Hub Cities in the Knowledge Economy Transport and Mobility Series Series Editors: Richard Knowles, University of Salford, UK and Markus Hesse, Université du Luxembourg and on behalf of the Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers) Transport Geography Research Group (TGRG) The inception of this series marks a major resurgence of geographical research into transport and mobility Reflecting the dynamic relationships between sociospatial behaviour and change, it acts as a forum for cutting-edge research into transport and mobility, and for innovative and decisive debates on the formulation and repercussions of transport policy making Also in the series Institutional Barriers to Sustainable Transport Carey Curtis and Nicholas Low ISBN 978 7546 7692 Daily Spatial Mobilities Physical and Virtual Aharon Kellerman ISBN 978 4094 2362 Territorial Implications of High Speed Rail A Spanish Perspective Edited by José M de Ureña ISBN 978 4094 3052 Sustainable Transport, Mobility Management and Travel Plans Marcus Enoch ISBN 978 7546 7939 Transition towards Sustainable Mobility The Role of Instruments, Individuals and Institutions Edited by Harry Geerlings, Yoram Shiftan and Dominic Stead ISBN 978 4094 2469 For further information about this series, please visit www.ashgate.com Hub Cities in the Knowledge Economy Seaports, Airports, Brainports Edited by Sven Conventz Munich University of Technology, Germany Ben Derudder Ghent University, Belgium Alain Thierstein Munich University of Technology, Germany Frank Witlox Ghent University, Belgium © Sven Conventz, Ben Derudder, Alain Thierstein, Frank Witlox and the contributors 2014 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher Sven Conventz, Ben Derudder, Alain Thierstein and Frank Witlox have asserted their right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the editors of this work Published by Ashgate Publishing Limited Ashgate Publishing Company Wey Court East 110 Cherry Street Union Road Suite 3-1 Farnham Burlington, VT 05401-3818 Surrey, GU9 7PT USA England www.ashgate.com British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library The Library of Congress has cataloged the printed edition as follows: Conventz, Sven Hub cities in the knowledge economy : seaports, airports, brainports / by Sven Conventz, Ben Derudder, Alain Thierstein and Frank Witlox pages cm — (Transport and mobility) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-4094-4591-3 (hardback : alk paper) — ISBN 978-1-4094-4592-0 (ebook) — ISBN 978-1-4094-7168-4 (epub) Knowledge management Knowledge economy Information technology Cities and towns Regional economics I Title HD30.2.C6548 2013 338.9’26—dc23 2013023976 ISBN 9781409445913 (hbk) ISBN 9781409445920 (ebk–PDF) ISBN 9781409471684 (ebk–ePUB) III Contents List of Figures List of Tables Notes on Contributors Introduction Ben Derudder, Sven Conventz, Alain Thierstein and Frank Witlox vii ix xi Part I Knowledge Flows and Physical Connectivity in the Global Economy: An Exploration of the Related Geographies of Producer Services and Air Passenger Markets Ben Derudder, Elien Van De Vijver and Frank Witlox 11 Knowledge Hubs: Poles of Physical Accessibility and Non-physical Connectivity Michael Bentlage, Alain Thierstein and Stefan Lüthi 31 Knowledge Hubs in the Polycentric German Urban System between Concentration Processes and Conurbation Dynamics Anna Growe 55 Hub-airports as Cities of Intersections: The Redefined