 293, 327, 331, 332, 338 RAAS region, Nicaragua, 327, 329, 330, 331, 332, 338 Ranum, Elin Cecile, 160, 186, 187, 188, 191, 192, 197 rape, 6, 244 redemptive violence, 130 Reguillo Cruz, Rossana, 190 Reich, Otto J., 168 relative deprivation theories, 47 Reno, William, 70 renta, 240 rent seeking behavior, 55, 95, 245 248, see also extortion repertoires of violent acts, 33 reporting of violence, research agenda for future work, 345 350, 362 368 research design, 15 18, 350 Reuter, Peter, 45, 46, 78, 79, 81, 99 revenge killings, 192, 330 revueltos, 292 Ribeiro, Eduardo, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 14, 37, 89, 127, 136 Río San Juan, Nicaragua, 332, 338 Rivas, Nicaragua, 305, 306 roads competition, 178 El Salvador, 259 gang extortion, 245 246 Guatemala, 195 highway attacks, 195 homicides on/near, 202, 207 robbery, 6, 46, 65 El Salvador, 224, 235, 241, 245, 269, 272, 277 Guatemala, 193, 204 Roberts, Bryan, 52 Rocha, José Luis, 30, 91, 92, 93, 204, 279, 280, 285, 286, 287, 292, 298, 301, 302, 303, 304, 325 Rodgers, Dennis, 290, 307, 313, 314 Roman, John, 45, 46 Ruhl, Mark J., 157, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 285, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 297 Index rule of law see also law and order institutions El Salvador, 134, 213, 221, 229, 232, 233 Guatemala, 134, 169, 171, 175, 196 homicide rates, 109 Nicaragua, 134, 283, 284, 333 policy approaches, 366 367 state capacity, 105, 133 143 rural areas, 58, 185, 189, 207, 272, 279, 305 Russia, 208 Rustow, Dankwart, 290 Saca, Antonio, 233, 248, 261, 264 Salvadoran Archbishop's Office, 221, 236, 249 San Marcos, Guatemala, 167, 170, 178, 271 San Martín, El Salvador, 271 272 San Miguel, El Salvador, 245, 254, 263, 265, 266, 267, 270, 271, 276 San Salvador, El Salvador, 37, 208, 209, 242 243, 245, 254, 267, 269, 270, 271, 276 San Vicente, El Salvador, 254, 267, 270, 276 Sánchez Cerén, President (El Salvador), 254 255 Sandinista Revolution, 284, 285, 286, 288, 295, 312, 331, 335, 347 Sandinistas, 37, 93, 259, 282, 293, 298, 335 Sandy Bay, Nicaragua, 330 Sanford, Victoria, 169 Santa Ana, El Salvador, 209, 242 243, 254, 265, 267, 269, 270, 271, 276 Santa Rosa, Guatemala, 30, 32, 152, 161, 192 Santacruz Giralt, María L., 126, 238, 239 Santos Mejía de Escobar, Aída Luz, 220, 228, 233, 249 São Paolo, Brazil, 14, 89 Schendel, W., 350 Schendel, Willem van, 70 Schmitter, Philippe, C., 290, 344 Schneider, Friedrich, 72 score settling, 124 Scott, James C., 357 security alternative forms of, 349 350 citizen demands for, 97 citizen security, 97, 175, 181, 283, 299 community justice in Guatemala, 175 El Salvador, 224 gangs providing, 95, 128 415 Guatemala, 166 military and, 166, 336 Nicaragua, 300 perceptions of, 27, 310, 334 private security in El Salvador, 218 security gaps, 129 security institutions see also courts and judicial system; police; prisons historical institutionalism, 57 neoliberal reforms, 53 permissive political environments for violence, 35 Seelke, Clare Ribando, 223, 227, 246, 253, 256, 257 Seligson, Mitchell, 140 Sieder, Rachel, 166, 168 Signoret, Patrick, 364 Silva Avalos, Héctor, 216, 222, 259, 261, 262, 264, Simons, Paul E., 175 Sinaloa cartel (Sinaloa Federation), 80, 86, 124, 177, 181, 182, 263, 265, 305 Sinaloa, Mexico, 85, 86 slums, urban, 91 small N comparative study methodology, 16, 47 Smith, Peter H., 124 smuggling, 78, 182, 257 Snodgrass Godoy, Angelina, 97, 154, 175 Snyder, Jack, 20, 33, 34, 101, 119, 120, 355 social capital, 36, 37, social cleansing, 97, 129, 137, 236, 251, 349 social democratic promise, 367 368 social imaginary, 190 social indicators, 280 social justice, 187 social networks, 37 social norms, regarding illicit activity, 70 Social Panorama of Latin America, 51 social prevention and rehabilitation, 300, 302, 366 367 social prevention committees, 299 socioeconomic conditions (poverty), 25, 39, 90 91, 238, 249, 269, 279, 330 sociological arguments for