THE CHINESE DIASPORA AND MAINLAND CHINA Also by Constance Lever-Tracy, David Ip and Noel Tracy ASIAN ENTREPRENEURS IN AUSTRALIA (with Jim Kitay and Irene Phillips) Also by Constance Lever-Tracy A DIVIDED WORKING CLASS: Ethnic Segmentation and Industrial Conflict in Australia (with Michael Quinlan) Also by David Ip ASIAN IMPRESSIONS OF MULTICULTURAL AUSTRALIA (with Ikuo Kawakami, Karel Duivenvoorden and Lee-Chang Tye) The Chinese Diaspora and Mainland China An Emerging Economic Synergy Constance Lever-Tracy Senior Lecturer in Sociology Flinders University of South Australia Adelaide David Ip Senior Lecturer Department of Anthropology and Sociology University of Queensland and Noel Tracy Lecturer in Politics and Political Economy Flinders University of South Australia Adelaide $ & m First published in Great Britain 1996 by MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0-333-65334-3 M First published in the United States of America 1996 by ST MARTIN'S PRESS, INC., Scholarly and Reference Division, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y 10010 ISBN 0-312-15949-8 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lever-Tracy, Constance The Chinese diaspora and mainland China : an emerging economic synergy / Constance Lever-Tracy, David Ip and Noel Tracy, p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-312-15949-8 (cloth) Investments, Foreign—China China—Economic policy—19763 Chinese—Foreign countries I Ip, David Fu-Keung II Tracy, Noel III Title HG5783.L48 1996 332.673,0951 —dc20 95-53242 CIP © Constance Lever-Tracy, David Ip and Noel Tracy 1996 All rights reserved No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P9HE Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages 10 05 04 03 02 01 00 99 Printed in Great Britain by The Ipswich Book Company Ltd Ipswich, Suffolk 98 97 96 Contents List of Tables and Figures vii Preface ix List of Abbreviations xii Introduction Part I Resources and Opportunities Chinese Diaspora Capitalism China, Reforms and Opportunities Towards a Synergy Cobwebs across the Divides Part II Into China through Transnational Networks Introduction: The Sleepers The Tycoons Networking into China by Smaller Investors Transnational Small and Medium Enterprise Part III 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 21 41 62 82 99 113 131 159 Impacts and Outcomes Introduction: Dependency and Development Diaspora Tycoons and Development in China Long-Term Perspectives and Local Meshing Ripples on a Pond Diaspora Capitalists Come of Age The Relationship of Labour and Capital Conclusion 179 197 213 235 249 273 280 Notes 286 Bibliography 311 Index 326 v List of Tables and Figures Tables 1.1 2.1 Ethnic Chinese in ASEAN The largest Chinese owned companies (including state firms) 3.1 Share of total industrial output of selected provinces by sector 1985, 1993 3.2 Changes 1985-93 in the share of national gross industrial output by selected provinces 4.1 Sources of foreign capital in China, cumulative 1979-93 4.2 Number of foreign-invested enterprises and foreign capital investment in China as at 31 December 1993 (US$bn) 4.3 Guangdong: distribution of foreign capital at 31 December 1993 4.4 Fujian: direct foreign investment 1979-93 4.5 Fujian: origin of foreign capital at December 1993 5.1 Sources of direct foreign investment in Thailand, 1993 5.2 Economic growth in the Chinese business sphere in real terms, 1993 5.3 International trade of the Chinese business sphere, 1980-92 5.4 Direction of the trade of the Chinese business sphere, 1980-92 (proportions of total trade) 5.5 Taiwanese direct foreign investment 1985-90 6.1 Origin of ethnic Chinese in Southeast Asia, 1991 (estimate) 6.2 Loans and advances of Hong Kong banks, 1985-92 6.3 Birthplace of persons with Chinese ancestry, Australia 1986 7.1 Recorded direct foreign investment by top 75 diaspora business families 7.2 Top 75 families investing in China 8.1 Personal characteristics of Hong Kong respondents 8.2 Characteristics of the businesses of Hong Kong respondents 15 26 53 55 65 67 74 76 76 83 88 88 90 91 103 107 109 115 116 143 144 List of Tables and Figures