Role of Hub-airports within the Knowledge Economy Context Sven Conventz and Alain Thierstein 77 European Port Cities: Embodiments of Interaction – Knowledge and Freight Flow as Catalysts of Spatial Development 95 Anne Wiese and Alain Thierstein Part II Hub Cities in the Evolving Internet Edward J Malecki Urban and Regional Analysis and the Digital Revolution: Challenges and Opportunities Emmanouil Tranos and Peter Nijkamp 123 145 Hub Cities in the Knowledge Economy vi Mediating the City: The Role of Planned Media Cities in the Geographies of Creative Industry Activity Oli Mould 163 Part III Agglomeration and Knowledge in European Regional Growth Teodora Dogaru, Frank van Oort, Dario Diodato and Mark Thissen 10 Types of Hub Cities and their Effects on Urban Creative Economies Zachary P Neal 203 Capital Cities as Knowledge Hubs: The Economic Geography of Homeland Security Contracting Heike Mayer and Margaret Cowell 223 11 Index 181 247 List of Figures 2.1 2.2 2.6 Calculation of accessibility for Functional Urban Areas Interlock connectivity of APS and high-tech sectors on the regional and global scale (own calculation) Set of variables and methodological proceeding Correlation between interlock connectivity on different scales, accessibility by different modes, population, and employment (own calculation) Hirschman-Herfindahl-Index of knowledge intensive employment Map of value-adding activities in the FUAs of Germany 46 47 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Conceptualization of hubs Index of size Index of change Hub index 58 66 70 71 4.1 4.2 The three pillars of the knowledge economy Agglomeration and network economies in the context of Mega-City Region development Selected annual prime rents for 2009 in €/m² 81 2.3 2.4 2.5 4.3 40 42 44 44 84 88 5.1 Advanced Producer Service firms in the North of Germany with port cities marked in black 102 5.2 Superposition of multi-port gateway regions and APS hubs 105 5.3 Research framework 106 5.4 Maritime network of cooperation for innovation 108 5.5a Aggregated network of firms on a super-regional level 109 5.5b Connectivity of firms within the maritime economy of Northern Germany 110 5.6 Local clusters of firms within three separate modules in Hamburg 112 5.7 Freight traffic within the northern German region via rail 114 9.1 9.2 Productivity growth and employment growth 2000–2010 in European regions 187 The relation between productivity growth (2000–2010) and productivity level (2000) (triangles: objective-one regions) 188 viii 9.3 Hub Cities in the Knowledge Economy Private R&D (top left), Public R&D (top right), degree of specialization (bottom left) and educational level (bottom right) in 235 European regions 191 10.1 Conceptions of centrality and theories of regional economics 10.2 Conceptions of trip in the Origin and Destination Survey 10.3 Hub profiles for three cities 205 211 214 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 231 232 233 Homeland security procurement trends, 2001 to 2004 Homeland security procurement by state, 2001 to 2004 Department of Defense procurement, 2001 to 2004 Homeland Security Procurement ranked by metropolitan and micropolitan areas, 2004 11.5 Homeland security procurement in the Washington D.C metropolitan region, 2001 to 2004 234 238 List of Tables 1.1 Data subset 1.2 Bivariate correlations between passenger flows and independent variables 1.3 Results from the stepwise regression model (parameters are