high violence, 36 43 solidarity, 92 Somoza dictatorship (Nicaragua), 285 Sonsonate, El Salvador, 89, 209, 242 243, 254, 258, 267, 269, 270, 271, 272, 276 Sosa, Carlos Guillermo, 171 416 Index South Africa/ Swaziland, Soyapango, El Salvador, 251, 271 Spalding, Rose J., 290, 296, 297, Sperisen, Erwin, 161 162 Stanley, William, 215 state capacity, 100, 101 118, 133 143 complicity, 105, 108, 130, 135 conclusions on, 356 efficaciousness, 101 118 El Salvador, 106, 118, 344 Guatemala, 118, 155 176, 344 historical institutionalism, 56 Nicaragua, 333, 343, 351 organizational coherence, 108, 110, 111 violence (conclusions), 343 345 weakness, 19, 33, see also weak states state institutions see also courts and judicial system; military; police civil war transitions, 33 democratization, 35 historical institutionalism, 55 58 tripartate argument of book, 19 weakness, 65 state prohibition, 70, 71, 90 state regulation, 68, 70, 71, 97 state/ inter state monitoring, 102, 104 strategic calculations, 106, 125 strategic warehousing, 89 street children, 97 submersible crafts, 259 subnational variation civil war transition arguments, 28, 30, 32 cocaine production, 75 conclusions on, 357 362 drug transit points, 88 El Salvador, 32, 209, 242 243, 245, 254, 266 273 ethnic cleavages, 43 Guatemala, 30, 152, 178, 179, 181 185, 192, 201, 202 inequality based comparisons, 47 labor markets, 54 neoliberal reforms, 53 Nicaragua, 305, 306, 327 330 state capacity, 58 subnational spaces, 73, 78, 88, 104, 125 subnational territorial enclaves, 73 super mano dura, 94, 248, see also mano dura supply chains, 78, 102, 263, 358 Supreme Courts, 214, 229, 230, 233, 248, 251 Sureños, 254 surveillance, 174 Sznajder, Mario, 70, 97 Taylor, Charles, 190 technologies of violence, 202 203, 207, 315 territorial enclaves, 19, 65, 73, 98, 123, 191, 357 362 territorial organizational competition see organizational territorial competition territorial reach, 56, 109, 110, 117 118, 345 territoriality, 95, 100, 148, 357 362 territory conclusions on, 357 362 gangs, 90 98, 192, 197, 245 248 hegemony over, 19, 98, 119, 262, 359, 361 illicit economies and, 72 turf wars, 121, 127, 187, 192, 197, 241, 359 Texis cartel, 263, 266 Thelen, Kathleen, 335 Thoumi, Francisco E., 104, 364 Tijuana, Mexico, 89 Tijuana/Arellano Felix organization, 80, 86, 124 Tilly, Charles, 55, 66, 96, 101, 119, 120, 121, 125, 348, 357, 360 tolerance levels for risk and security, 33 tolerance levels for violence, 156 Torres, Óscar, 233 trade and transit see drug trade and transit transit points, 88 90, see also drug trade and transit transit routes, 77 81, see also drug trade and transit transit vehicles, 78 transnational criminal organizations, 239, 259, 358 transnational gangs, 127, 246, 359 transnational illicit economy, 18, 66, 256 264 transnational illicit trade, 77 81 Transparency International (TNI) surveys, 140, 143, 158 transportation routes El Salvador, 240, 258, 259, 266 273 Guatemala, 195, 202 national boundaries, 358 Index Nicaragua, 306, 326, 327 330 transportistas, 245 246, 257, 262, 264 266, 269 Trejo, Guillermo, 120, 355 Triangle of Death, 272 Triángulo Minero, Nicaragua, 327, 332, 338 trust civil societies, 37 El Salvador, 218, 224 Guatemala, 159, 324 law and order institutions, 136 Nicaragua, 283, 324 Truth Commission, 231 Tseloni, Andreomachi, 33, 34 tumbadores, 182 turf wars, 121, 127, 187, 192, 197, 241, 359 UCA (Universidad Centroamericana), 292 UN Mission, Guatemala, 157 UNDP (United Nations Development Program), 9, 16, 143, 183, 202, 209, 231, 307, 333, 338 unemployment, 39, 45, 94, 279, 330 UNFPA (United Nations Population Fund), 211, 270 Ungar, Mark, 97, 349, 353, United Nations (UN) in El Salvador, 234, 235 ONUSAL (United Nations Observer Group in El Salvador), 217, 219, 232 United Nations police force, 157 World Crime Survey, 45 United States aid programs, 111 Citizenship and Immigration Services, 296 DEA (US Drug Enforcement Agency), 103, 174, 