Vlll 8.3 8.4 8.5 9.1 9.2 9.3 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 Local connections of foreign investors in the four surveys Relationship of foreign investors with suppliers and customers Survey ventures with ethnic Chinese suppliers and customers Ethnic origin of foreign investors Investors from Hong Kong and Taiwan who speak the local dialect Sources of raw materials, equipment and machinery and destinations of products of all survey enterprises Total investment in the China venture Size of enterprises in survey classified by number of workers Size of the foreign investor classified by capitalisation (US$m) Size of investment by size of investors (all survey areas combined) (US$m) Type of foreign-invested ventures surveyed Chinese partners of joint ventures and cooperatives surveyed Sources of machinery and equipment in foreign-invested enterprises surveyed Proportion of the product exported by surveyed ventures Enterprises sourcing at least some raw materials, machinery and equipment or spare parts within China Proportion of the product sold within China Location of investments in China (Hong Kong interviews) Proportions of survey ventures trading with other provinces Source provinces of migrant labour - total for four survey areas Size of business as a whole on entry into China and at time of interview - total for four survey areas Number of workers currently employed by starting date of venture - total for four survey areas Sources of additional capital Proportion of ventures that have a transnational linkage with at least one partner or one supplier or customer 155 155 155 171 171 173 230 230 230 230 231 232 232 243 243 243 244 246 247 255 256 269 269 Figures 1.1 14.1 McGrew's cobweb Growth since commencement 256 Preface Our last book was a study of Asian business people living in Australia and it was this which led us directly to the present work What overwhelmingly impressed us about the hundred ethnic Chinese entrepreneurs we interviewed during 1989 and 1990 as part of that study, immigrants from China, Hong Kong, Taiwan and Southeast Asia, was the quite disproportionate number who had business links back to China and how often these passed through Hong Kong Two of us already had links to Hong Kong, one by birth, the other by profession, having worked for a major British multinational based there We were both, therefore, very aware of the ways in which local Chinese business had replaced the British Hongs as the major driving force in the Crown Colony's economy since the mid-1970s, particularly in the growth of export-oriented manufacturing, which was the basis of Hong Kong's status as a NIC and its increasingly significant role as an international trader Visits to China, both before and after Tiananmen, had also made us aware of the substantial changes already under way in the southeastern provinces of Guangdong and Fujian, which, although we were not to know it at the time, would provide the basis for the momentous changes of the 1990s Thus the current project was born in January 1992, coinciding fortuitously with the start of what has come to be known as the Third Wave of foreign investment into China, which would dwarf the two previous waves and which would be dominated by investment from the Chinese diaspora (see Chapter 4) The project was to be a study of the role of the diaspora Chinese in the economic and social transformation of Guangdong Province We approached it with a certain trepidation, for none of us could claim to be China experts, but significantly this has proved to be a blessing in disguise The new China is so different from the old that new methods of research are called for In particular the idea that China's economy can be studied by analysis of official statistics and government macroeconomic policy has to be abandoned China's economy and economic development are now so uneven that generalisations based on central data and policy are extremely hazardous Another problem is that so many of the momentous changes that have led to the World Bank predicting that China will be the biggest economy in the world by 2015 are taking place at the level of towns IX Bibliography 323 trasting Ideal Types for Conceptualising the Development Patterns of Chinese 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Zhonghua Gongsheng Shibao Zhou, D (1992) 'Research On Immigrant Labour in the Zhujiang Delta', Sociological Research (September), pp 71-9 Zweig, David (1991) 'Internationalising China's Countryside: The Political Economy of Exports from Rural Industry', The China Quarterly, 128 Zweig, David (1992a) 'Reaping Rural Rewards', The China Business Review, (Nov.