ordered by their relative statistical importance) 1.4 Main residuals from the stepwise regression model 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 The 20 most important hub cities in the German urban system Correlation between KBPs and connectivity at the starting point of measurement and structural reference numbers in all 439 counties Most positive and most negative relative changes of importance of hubs Correlation of size at starting point and relative changes in all 439 counties in Germany 6.1 6.2 17 19 20 21 65 66 67 68 Types of networks and the prevalence of private peering, 2010 Public peering at IXPs and private peering in the PeeringDB data base, October 2010 6.3 Largest Internet exchange points (IXPs) for public peering 6.4 Leading private peering facilities, 2010 6.5 Google data centers 6.6 Google: public and private peering locations, 2009–2011 6.7 Amazon data centres 6.8 Amazon: public and private peering locations, 2009–2011 6.9 Facebook: public and private peering locations, 2009–2011 6.10 Comparison of the four large content networks 128 129 131 133 134 136 137 138 139 7.1 Amsterdam’s heart-beat using mobile phone data 155 9.1 9.2 Descriptive statistics and correlations of explanatory variables Regression results for productivity growth and employment growth in 235 European regions, 2000–2010 193 10.1 Three conceptions of a Hub City 10.2 Top 10 U.S Hub Cities in 2010, by type of hub 10.3 Effects of hubness on creative employment (N = 128) 128 196 210 213 215 254 Hub Cities in the Knowledge Economy productivity 186–94 regional growth 181, 186ff differentials 182–6 European Union (EU) 39 cohesion policy 181, 197 criticism of 197–8 economic growth 181–2 productivity growth 186–94 Treaty 181 Eurostat 113 Evans, G 165, 175 evolutionary economics 185 exchange 32ff, 45, 56, 58ff, 69, 77, 82ff, 90, 95ff, 101, 106ff, 126, 207, 226 exhibitions 80, 164, 168 experience 31, 33, 36, 45, 82, 151 exports 103, 171, 172, 192, 204, 206, 208 externalities 32, 33ff, 39, 98, 184, 185, 195 Facebook 123, 132, 136–8 face-to-face relationships 12, 31, 32, 34, 35, 46, 57ff, 73, 82ff, 98, 226 Faratin, P et al 126 Federal Procurement Data Center 227ff feed-back 154, 157 feeder ports 103–4 Feldman, M 226 Feldman, M and Francis, J 226 Feldman, M et al 226 FEMA 235, 241 film production 166, 173, 174 film studios 164, 166, 174 finance 175, 194 see also objective-one regions financial sector 3, 14, 124, 149 financial services firms 15, 16, 88, 243 and Internet 124 Finland 133, 186 firms see companies FLAG 124 ‘flat’ world 150 Fleming, D.K and Hayuth, Y 208, 209, 210 Flew, T 163, 171 Flix 174 Florida 218, 225, 230, 231 Florida, Richard 31, 49, 98, 99, 103, 150, 163, 167, 175, 186, 203 Florida, R and Kenney, M flows 4, 32, 37, 62, 73, 97, 111 air passenger 12, 15, 19, 20, 23 physical 100 ‘space of’ 31, 57, 98, 149, 150 formal ties 106 Fox, A 135 Fox Studios 164, 166 France 77, 188, 192 France Telecom 127 Frankfurt 4, 26, 43, 48, 49, 65, 67ff, 73, 78, 86, 89, 151 and Internet 124, 129, 131ff Frankfurt Rhine-Main Airport 78, 89–90 Fransman, M 125 Fraport, A.G 90 freelance workers 164, 168, 169, 174, 175 Freeman, L.C 5, 203, 204, 208, 210 freight flows 111, 113, 114 Frenken, K et al 184, 194 Friedman, T.L 31, 59, 97, 150 Friedmann, J 36–7, 57, 204 Fritsch, M and Slatchev, V 184 Fukuoka 21, 22, 26 Fuller, S 226, 227, 228 function 36, 47, 48, 57, 73, 105 ports 95, 96, 98, 100ff functional hierarchy 99 functional integration 