358, 361 deportation of gang members, 93, 188, 189, 237, 239 drug markets, 75, 76, 79, 85, 87, 102, 177, 332 drug trade and transit, 82, 86, 103 El Salvador and, 231, 261 gangs, 188, 190, 237, 238 homicide rates, 12, 13, 22, 29 in Nicaragua, 286, 289 migration to, 145 University of Central America (UCA), 36, 37 417 UNO (Unión Nacional Opositora Nicaragua), 288, 291 UNODC (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime) competition and drug trafficking, 185 corruption, 158 crime perceptions, 197 drug trade and transit, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 81, 82, 83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 176, 177, 178, 181, 182, 185, 259, 265, 266, 267, 325 gangs, 91, 92, 98, 189, 194, 196 homicide clearance rates, 112, 163, 168, 310 homicide rates, 6, 7, 10, 13, 14, 145, 341 illicit economies, 72 lynchings data, 154 most pressing issues, 281 organizational competition, 123, 148 organized crime, 28 perceptions of security, 310 police, 117, 163, 310 state capacity, 103, 104, 109 territoriality, 148 use of criminal records, violence levels, 42, 149, 262 World Drug Report, 75, 76, 79, 82, 83, 84, 98, 103, 196, 325, 326, 327, 331 urban gangs, 90 98, 186 urban illicit economies, 95 urban slums/ favelas, 91 urban violence, 202, 207 urban youth, 38 urbanization, 37, 57 URNG (Guatemala), 157 Uruguay corruption, 140, 143 homicide rates, 8, 12, 13, 22, 29 inequality, 48, 49 non homicide crime, police, 111, 136, 139, 307, 309 rule of law, 134 state capacity, 133 strong rule of law institutions, 106 Usulután, El Salvador, 254, 263, 265, 267, 270, 271, 276 Varshney, Ashutosh, 38 Venezuela corruption, 140, 143 418 Index Venezuela (cont.) drug trade and transit, 77, 87, 88, 102, 104, 129 gangs, 96 homicide rates, 8, 12, 13, 14, 22, 29, 342 inequality, 48, 49 non homicide crime, organized crime, 147 police, 136, 139, 307, 309 political violence (current day), rule of law, 134 Venkatesh, Sudhir, 120 victimization surveys, 15, 97, 224, 235 vigilante groups, 349 Vilas, Carlos M., 289 Villa Nueva, 194 violence see also homicide rates; political violence rates of non homicide violence, reason for focus on homicide, Vitória, Brazil, 89 Volkov, Vadim, 120 WHO (World Health Organization), 7, 8, 12, 13, 16, 23, 33, 38, 44, 47, 150, 152, 208, 312, 313 Wilkinson, Steven I., 43, 107, 349 Williams, Philip, 78, 89, 99 Withers, George, 111 witness protection, 169, 220 WOLA (Washington Office on Latin America), 111, 126, 158, 159, 164, 173, 294, 295, 349 Wolfson Index of Income Polarization, 51 women, crimes against, 277 women, killing of, 163, 204 Woodward, Ralph Lee, 174 Woolcock, Michael, 38 World Bank, 6, 17, 28, 29, 32, 72, 109, 133, 134, 135, 140, 142, 185, 192, 196, 203, 204, 208, 209, 232, 243, 273 World Drug Report, 75, 76, 79, 82, 83, 84, 98, 103, 196, 325, 326, 327, 331 World Economic Forum, 133, 139, 307 Worldwide Governance Indicators, 135, 142 Wagner, Karin, 175 war on drugs, 130 Way, Lucan, 348 weak states see also complicity; corruption civil war transitions, 25 conclusions on, 344, 362, drug trafficking, 103 El Salvador, 212 235 gangs, 94 Guatemala, 118, 150, 155 176, 183, 186, 189, 192, 196, 197, 199, 344 homicidal ecologies, 342 Honduras, 352 illicit economies, 65 Nicaragua, 279, 327, 332 state capacity, 104, 107, 110, 118, 133 Weber, Max, 295, 357, 368, 369 Weinstein, Jeremy M., 122 Yashar, Deborah, 42, 56, 66, 72, 108, 110, 156, 348, 358 youth at risk youth in Nicaragua, 300 El Salvador, 303 gangs, 90, 91, 93, 94, 360 Guatemala, 302, 303 homicide rates, 145, 241, 341 Honduras, 302, 303, 353 Nicaragua, 302 304 pandillas/ youth gangs, 90 98, 126, 186, 187, 190, 192, 193, 250, 303, 316, 360 percentages of, 38 social investment in, 40 Zacapa, Guatemala, 30, 167, 171, 182 Zelaya Central, Nicaragua, 327, 332, 338 zero tolerance, 301, see also mano dura Zetas, 80, 86, 177, 178, 181 182, 185, 263, 265, 266 Other Books in the Series (continued from page ii) Leonardo