-Dec) Zweig, David (1992b) 'Urbanising Rural China: Bureaucratic Authority and Local Autonomy', in Lieberthal and Lampton Index General Agriculture 273, 274, 308n4, 309n7 American Chinese 2, 4, 13, 14, 101-3, 129, 153, 170, 246 Australian Chinese viii, 13, 14, 32, 35, 37, 101, 102, 106, 108, 110, 301n29 in China viii, 4, 110, 131-40, 170, 302nl history 108, 109 from Hong Kong 109, 132 from Southeast Asia 109, 132 from Taiwan 109, 110, 132 Bangkok Bank Group 104 Big businesses, projects, tycoons 7, 15, 17, 25, 26, 28, 29, 33-7, 54, 79, 104, 105, Ch 7, 192, 195, Ch 11, 213, 215, 229, 230, 249 Biggest billionaires 113, 114, 117, 122, 127, 201 companies 113, 114, 122, 301n2 Bureaucracy 36, 37, 39, 51, 60, 67, 68, 70, 86, 111, 138, 195, 201, 215, 225, 232, 234, 255, 306n4 Business strategies and practices altruistic 226-8, 233 diversification 36-40, 51, 60, 130, 144, 145, 280, 292n61, 298nl3, 306n5 long-term orientation 36, 86, 134, 138, 152, 156, 157, 199, 214, 217, 218, 233, 236, 249, 254, 275, 280, 281 multiplication 39, 114, 229, 234 quick profits 36, 218, 224-6, 233 Canada, Canadian Chinese 102, 123, 124, 246 Case studies 117-19, 122-4, 127-30, 197-203, 205-8, 210 China, economy development, growth 2, 3, 17, 44, 48, 110, 179, 192-6, 205, 214, 293n28, 305n41, 305n42, 307n3, development, stalled, blocked 45, 63, 199, 200, 205, 213, 214, 228 foreign investment 4, 46-8, 54, Ch 4, 111, 205; destination 53, 54, 63, 64, 66, 67, 74-7, 208, 209, 211, 215-17; diffusion 69, 73-7, 119, 122, 141, 208, 209, 227, 228, 236, 244-6; source 65, 76, 77 (Chinese diaspora ix, x, 1, 3, Ch passim; West ix, 2, 4, 43, 62, 65, 67, 194, 200, 306n2; Japan ix, 4, 64, 65, 67, 126, 153, 170, 194); from China to other countries 92, 116, 124, 132, 133, 210 impact of China on the region 43, 45 inflation, overheating 45, 48, 63, 78, 193, 198, market forces v planning 48, 49, 51, 52, 59, 60, 72, 79, 215, 216, 294n29, n30, 295n49, 296n52 property forms 52, 204, 205, 294n36, 295n43 regional differences 47, 53-55, 62, 72, 73-5, 193 sectoral diferences (state, 326 Index collective, private) 44, 53, 54, 70-2, 78, 214, 293n9, 295n43, 307n3 standard of living, inequalities 44, 45, 48, 50-2, 79, 80, 193, 236, 294n36 state: and diaspora investors 71, 115, 116, 118, 125, 142, 192, 194, 198-209, 199-204, 210, 211, 215, 231, 232, 309nl2; and infrastructure projects 192, 197-203; and labour migration and recruitment 273-5; bilateral monopoly 51, 60; central plan and decentralisation 195, 211, ix, x, 48-51, 54, 55, 68, 110, 111, 196, 200, 294n34; industry 49, 68, 72, 118, 119, 192-4, 216, 220, 294n30, 305n41; local government 3, 51, 52, 58, 70, 136, 196, 215, 216, 295n43, 295n44, 295n47; reforms and policies x, 43-9, 51, 59, 62, 63, 69, 72, 78, 116, 192-4, 199-201, 199, 200, 202, 205, 236, 293n4, 296n63, 296n71; role in development 192-194 trade: balance of payments 48, 79; domestic 57, 58, 79, 80, 235-43, 246, 247; international 3, 43, 45, 46, 48, 71, 73, 78, 79, 205, 235-7, 241-3, 294n29, 305n42 see also Bureaucracy, Labour, Rural industrialisation, Problems Chinese Business Sphere (CBS) 84, 85, 87-92, 102, 130, 169, 170, 282, 299nl7 regional trade/integration 42, 89-92, 96, 99, 129, 130, 168, 169, 173, 174, 268-70 trade with West and Japan 89, 90, 130, 269 wealth, growth 88, 89, Ch 14, 303n9 Chinese diaspora 280 327 as foreign investors: in Asia (excl Japan) x, 83, 115, 116, 120, 123, 124, 128, 129, 289nl9, 302n6; in other parts of the world 26, 123, 124, 129, 264, 267, 272, 289nl9 business culture 14, 22, 23, 83, 86, 93, 101, 292n56 capitalism 7, 16, 21, 24, 