55 functional interdependencies 4, 95, 103 functional logic 83 functional networks 31, 37, 57 economic 56 functional regions 73 functional specialization 48, 97, 101, 104, 106, 115 Functional Urban Areas (FUAs) 32, 39, 41ff, 47–9 funds 194 see also objective-one regions Garreau, J 82, 236 GDP 77, 181, 183, 189, 192, 194 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 146 geography 16, 33, 34, 35, 59, 71–2, 124, 140, 145 and airline hubs 216–17 and creative industries 164, 165, 171 Index and Internet 146, 150ff population studies 153 and spill-overs 83 of US defence contracts 223, 224–5 analysis 227ff see also urban geography Georgia (US) 230 geostrategic role 97, 100 Gereffi, G et al 95, 107 Germany 4, 19, 32, 40, 188, 192, 194 accessibility in 41ff airports 78 see also Frankfurt RhineMain Airport cities 41ff, 64ff connectivity in 43–6 air 49 changes 62ff network 61–4ff counties 64, 66–8ff employment 62–3 FUAs 41, 43, 45, 47–9 intra-firm networks 41–3 knowledge hubs 56, 64ff, 72–3 regional growth 192 west-east divide 56, 69 see also East Germany; North Germany; southern Germany Gertler, M.S 82, 101 Geurs, K and van Eck, J.R 39 Gibbs, D and Tanner, K 152 Gilder, G 145 Gillespie, A., K and Robins 152 Gilmore, P 126, 127 GIS database 192 ‘global cities’ 36, 37, 150 concept 37 connectivities 41, 43ff change in 68–9 and creative industries 170, 173 Global Computer Enterprises 227 global datasets 23 global economic networks 182 global economy 2, 3, 11ff, 34, 37, 81ff, 123, 207 and airports 85 Global Financial Network (GFN) 124 global media firms 170ff global pipelines 58, 101 255 Global South 173 globalization 2, 12, 31, 98, 100–101, 107, 136 Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) network 15, 62, 123, 170, 173 globalized services intensity (GSI) 16 and airline connetivity 18–19ff GLS 154 Goebel, V et al 3, 38, 82 Goetz, A.R 207 Goldsmith, B and O’Regan, T 165, 166 Goldsmith, B et al 173 goods 32, 38, 48, 55, 56, 78, 95, 97, 100ff, 150, 204, 206, 240 cultural 170 immaterial 56, 59, 70 material 56, 59 and port cities 97, 100, 101, 103, 104 Google 123, 126–7, 132, 133–4, 139, 140 Gottdiener, M 91 Gottman, J 147, 224 government procurement 225–6, 239ff see also homeland security contracting Grabher, G 168 Grabher, G and Ibert, O 173 Graham, B and Goetz, A 203 Graham, S 123, 152 Graham, S and Marvin, S 146, 150 Granger causality tests 152 Grant, R and Nijman, J 22 gravity model 192 Greece 26, 186, 194 Groningen 133, 134 Growe, A 4, 48, 55ff, 72 Growe, A and Blotevogel, H.H 2, 31, 37, 38, 63 Grubesic, T.H et al 23 GSM 153 Guadalajara 21, 22, 27 Guangzhou 16, 28 Guellec, D and van Pottelsberghe, B 195 Gulf region 100, 171–2 Güller, M and Güller, M 77, 80, 83, 85 gunbelt, US 223, 224–5 Haas, H.-D and Wallisch, M 38 Hackler, D 152 Hall, P 60 256 Hub Cities in the Knowledge Economy Hall, P and Hesse, M Hall, P and Pain, K 33, 55, 56, 57, 82, 99, 104 Hall, P A and Soskice, D 97 Halle 67, 78 Hamburg 4, 28, 41, 43, 47, 48, 49, 64, 65, 77, 101ff, 107ff, 111ff, 134 dominance of 114, 115 functional connectivity 108, 111 physical connectivity 113 region 101, 103, 108ff Hanover 47, 48, 111, 113, 114, 115 Hansen, W.G 39 Hansen, W.G and Winther, L 103 hardware 165, 166 Harrington, J.W and Campbell, H.S 236 Harvey, D 98 healthcare 84, 88, 89 Hein, C 95, 99 Helft, M and Hempel, J 133 Helpman, E 152 Helsinki 189 Henderson, J.V et al 182 Hepworth, M 145, 147 Hesse, M 38, 95, 96, 104 heterogeneity 184, 185, 