R Arriola, Multi Ethnic Coalitions in Africa: Business Financing of Opposition Election Campaigns Andy Baker, The Market and the Masses in Latin America: Policy Reform and Consumption in Liberalizing Economies David Austen Smith, Jeffry A Frieden, Miriam A Golden, Karl Ove Moene, and Adam Przeworski, eds., Selected Works of Michael Wallerstein: The Political Economy of Inequality, Unions, and Social Democracy Laia Balcells, Rivalry and Revenge: The Politics of Violence during Civil War Lisa Baldez, Why Women Protest: Women’s Movements in Chile Kate Baldwin, The Paradox of Traditional Chiefs in Democratic Africa Stefano Bartolini, The Political Mobilization of the European Left, 1860 1980: The Class Cleavage Robert Bates, When Things Fell Apart: State Failure in Late Century Africa Mark Beissinger, Nationalist Mobilization and the Collapse of the Soviet State Pablo Beramendi, The Political Geography of Inequality: Regions and Redistribution Nancy Bermeo, ed., Unemployment in the New Europe Nancy Bermeo and Deborah J Yashar, eds., Parties, Movements, and Democracy in the Developing World Carles Boix, Democracy and Redistribution Carles Boix, Political Order and Inequality: Their Foundations and Their Consequences for Human Welfare Carles Boix, Political Parties, Growth, and Equality: Conservative and Social Democratic Economic Strategies in the World Economy Catherine Boone, Merchant Capital and the Roots of State Power in Senegal, 1930 1985 Catherine Boone, Political Topographies of the African State: Territorial Authority and Institutional Change Catherine Boone, Property and Political Order in Africa: Land Rights and the Structure of Politics Michael Bratton and Nicolas van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective Michael Bratton, Robert Mattes, and E Gyimah Boadi, Public Opinion, Democracy, and Market Reform in Africa Valerie Bunce, Leaving Socialism and Leaving the State: The End of Yugoslavia, the Soviet Union, and Czechoslovakia Daniele Caramani, The Nationalization of Politics: The Formation of National Electorates and Party Systems in Europe John M Carey, Legislative Voting and Accountability Kanchan Chandra, Why Ethnic Parties Succeed: Patronage and Ethnic Headcounts in India Eric C C Chang, Mark Andreas Kayser, Drew A Linzer, and Ronald Rogowski, Electoral Systems and the Balance of Consumer Producer Power José Antonio Cheibub, Presidentialism, Parliamentarism, and Democracy Ruth Berins Collier, Paths toward Democracy: The Working Class and Elites in Western Europe and South America Daniel Corstange, The Price of a Vote in the Middle East: Clientelism and Communal Politics in Lebanon and Yemen Pepper D Culpepper, Quiet Politics and Business Power: Corporate Control in Europe and Japan Sarah Zukerman Daly, Organized Violence after Civil War: The Geography of Recruitment in Latin America Christian Davenport, State Repression and the Domestic Democratic Peace Donatella della Porta, Social Movements, Political Violence, and the State Alberto Diaz Cayeros, Federalism, Fiscal Authority, and Centralization in Latin America Alberto Diaz Cayeros, Federico Estévez, and Beatriz Magaloni, The Political Logic of Poverty Relief Jesse Driscoll, Warlords and Coalition Politics in Post Soviet States Thad Dunning, Crude Democracy: Natural Resource Wealth and Political Regimes Gerald Easter, Reconstructing the State: Personal Networks and Elite Identity Margarita Estevez Abe, Welfare and Capitalism in Postwar Japan: Party, Bureaucracy, and Business Henry Farrell, The Political Economy of Trust: Institutions, Interests, and Inter Firm Cooperation in Italy and Germany Karen E Ferree, Framing the Race in South Africa: The Political Origins of Racial Census Elections M Steven Fish, Democracy Derailed in Russia: The Failure of Open Politics Robert F Franzese, Macroeconomic Policies of Developed Democracies Roberto Franzosi, The Puzzle of Strikes: Class and State Strategies