29, 30, 31, 39, 40, 83, 86, 280, 288nl4, 290n40, 298n3 history 1, 3, 12-14, 21-3, 108, 109, 300n9, impact on Asia Pacific region 3, 88, 128-30, 160, 202, 250, 300n9 impact on China x, 16, Ch 4, 70, 71, 78-80, 202, 203, 205, 211, 281, 295n50 impact of China on the diaspora 80, 81, 85, 130, 252-4, 262, 271, 281, 282 numbers and wealth 14, 15, 80, 249 persecution and discrimination 13, 15, 21, 69, 94, 95, 101, 102, 108, 109, 114 place in global capitalism 3, 16, 26, 66, 67, 80, 81, 87-9, 100, 123, 128, 130, 159, 249, 272, 280-2, 298n6 relations with the state, cronyism 13, 21, 22, 26, 28, 29, 87, 104, 116, 118, 124, 128, 129, 130, 192, 210, Ch 11, 215, 287n2 transnational interconnections 16, 87, 95, Ch 6, Ch 7, 303n6, Ch 9, 250, 268-70, 272, 281, 288nl4, nl8, 300n9 see also under name of country and see also ethnicity, Chinese Business Sphere Colonialism, colonial regimes 3, 13, 21, 22, 180, 181 Communist Party in China 50, 56, 58, 295n46 Community, associations 7, 13, 328 Index Community cont 14, 23, 38, 93-5, 108, 110, 126, 135, 140, 164, 287n9, 288nl0, 298n5 Confucianism 28, 30, 292n56 Conglomerates 36, 36, 114 Corruption 55, 56, 116, 124, 198, 260, 261, 271, 295n47, 296n55, 296n56, 296n57 see also Extortion, Reciprocity Cultural Revolution 56, 118 Culture, language 11, 12, 28, 32, 93-6, 107, 129, 134, 139, 171, 172, 234, 292n56, 300n31 Customers 135, 153-7, 170, 262 Dependency or autonomy 96, Ch 10 of diaspora 14, 21, 24, 31, 38, 104, 106, 160, 179, 250, 262-70 of investors in China 261, 262, 270, 271, 308n8 out of dependency ix, 3, 14, 26, 41, 123, 130, 16, 174, 179, 180, 250, 262-272, 281, 282, 289nl9 (see also Subcontracting, Theories) Design of products, R&D 38, 233, 262, 263, 271, 272, 289nl9 Development, transformation 16, 17, 28, 51, Ch 10, Ch 11, Ch 12, 248, 249, 280 and export orientation 26, 27, 38, 71-3, 79, 181, 182, 235, 247, 289n23 and import replacement 181, 247 from above 191-4, 209, 211 from below 191, 195, 196, 209, 211, 214-16, 233 stalled, blocked 4, 17, 37, 182, 183, 235, 253 see also Dependency, China Diasporas 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 87, 93, 101, 280, 282, 283, 286nl3 see also Chinese diaspora Dissent, unrest 46, 48 see also Labour Education 24, 33-5, 94, 102, 103, 142, 143, 146, 201, 251, 252, 307n4 see also Students Environment x, 306n3 Ethnicity 8, 16, 31, 32, 66, 83, 84, 92, 93-6, 102, 103, 109, 114, 170, 172 ethnic exclusivity 32, 102, 110, 135, 153, 161, 169, 174, 291n44, 301nll, 302n2, n5 ethnic identity 10, 12, 85, 87, 93-6, 300n26, n27 resinification 87, 93, 94, 300n31 Europe E Europe 4, 59, 294n33 W Europe incl Britain 6, 83, 92 Exploitation, squeezing 96 of labour 218,235,273,276, 309nl2, of small firms by large 261, 262, 271, 308n6 Extortion 56, 139, 257-259, 259, 260, 296n57 see also Corruption, Reciprocity Familism, family firms 23, 24, 29, 31, 33, 39, 85, 86, 114, 234, 290n40, 291n46, 298nll, 299n24, 305n38, 306n6 family management 11, 24, 33, 34, 36, 291n53 inheritance 24, 30, 31, 39, 114 scattered families 101, 105, 108, 117-21, 128, 129, 161-3, 164-6, 175 Finance, credit, banking, insurance 6, 14, 15, 23, 33, 99, 104, 106, 107, 120, 121, 124, 135, 136, 141, 190, 232, 269, 289nl9, 305n38 Flexibility, opportunism, unpredictability, contingency 6, 11, 36, 37, 39, 57, 60, 69, 70, 86, 150, 151, 245, 246, 284, 286nl0, 292n68, 306n4 Index plans, projects, expectations 199, 215, 228, 233, 236, 234, 249, 252-7, 270, 271, 305 n41 Greater Hong Kong, Greater China 73, 84, 88, 228 Growth 38 of economies 37, 39, 81 of family holdings 31, 36, 143, 209, 215 (see also Case studies) of firms and ventures 36, 143, 147, 215, 254-257, 271 (see also China, economy) Guanxi see Network Heavy industry 72 Historical timing 284, 285 Hong Kong, Hong Kongese 22, 30, 33, 101, 105-8, 114, 117-19, 122-4, 127-30, 288nl0, 292n61, 292n76, 299n25, 300n31, 304n27, and China ix, x, 13, 14, 62, 66, 73, 80, 81, 106, 111, 116, 117, 123-6, 170, Ch 11, 306n7 and the region 42, 81, 33, 90-2, 115, 269, 270 development and growth of ix, 26, 27, 37, 38, 80, 81, 179, 185, 187, 189, 292nl emigration from 102, 108, 109 metropoliis of