194 Hibernia Atlantic 124 hierarchy 34, 83, 99, 126, 148, 151, 170, 171, 204 Higgs, P et al 172, 175 high-tech firms 4, 32, 33, 34, 36, 41, 43, 45, 48, 49, 91, 183, 198, 229 and US defence contacts 239–40 high-tech industries 73, 78, 80, 81, 85, 207, 239–40 Hirschman, A.O 37 Hirschman-Herfindahl Index 46, 47 Ho, R 127 Hoekman, J et al 183, 184, 223 Hollingshead, I 169 Hollywood 174 homeland security contracting 225–42 and agglomeration 242, 243 data 227–9 limitations 229 and economic development 223, 225, 243 and military-industrial complex 240–42 and private sector 224, 225, 235–6, 239–42 research on 225, 226 and suburban areas 236, 238 tertiarization of 239–40, 242 and US metropolitan areas 231–6 and US states 225, 228, 230–31, 242, 243 see also Department of Homeland Security (DHS); Washington DC Homeland Security Advanced Research Projects Agency (HSARPA) 239 Homeland Security Institute 239 Hommerich, C 90 Hong Kong 12, 16, 17, 22, 129, 132, 136ff Hoover, E.M 35, 100 Hoppenstedt 61, 65ff horizontal dimension 2, 31, 37, 55, 154 hotels 87, 167 Howells, J 36 Hoyle, B 96 Hoyler, M et al 56, 61 hub airports 77–91 and business growth 77, 79–80, 86, 87ff, 90 and cities 85–7ff definition of 79, 85 and hub types 209, 212ff and knowledge economy 85 local/global nexus 85 and office development 80, 87–90 research 91 and urbanization 79–80, 85, 86ff, 91 hub cities 151, 203–19 and airline connectivity 5, 207 US survey data 211–12ff and centrality 203, 204–7 and air transport 207 concept 38, 57–8, 210, 211 and creative economies 203ff German 48–9, 65ff connectivity changes 63–4ff measures of 210–12 multiple types of 203, 208ff network approach 57, 60, 63 and size 73 Index territorial approach 55, 57, 60, 63 hub index 63, 71 hub ports 103–4 North German 107–15 secondary 113 hub-and-spoke system 38, 207 hubs 149, 170, 203, 224 definition of 210, 211 economic effects 209, 210 knowledge 96, 97, 104 logistics 96, 97, 104 multiple types of 208ff peering 123, 126–7 transport 104 Hugill, P.J 145 human capital 37, 183, 198 human geography 153 human identity 98 human resources 89 Hungary 186, 188, 192 Huston, G 125 hybrid form 99 ICT 31, 36, 38, 46, 59, 125 literature on 145, 147ff and productivity gains 148 and urban space 149–50 Illinois 235, 243 incomes 103, 169, 181, 194 incubator function 185 incubator spaces 168–9 independent contracting authority 228 independent variables 14, 15, 16, 18, 19 India 19, 21, 23, 26, 27, 28, 49, 124–5, 134, 243 individuals 101, 147, 153, 215 industries 35, 99, 185 homeland security 229ff port 95 inequalities 181, 183, 213, 214 influence 100 ‘infocommunications’ 148 informal ties 106, 108 information 2, 3, 5, 32, 36, 59, 64, 147–8, 206–7, 215, 224, 239 and digital economy 147 exchange 32ff, 59, 45, 80, 82, 85, 226 and knowledge 59, 148 257 ‘information capital’ 224 ‘information economy’ 147 information technology sector 2, 224 infrastructure 2, 3, 11, 38, 223 and accessibility 2, and airports 77, 79 and costs networks 56 physical 23, 49 protection 224 transport, local 46 see also digital infrastructure Ingolstadt 48 inland distribution 104 innovation 1, 2, 5, 34, 35, 81, 82, 106, 107, 198, 243 process 185 product 185 input 17, 36, 55, 56, 59, 72, 81, 152, 153, 183, 243 input-output relations 55, 111 institutions 80, 88, 183, 239 insurance firms 3, 49, 60, 61n, 84, 88, 123 Integrated Coast Guard Systems 241 integration 2, 31, 37ff, 43, 45, 57, 69, 86, 198 functional 55 spatial 115 systems 239 