in Postwar Italy Timothy Frye, Building States and Markets after Communism: The Perils of Polarized Democracy Geoffrey Garrett, Partisan Politics in the Global Economy Scott Gehlbach, Representation through Taxation: Revenue, Politics, and Development in Postcommunist States Edward L Gibson, Boundary Control: Subnational Authoritarianism in Federal Democracies Jane R Gingrich, Making Markets in the Welfare State: The Politics of Varying Market Reforms Miriam Golden, Heroic Defeats: The Politics of Job Loss Jeff Goodwin, No Other Way Out: States and Revolutionary Movements Merilee Serrill Grindle, Changing the State Anna Grzymala Busse, Rebuilding Leviathan: Party Competition and State Exploitation in Post Communist Democracies Anna Grzymala Busse, Redeeming the Communist Past: The Regeneration of Communist Parties in East Central Europe Frances Hagopian, Traditional Politics and Regime Change in Brazil Henry E Hale, The Foundations of Ethnic Politics: Separatism of States and Nations in Eurasia and the World Mark Hallerberg, Rolf Ranier Strauch, and Jürgen von Hagen, Fiscal Governance in Europe Stephen E Hanson, Post Imperial Democracies: Ideology and Party Formation in Third Republic France, Weimar Germany, and Post Soviet Russia Michael Hechter, Alien Rule Timothy Hellwig, Globalization and Mass Politics: Retaining the Room to Maneuver Gretchen Helmke, Courts under Constraints: Judges, Generals, and Presidents in Argentina Gretchen Helmke, Institutions on the Edge: The Origins and Consequences of Inter Branch Crises in Latin America Yoshiko Herrera, Imagined Economies: The Sources of Russian Regionalism Alisha C Holland, Forbearance as Redistribution: The Politics of Informal Welfare in Latin America J Rogers Hollingsworth and Robert Boyer, eds., Contemporary Capitalism: The Embeddedness of Institutions John D Huber, Exclusion by Elections: Inequality, Ethnic Identity, and Democracy John D Huber and Charles R Shipan, Deliberate Discretion? The Institutional Foundations of Bureaucratic Autonomy Ellen Immergut, Health Politics: Interests and Institutions in Western Europe Torben Iversen, Capitalism, Democracy, and Welfare Torben Iversen, Contested Economic Institutions Torben Iversen, Jonas Pontussen, and David Soskice, eds., Unions, Employers, and Central Banks: Macroeconomic Coordination and Institutional Change in Social Market Economics Thomas Janoski and Alexander M Hicks, eds., The Comparative Political Economy of the Welfare State Joseph Jupille, Procedural Politics: Issues, Influence, and Institutional Choice in the European Union Stathis Kalyvas, The Logic of Violence in Civil War David C Kang, Crony Capitalism: Corruption and Capitalism in South Korea and the Philippines Stephen B Kaplan, Globalization and Austerity Politics in Latin America Junko Kato, Regressive Taxation and the Welfare State Orit Kedar, Voting for Policy, Not Parties: How Voters Compensate for Power Sharing Robert O Keohane and Helen B Milner, eds., Internationalization and Domestic Politics Herbert Kitschelt, The Transformation of European Social Democracy Herbert Kitschelt, Kirk A Hawkins, Juan Pablo Luna, Guillermo Rosas, and Elizabeth J Zechmeister, Latin American Party Systems Herbert Kitschelt, Peter Lange, Gary Marks, and John D Stephens, eds., Continuity and Change in Contemporary Capitalism Herbert Kitschelt, Zdenka Mansfeldova, Radek Markowski, and Gabor Toka, Post Communist Party Systems David Knoke, Franz Urban Pappi, Jeffrey Broadbent, and Yutaka Tsujinaka, eds., Comparing Policy Networks Ken Kollman, Perils of Centralization: Lessons from Church, State, and Corporation Allan Kornberg and Harold D Clarke, Citizens and Community: Political Support in a Representative Democracy Amie Kreppel, The European Parliament and the Supranational Party System David D Laitin, Language Repertoires and State Construction in Africa Fabrice E Lehoucq and Ivan Molina, Stuffing the Ballot Box: Fraud, Electoral Reform, and Democratization in Costa Rica Benjamin Lessing, Making Peace in Drug Wars: Crackdowns and Cartels in Latin America Mark Irving Lichbach and Alan S Zuckerman, eds., Comparative Politics: Rationality, Culture, and Structure, Second Edition Evan Lieberman, Race and Regionalism in the Politics of Taxation in Brazil and South Africa Richard M Locke, The Promise and Limits of Private Power: Promoting Labor Standards in a Global Economy Pauline Jones Luong, Institutional Change and Political Continuity in Post Soviet Central Asia Pauline Jones Luong and Erika Weinthal, Oil Is Not a Curse: Ownership Structure and Institutions in Soviet Successor States Julia Lynch, Age in the Welfare State: The Origins of Social Spending on Pensioners, Workers, and Children Lauren M MacLean, Informal Institutions and Citizenship in Rural Africa: Risk and Reciprocity in Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire Beatriz Magaloni, Voting for Autocracy: Hegemonic Party Survival and Its Demise in Mexico James Mahoney, Colonialism and Postcolonial Development: Spanish America in Comparative Perspective James Mahoney and Dietrich Rueschemeyer, eds., Historical Analysis and the Social Sciences Scott Mainwaring and Matthew Soberg Shugart, eds., Presidentialism and Democracy in Latin America Melanie Manion, Information for Autocrats: Representation in Chinese Local Congresses Isabela Mares, From Open Secrets to Secret Voting: Democratic Electoral Reforms and Voter Autonomy Isabela Mares, The Politics of Social Risk: Business and Welfare State Development Isabela Mares, Taxation, Wage Bargaining, and Unemployment Cathie Jo Martin and Duane Swank, The Political Construction of Business Interests: Coordination, Growth, and Equality Anthony W Marx, Making Race, Making Nations: A Comparison of South Africa, the United States, and Brazil Doug McAdam, John McCarthy, and Mayer Zald, eds., Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements Bonnie M Meguid, Party Competition between Unequals: Strategies and Electoral Fortunes in Western Europe Joel S Migdal, State in Society: Studying How States and Societies Constitute One Another Joel S Migdal, Atul Kohli, and Vivienne Shue, eds., State Power and Social Forces: Domination and Transformation in the Third World Scott Morgenstern and Benito Nacif, eds., Legislative Politics in Latin America Kevin M Morrison, Nontaxation and Representation: The Fiscal Foundations of Political Stability Layna Mosley, Global Capital and National Governments Layna Mosley, Labor Rights and Multinational Production Wolfgang C Müller and Kaare Strøm, Policy, Office, or Votes? Maria Victoria Murillo, Labor Unions, Partisan Coalitions, and Market Reforms in Latin America Maria Victoria Murillo, Political Competition, Partisanship, and Policy Making in Latin American Public Utilities Monika Nalepa, Skeletons in the Closet: Transitional Justice in Post Communist Europe Ton Notermans, Money, Markets, and the State: Social Democratic Economic Policies since 1918 Aníbal Pérez Liđán, Presidential Impeachment and the New Political Instability in Latin America Roger D Petersen, Understanding Ethnic Violence: Fear, Hatred, and Resentment in 20th Century Eastern Europe Roger D Petersen, Western Intervention in the Balkans: The Strategic Use of Emotion in Conflict Simona Piattoni, ed., Clientelism, Interests, and Democratic Representation Paul Pierson, Dismantling the Welfare State? Reagan, Thatcher, and the Politics of Retrenchment Marino Regini, Uncertain Boundaries: The Social and Political Construction of European Economies Kenneth M Roberts, Changing Course in Latin America: Party Systems in the Neoliberal Era Marc Howard Ross, Cultural Contestation in Ethnic Conflict Ben Ross Schneider, Hierarchical Capitalism in Latin America: Business, Labor, and the Challenges of Equitable Development Roger Schoenman, Networks and Institutions in Europe’s Emerging Markets Lyle