the diaspora and gateway to China 106, 107, 119-21, 130, 161, 162, 164-9, 172, 283 relations with metropolitan countries 90, 106, 269, 270, 289nl9 Southeast Asian Chinese in Hong Kong 65, 102, 104, 106, 107, 117-21, 128, 129, 164, 165, 172 Taiwanese linkages with Hong Kong 65, 106, 120, 125, 127, 166-9, 170, 172-4, 269, 270, 306n6 see also Interviews, Surveys Hotels and tourism 128, 129, 197, 199 329 Identity 93-6 see also Ethnicity Indians 3, 12, 15, 283 Indonesia, Indonesian-Chinese 14, 15, 25, 30, 33, 36, 37, 91, 92, 94, 101, 103, 104, 114, 116, 117-19, 124, 125, 126, 164, 165, 182, 198, 201, 202, 300n31, 300n9, 302n6, Industrial districts 140, 295n47, 303n6 Infrastructure 1, 2, 64, 123, 124, 192, 197, 199-203, 211, 215, 228, 305n41, 306n7 Interviews 107, 108, 110, 214, 257-62, 275, 277, 278 with Australian Chinese 131-40, 160-4, 215, 218, 224, 241, 242, 245, 246, 254, 255, 271 with Hong Kong Chinese 140-5, 164-79, 215-24, 237-41, 244, 245, 250-4, 263-8, 271 Japan, Japanese x, 6, 83, 89, 91, 116, 124, 129, 189, 190, 250, 268, 287n20, 291n44, 306n51 Jews 3, 12, 83, 283 Joint ventures 2, 52, 116, 194, 200, 231, 232, 295n43 Korea 10, 29, 83, 153, 168-70, 185-7, 306n51 Labour x, 18, Ch 15, 285 abuses of 275-7, 306n6 child labour 309nl0 hours of work 308n8 industrial hazards 276, 277 market forces 274, 275, 277-9, 309nl7 migratory xi, 51, 58, 92, 228, 237, 246, 247, Ch 15, 308nl, 309nl4 mobility and job security 49, 59, 67, 68, 274, 275, 277, 278, 305n45, 308n7 official trade unions 276, 308n8, 309n9, n i l paternalism 275 330 Index Labour cont recruitment 274, 275 self-organisation, grapevine, militancy 58, 277-9 skills 218, 220, 222-4, 236, 255, 307n4 wages, hours and conditions 218, 224, 253-5, 275-9, 305n45, 309nll see also Class, Government, Women Lateral connections 23, 34, 57, 58, 69, 86, 102, 245, 279, 296n63, 298nl3 Latin America 4, 6, 79, 180-5, 188 Macao 13-15, 19, 201 Malaysia, Malaysian-Chinese 14, 15, 33, 34, 91, 92, 101, 103-5, 114, 116, 120, 121, 124, 126-30, 182, 199, 289, 300n27, n31 Management 31, 33, 34, 37-9, 116, 220, 221, 263, 265, 291n53 see also Familism Manufacturing, industry 14, 27, 37, 38, 46, 63, 73, 106, 111, 132, 143, 153, 197, 203-8, 211, 215 Market forces, world markets 5, II, 41, 42, 213-15, 286nl3 see also Development, China Marketing 38, 70, 99, 217, 220, 240, 263, 268, 272 Media and communications 105, 107, 114, 123, 128, 129, 288nl5 Migration internal 287n9 (see also Labour) international 1, , 10, 13, 14, 91, 93, 100, 101, 106 remigration 11, 94, 101, 102, 106, 109, 110, 132, 161-4 return to place of origin 66, III, 119, 121, 122, 137, 141, 154-7, 226, 227 Multinational corporations (Western, Japanese) 3-9, 11, 24, 26, 79, 80, 159, 180, 181, 183, 195, 196, 209, 234, 271, 282, 306n51 in China 2, 16, 68, 79 (see also Problems) Multipliers (backward and forward linkages) 181, 182, 235-9, 242, 243, 246-8 Nation states, nationality, nationalism 5, 7, 8, 10, 22, 93-6, 114, 159, 184, 280, 286nl, 286nl6 Networks 11, 23, 29, 31, 32, 39, 54, 55, 86, 87, 99, 116, 118, 121, Ch 8, 190, 191, 214, 245, 259, 260, 288nll, 290n42, n43 and diversification 144-52, 157, 298nl3, and market orientation 144-52 and scale of venture 144-52, 154, 156, 175, 211, 249, 262 classmate networks 32, 57, 133, 135, 136, 138, 163, 245 delegitimation of 55, 56, 296n55, 296n56 extensibility of 23, 32, 69, 134, 135, 137, 138, 157, 290n43, 291nl3 formal connections, contract 11, 22, 23, 32, 133, 139, 141, 146, 147, 153, 156, 157 friendship 23, 32, 56, 102, 104, 118, 133-5, 137-9, 161, 162, 164, 165, 176 kinship 32, 102, 121, 133-9, 141, 154, 155, 157, Ch 8, 161-6, 175, 290n43 of Mainland Chinese 69, Ch 8, 157, 158, 245 transnational 32, 39, Ch 6, Ch 7, Ch 9, 234 see also Organisations, Piracy, Reciprocity NICs, development, growth 41, 43, 182, 185-91, 292nl stalled, blocked 38, 42 Offshoring 62, 80, 81, 300n25 Index Partnerships, consortia, business groups 24, 15, 26, 116-18, 124-8, 135 transdiaspora 125-6, 172, 173 Philippines, Philippine-Chinese 15, 34, 35, 91, 92, 95, 101-3, 114, 116, 120, 129, 166, 201, 202, 299n25, 302n6 Piracy, guerilla capitalism, lawbreaking 13, 28, 41, 57, 61, 68, 69, 78, 120, 133, 190, 191, 229, 230, 257, 259-61, 274, 275 see also Plunder Planning see China Plunder 214, 218, 224-6 Poverty, inequality 180, 183 see also China Premises 253 Problems, failures in China 198, 216-18 of diaspora Chinese 152, 199, 210, 211, 219, 220, 254, 255, 257-9, 307n2 of state companies in China 68, 72, 193, 194, 198, 211 of Western and Japanese investors 4, 64, 67, 68, 77, 158, 194, 305n49 Procurement agents 296n62 Property development, real estate 37, 81, 123, 124, 143, 151, 197-199, 203, 211, 306n7 housing 198 Reciprocity, gift exchange 23, 56-8, 61, 134, 156, 215, 257, 259-61, 271, 273-5, 296n57 see also Extortion, Theories Region see Chinese Business Sphere Relational contracting 57, 58, 296n52 Retailing and distribution 38, 123, 143, 208, 219, 268 Risk 71, 86, 138 Rural industrialisation, township and village enterprises (TVE) ix, 44, 52, 77, 78, 112, 214 331 and diaspora investors 47, 53, 67-70, 72, 75, 78, 215, 216, 228, 231, 232, 234, 293n9, 295n43, 295n49 as exporters 43, 46 Rustication 58, 118, 119 Satisfaction of investors 152, 215, 228, 255, 257 Scale (of firms, investments, owners) 6, 11, 16, 28-35, 68, 143, 145, 159, 205, 209, 213, 215, 228-31, 234, 249, 251, 252, 254, 255, 262, 268, 280, 290n37 Self-employment (moves into) 24, 29, 39, 109, 168, 250, 251, 263-5 Services 197, 198, 208 Singapore, Singaporeans 15, 22, 32, 37, 101, 102, 105, 114, 117-20, 123, 127-30, 300n31, 306n51 and the region 83, 89, 91, 92, 104, 105, 115, 299n21, development of 27, 42 financial centre and entrepot 36, 91, 92, 283 investment in China 92, 116, 117, 125, 126, 198, 246 relations with metropolitan capital 92, 299n21 Sleepers 9, 10, 16, 17, 84, 94, 100, 101, 104, 169, 176 Small and medium enterprises, projects 1, 3, 7, 17, 26, 27, 29, 60, 63, 68, 77, 111, Ch 8, 190, 200, 211, 215, 228-30, 234, 249, 289n23, 290n33, 304n27 fission 29-31, 39, 290n29 multinational small firms 35, 110, Ch 9, 176, 234, 249 Social class, class relations 93, 94, 109, 186-91, Ch 15, 285, 295n47, 299n25 Social mobility 14, 30, 86, 93, 122, 143, 249, 250-2, 290n36, 299n25 see also Case studies 332 Index South African Chinese 298n5 Southeast Asia, Southeast Asian Chinese x, 5, 13, 25, 28, 29, 43, 92, 114, 287n23, 289nl9, 300n26 growth triangles 92 investing in China 36, 65, 111, 114-2, 125, 129, 130, 170, Ch 11 (see also Surveys) investments from Chinese NICs 82, 83, 115, 201, 202, 289nl9 Special Economic Zones (SEZ) 1, 43, 2, 111, 231, 232, 236 Stock exchange, equity market 31, 32, 38, 114, 116, 118, 120, 121, 194, 200, 292n76 Students from the Mainland 132, 136, 138, 271 transnational movements 9, 101-3, 106, 109, 118, 142, 164-5 Subcontracting, OEM 24, 38, 80, 216, 250, 255, 262, 263, 266-8, 272, 308n8 internal subcontracting 309nl9 Subsidies, soft budgets 51, 52, 59, 294n33 Suppliers 135, 153-7, 170, 262 Surveys 17, 106, 110-12, 131, 153-6, 170-5, 228-33, 242-4, 246-8, 255, 257, 268-70, 273-6 Synergies and alliances 17, 60, 68-70, 87, 156-8, 183, 194, 196, 214, 231, 233, 234, 245, 249, 250, 280, 282, 283, 297nl and scale of investor 231, 60, 68, 156, 183, 194, 231, 234, 307n7 Taiwan, Taiwanese 14, 22, 26, 27, 32, 33-5, 114, 292n61, 299n25, 305n38 and the region 83, 89, 91, 103, 115, 269, 270, 290n39, 306n6 development of 27, 38, 42, 179, 185-91, 289n23, 292nl, 305n37 government policies 65, 120, 190, 191, 304n30 history of 13 in China 62, 64, 65, 81, 111, 115, 116, 120, 126, 139, 140, 170, 191, 197, 246 relations with Hong Kong 269, 270, 289nl9, 304n30 (see also Hong Kong, Surveys) Taoism and Zen Buddhism 28 Technology, technology transfer 70, 79, 99, 124, 127, 146, 147, 181, 219, 221-4, 236, 289nl9, 298n6 Thailand, Thai Chinese 15, 34, 35, 82, 83, 89-92, 95, 101, 104, 114, 116, 120, 121, 125, 126, 128, 129, 182, 197, 201, 269, 270, 289nl9, 306n6 Theories of Chinese diaspora capitalism Ch 2, 82 dependency and dependent development 17, 27, 179-85, 213 economic rationalism 56, 59 globalisation 3, 5-12, 159, 213, 214, 285, 286nl6, 289nl9 market coordination, planned redistribution and modernisation 27, 31, 85, 86 New International Division