Scruggs, Sustaining Abundance: Environmental Performance in Industrial Democracies Jefferey M Sellers, Governing from Below: Urban Regions and the Global Economy Yossi Shain and Juan Linz, eds., Interim Governments and Democratic Transitions Beverly Silver, Forces of Labor: Workers’ Movements and Globalization since 1870 Prerna Singh, How Solidarity Works for Welfare: Subnationalism and Social Development in India Theda Skocpol, Social Revolutions in the Modern World Andy Baker, The Market and the Masses in Latin America: Policy Reform and Consumption in Liberalizing Economies Austin Smith et al., Selected Works of Michael Wallerstein Regina Smyth, Candidate Strategies and Electoral Competition in the Russian Federation: Democracy without Foundation Richard Snyder, Politics after Neoliberalism: Reregulation in Mexico David Stark and László Bruszt, Postsocialist Pathways: Transforming Politics and Property in East Central Europe Sven Steinmo, The Evolution of Modern States: Sweden, Japan, and the United States Sven Steinmo, Kathleen Thelen, and Frank Longstreth, eds., Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Analysis Susan C Stokes, Mandates and Democracy: Neoliberalism by Surprise in Latin America Susan C Stokes, ed., Public Support for Market Reforms in New Democracies Susan C Stokes, Thad Dunning, Marcelo Nazareno, and Valeria Brusco, Brokers, Voters, and Clientelism: The Puzzle of Distributive Politics Milan W Svolik, The Politics of Authoritarian Rule Duane Swank, Global Capital, Political Institutions, and Policy Change in Developed Welfare States Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics, Revised and Updated Third Edition Tariq Thachil, Elite Parties, Poor Voters: How Social Services Win Votes in India Kathleen Thelen, How Institutions Evolve: The Political Economy of Skills in Germany, Britain, the United States, and Japan Kathleen Thelen, Varieties of Liberalization and the New Politics of Social Solidarity Charles Tilly, Trust and Rule Daniel Treisman, The Architecture of Government: Rethinking Political Decentralization Guillermo Trejo, Popular Movements in Autocracies: Religion, Repression, and Indigenous Collective Action in Mexico Rory Truex, Making Autocracy Work: Representation and Responsiveness in Modern China Lily Lee Tsai, Accountability without Democracy: How Solidary Groups Provide Public Goods in Rural China Joshua Tucker, Regional Economic Voting: Russia, Poland, Hungary, Slovakia and the Czech Republic, 1990 1999 Ashutosh Varshney, Democracy, Development, and the Countryside Yuhua Wang, Tying the Autocrat’s Hand: The Rise of The Rule of Law in China Jeremy M Weinstein, Inside Rebellion: The Politics of Insurgent Violence Stephen I Wilkinson, Votes and Violence: Electoral Competition and Ethnic Riots in India Andreas Wimmer, Waves of War: Nationalism, State Formation, and Ethnic Exclusion in the Modern World Jason Wittenberg, Crucibles of Political Loyalty: Church Institutions and Electoral Continuity in Hungary Elisabeth J Wood, Forging Democracy from Below: Insurgent Transitions in South Africa and El Salvador Elisabeth J Wood, Insurgent Collective Action and Civil War in El Salvador Deborah Yashar, Homicidal Ecologies: Illicit Economies and Complicit States in Latin America Daniel Ziblatt, Conservative Parties and the Birth of Democracy ... Social investment in young people in Latin America (2012) 40 2.3 Average wage and unemployment in Latin American countries in the 2000s 41 2.4 Homicide rates and Gini coefficients in Latin America, ... Samuels, Inequality and Democratization: An Elite Competition Approach Ana Arjona, Rebolocracy Homicidal Ecologies Illicit Economies and Complicit States in Latin America DEBORAH J YASHAR Princeton... The Transnational Context and Domestic Footprint Forefronting and Conceptualizing the Illicit Latin America s Illicit Economies and Organizations: Drugs, Organized Crime, and Gangs Conclusion vii