of Labour (NIDL) 182, 303n8 reciprocity 49, 50, 54-6, 294n33, 295n47, 296n52 socialism, communism, capitalism 49, 213, 214, 294n32, 286nl6, 295n47 strong states 3, 17, 22, 85, 183-9, 191, 292n68, 305n37, world system 17, 27, 179, 180, 183, 184, 304nl5 Tiananmen massacre ix, 46, 47, 63, 132, 136, 199 Traders, agents, middlemen 3, 12, 13, 14, 22, 24, 27, 87, 127, 128, 130, 132, 133, 135, 136, 250, 263, 268, 271, 272 Index Tradition and modernity 24, 25, 30, 31, 35, 40, 85, 86, 280, 296n53 Transnational links 8, 9, 10, 11, 94 see also Chinese diaspora Trust, reputation 23, 31-3, 36, 38, 39, 69, 85, 86, 94, 133-5, 138, 141, 214, 291n48, 296n54 Upgrading (of skills, management, technology, products, quality) 38, 40, 71, 106, 182, 214, 217-24, 232, 233, 235, 236, 263-8, 281 Vietnam, Vietnamese Chinese 2, 14, 89, 91, 92, 102, 102, 106, 169 Welfare, public services 45, 52, 59, 137 Women 13, 288nl3 in business 34, 35, 118, 142, 143, 167, 168, 227, 264, 299n24, 303n8 changing status of 34, 35, 292n56, 307nl, n2 in the workforce 235, 273, 275, 308nl, 308n2 World Convention of Chinese Entrepreneurs 126, 298n3 Names Authors Appadurai 10 Ang 300n26 Arendt 12 Barret and White 190, 304n30 Bowles and Dong 295n44 Cardoso Chan and Chevrier Cumings 180, 183-185 Tong 95 295n47, 296n55 304n20 333 Cushman and Wang Dos Santos Evans 300n26 179, 181 183, 186-8 Frank 181, 182 Frobel 182 Giddens 11 Godley 119 Gold 55 Greenhalgh 34, 190, 191, 289n23, 290n39, 298nl Hsiao and Hsiao 299n25 Hwang 288nll, 290n42 Inglis 38, 292n56 Kao 32 Kiely 303n8 Kojima 88 Kornai 294n33 Kotkin 12, 280, 282, 287n24, 298n3 Lam 28 Landsberg 182 Lardy 294n29, 295n49 Lash and Urry Lau and Kuan 299n25 Levy and Shih 85, 86 Lieberthal 296n53 Lim, Linda 25 Lim and Teoh 37 Limlingan 30, 33, 34, 38, 39, 288nl4 Lin 33 Liu 294 Mackie 25, 30, 37, 287n23, 287n2, 288nl8, 289nl9, 290n37, 299n25 Marx 49, 213, 214 McGrew 8, 286n6 McVey 28, 30 Nagata 300n31 Index 334 Naughton 58 Nee 295n46 Woon 277, 308nl, Wu and Wu 106, 288nl4, 301nl0 O'Donnel 183 Oi 45, 51, 293n9, 296n57 Omohundro 34, 292n56, 299n24, 299n25 Yamaguchi 32, 84, 87, 298n6 Yang 296n55 Yusuf 293n28, 295n47, 296n71, 307n4 Perkins 294n30, 296n71 Pan 107, 287n23, 290n39 Peng 51 Piore and Sabel 303n6 Pirenne Polanyi 49, 54, 55, 294n32 Zweig Redding 29, 30, 38, 83, 134, 263, 292n61 Robertson Sato 36 Schumpeter Schwartz 286n6 Silin 86 Smart and Smart 61, 296n57 So 189 Solinger 296n52, 296n62 Suehiro 287n2 Suryadinata 287n23, 300n27, 300n9 Szelenyi 50 Tan 29, 83, 199, 290n33, 300n26 Tololyan Tong 33 Tricker 33 Unger and Cui Vogel 295n47, 296n71 56 Walder 57, 294n36 Wallerstein 8, 180, 183-5, 304nl5 Wang 22, 28, 287n23 Weber 31, 85, 86 Wickberg 300n31 Winckler 189 Wong, Gilbert 26, 292n68 Wong, Siu-lun 31, 85, 290n43 293n9, 295n48 Companies and Organisations ACER (Taiwan) 289nl9 Amcol Singapore 126 Arbor Acres (US) 206, 207 Astra 291n53 Bangkok Bank 34, 82, 104, 121, 287n2, 291n46, 291n53 Baring Brothers Berjaya group 37, 21 Berjaya Holdings 121 CEPA 201, 202 Champion Technology 200, 289nl9 Charoen Pokphand (CP) 120, 205-8, 306n5, n6 Cheung Kong 118, 122, 124, 204 Cheung Wah Development 126 China Industrial Management Holdings (CIML) 118, 119 China Non Ferrous Metals 204 China Strategic Investments (CSI) 117, 118 China Venturetech 124 Chinatrust Bank 120 Citic Pacific 124 Cityford Dyeing and Printing 204 Commercial Bank of Hong Kong 120 Conti Chia Tai 206, 207 CP Pokphand (HK) 205-8 DBS Bank 125 Dharmala Group 210 Dickson Concepts 125 Ek Chor China 208 Index First Pacific Company 120, 302n6 First Pacific Group 25 First Pacific Holdings 82 Giordano 38 Guangxi Yuehai Machinery Company 204 Guoco Group 120 Hangzhou Rubber 118, 119 Heineken 207 Henderson Land 124, 198, 199 HK Cellular 123 HK Paging 123 Hong Leong Group 34, 198, 204 Hong Leong International 126 Hongkong China 121 Hopewell Holdings 201-3 Hsiao Family Group 290n39 Hutchison Whampoa 34, 118, 122, 291n53 Hwa Kay Thai (HK) 120, 121 Hysan Development 118 Indah Water Consortium Indocement 104 Jurong Cement 199 126 Kader 306n6 Keppel Corporation 36, 125 Kerry Group 120, 127, 129, 204 Kumagai Gumi 113, 124 Kung Hsueh She 290n39 Kuok Brothers 120, 127-30 Laser Computers 38 Lehman Brothers 194 Lippo Group 33, 121, 124, 126, 198 McDonald's 194 Makro Shops 206 Millicom Cellular 123 Mingly Corporation 125 Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations and Trade (MOFERT) 47 335 New China Hong Kong Group (NCHKG) 125 New Resources 125 New World Development 124-6, 198, 199, 306N4, Norinco (PLA) 198 Nynex Corporation (US) 206 OCBC 204 Orient Telecom 206 Pacific Century Group Park'n Shop 38 Pico Far East 126 Puma 126 123 Salim Group 36, 104 Seapower Asian Investments 123 Sembawang Group 125 7-Eleven 206 Shanghai Dajiang 207 Shangri-La Asia 127, 129 Shougang Hongkong 124 Shun Tak Holdings 119 Siam Motors 35 Sinar Mas 35, 117, 118, 124 Sino Land (HK) 120, 121 StarTV 123 Stelux Holdings (HK) 120 Sun Hung Kai 204 Tanayong 121 Telecom Holdings 206 TelecomAsia 206, 207 Television Broadcasts (TVB) 129 Tomei 210 Top Glory 124 Toppy 38 TVE Holdings 127 United Overseas Bank 125 Wearnes Technology 204 Wharf 121, 200, 201, 306n4 Wheelock 113 Yancheng Group 125 127, Index 336 Yaohan International Yue Yuen 127 124 People and Families Aw Boon Haw 290n39 Cha Chi-ming 125 Chan, Robin 120 Cheng Yu-tung 124-6, 198, 199, 306n4, Chia, Henry 126 Chearavanont family 113, 120, 197, 205-8, 211, 306n6 Deng Xiaoping 46, 124, 197 Deng Zhifang 124 Dickson Poon 125 Gokongwei 291n44 Ho, Stanley 119 Hysan 118 Jiang Zemin 194 Kan, Paul 200 Kanjanapas 38, 113, 120, 121, 126 Kuok 104, 127-30, 124, 127-30, 204 Kwek family 105, 120, 126, 204, 303n7 Kwok Brothers 198, 204 Lau, Jimmy 209, 210 Lee family (Singapore) 204 Lee Kuan Yew 126, 128, 298n3 Lee Shau-kee 124, 199 Li Ka-shing 26, 34, 38, 118, 122-4, 198, 200, 204, 262, 290n36, 291n53 Li Peng 200 Liem Sioe-liong 25, 36, 82, 104, 114, 118, 120, 121, 126 Ng Teng-fong Oei Hong-leong 205 120, 121 117-19, 124, 204, Pao, Y.K 121, 290n36 Po Yu-ching 124 Quek family 33, 120, 290n36 Quek Leng-chan Riady family 33, 113, 121, 122, 126, 198, 200 Shinawatra 35 Soeryadjaya 113, 291n53 Sophonpanich 34, 104, 120, 290n36, 291n46, 301 n i l Sy, Henry 35 Tan, Vincent Tong 33 37, 121 Wee 125 Widjaja 33, 34, 35, 117-19 Wong Sai-chung 126 Woo, Peter 121, 200, 201 Wu Jianchang 124 Wu, Gordon 124, 197, 200, 201-203 Yeo 290n39 Yung, Larry 124 Places in China Anhui 247 Beihai 130, 204 Beijing 53-5, 63, 67, 68, 123, 124, 126, 129, 198, 208, 215, 216, 244, 245 Bohai Gulf 63 Chengdu Dalian 209 119, 204, 205 Eastern seabord 244 Foshan 126 Fujian viii, ix, 13, 17, 50, 53, 55, 62, 63, 67, 72, 75-7, 80, 101, Index 337 106, 110-12, 121, 128, 209, Northeast 195, 208, 215, 244, 245, 236, 237, 244, 245, 247, 273 247 Fuzhou 123, 127, 198, 200, 245, Northwest 247 277 Panyu 75 (see also Surveys) Guangdong ix, 4, 38, 43, 47, 50, Pearl River ix, 59, 62, 123, 202, 53-5, 57, 63, 67, 72-5, 80, 203, 210, 236 101, 106, 110-12, 123, 199, Putian 121, 122 202, 206, 209, 210, 236, 237, 244, 245, 273, 276-9, 295n49, Quanzhou 1, 66, 76, 77, 111, 112, 295n59 117, 119, 204, 205 (see also Guangxi 67, 126, 202, 209, 227, Surveys) 228, 245, 247 Shaanxi 209, 247 Guangzhou 75, 202, 203, 245 Shandong 53, 55, 63, 66, 67, 72, 209, 245, 247 Hainan 67, 23, 129, 209 Shanghai 53-5, 59, 63, 64, 66, 67, Hangzhou 66, 129 72, 123, 124, 126, 129, 130, Hebei 207, 245 195, 198, 200, 207, 208, 215, Henan 209 216, 244, 245, 295n49 Hubei 125, 199, 209, 247 Shantou 75, 121, 206 Hunan 209, 245, 247 Shanxi 204, 209 Shenzhen 74, 75, 123, 129, 168, 198, Inland provinces 209, 236, 237, 244 202, 204, 207, 244, 245, 277 Sichuan 200, 209, 247 Jiangsu x, 45, 47, 53, 55, 63, 66, Suzhou 66, 295n49 67, 72, 75, 77, 78, 208, 209, 244, 245, 295n49 Tianjin 53, 54, 55, 199, 245 Jiangxi 247 Kaiping County 277, 308nl Liaoning 54, 55, 63, 67 Meizhou Island 198 Meizhouwan 200 Mongolia 202, 245 Nanhai 75, 112 (see also Surveys) Nanjing 245 Ningbo 119, 121 Northern provinces 245 Wuhan 198, 199, 201, 204, 209, 296n62 Xiamen 1, 7, 111, 112, 121, 198 (see also Surveys) Yantian 123 Zhejiang 53, 5, 3, 6, 7, 2, 19, 208, 209, 244, 247 Zhongshan 210 Zhuhai 123, 198, 203, 245, 277 Zhuzhou 123, 204 ... 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