interactions 33, 34, 36, 38, 43, 46, 49, 55, 56, 83, 96, 98ff, 149ff, 208 measures of 39 non-physical 45, 49, 98 personal 59, 73, 82, 84 physical 49, 84, 98 private-government 223–4, 239 regional 192ff social 78 tacit 85 interconnections 57, 64, 111 internet 123, 125, 126ff interdependencies 33, 45, 59, 67, 80, 108, 151 functional 4, 95, 103 interfaces 107, 229 inter-firm networks 101 interlock connectivity 45, 49 Interlocking Network Model 38, 39, 41ff 258 Hub Cities in the Knowledge Economy intermediate hubs 208–9, 210, 218 internalities 32 international spill-overs 83 Internet 3, 4, 5, 38, 57, 123–40, 146 costs 126, 127, 131 data 146 growth of 125, 127ff hubs 123, 124–5, 132, 138–40 infrastructure 124–5, 151 peering networks 126, 127ff and productivity gains 151–2 space of 145 structure of 127–8, 152 and tacit knowledge 123 see also peering; IXPs Internet Protocol (IP) 130, 146 internet service providers (ISPs) 125, 127, 128, 146 interpretation 23, 24, 59 InterXion 126 intra-firm networks 41–3, 73, 91, 101 investment 32, 175, 183, 189, 235 Ireland 27, 133, 135, 186, 188 Irwin, M.D and Hughes, H.L 204 Irwin, M.D and Kasarda, J.D 11, 207, 208 Islington Mill 168–9 Italy 22, 24, 28, 99, 133, 186, 188, 192, 194 ITV 167, 169, 170 Ivy, R.L et al 207, 208 IXPs 124, 126, 127ff cities 131–2ff public 127–30 research on 125 see also peering Jacobs, J 35, 95, 184, 185 Jacobs, J et al 3, 35, 56, 95, 101, 124 Jacobs, W 101, 107 Jacobs’ externalities 184 Jaffe, A.B et al 35 Jakarta 21, 27 Japan 18, 19, 20 Jayne, M 168 Jeddah 21, 27 Jones, A 124 Jones Lang Lasalle 85, 87 Kansas City 21, 27 Karachi 21, 27 Kasarda, J 83 KBPs 60, 64, 65ff, 68 Keeling, D.J 12 Kellerman, A 145 Kende, M 146 Kettl, D 224 Kiel 101, 102 Kim, B.-K 124 Kirkpatrick, D 136 Kitchin, R 151 KLM 15 Kloos, M and de Maar, B 87 Knell, J and Oakley, K 163 knowledge 2, 4, 5, 33, 56, 73, 223 codified 56, 60 definition of 81–2, 148 explicit 31, 34, 49, 81, 82, 148 implicit 31, 34, 56, 57, 58, 71 and information 59, 148 and regional growth 186 tacit 4, 31, 34, 35, 36, 45, 49, 81ff, 123, 168, 183, 198 trade in 36 transcalar 99 see also spill-overs knowledge bases 33–4, 99 knowledge creation 31–2, 34, 37–9, 183 knowledge economy 33–4 and airports 85 definition of 1–2, 80, 147, 148 regional scale 104 and economic growth 182ff, 198 variables 195 knowledge exchange 34, 60, 77, 83, 87ff, 115 informal 108 and physical proximity 98–9, 104, 107, 111 knowledge flows 184 North German 111, 114 knowledge generation 12, 13 see also knowledge creation knowledge hubs 2, 5, 55–73, 96 and air traffic 32, 39, 49 and capital cities 223, 224, 242–3 definition of 31, 37 Index and FUAs 32, 39, 41ff, 47–9 German patterns 64–73 hypothesis 182, 189, 198, 226 and knowledge creation 34, 37–9 linkages 32, 33 and port cities 104 regional 183–4 and spatial networks 56, 57 knowledge networks 186 knowledge production function (KPF) 183 knowledge transfer 31, 33, 34, 82, 84, 98, 101, 106, 165 knowledge workers 49, 198, 239 creative 163, 167, 168, 208 knowledge-based services 56, 57, 58, 60ff and location changes 59 occupational groups 60–61 relative changes 68–9 spatial organization 69–71ff knowledge-holders 57–8, 61, 63 knowledge-intensity 11, 12, 23 knowledge-intensive firms 3, 36, 37 and airline connectivity 19, 23 German 47–9 North 107ff location of 83 and US defence industry 239 Knowles, R 32, 220 Knox, P 242 Kok, W Kolko, J 145 Kramar, H and Suitner, J 38 Krätke, S 163, 170 Krätke, S and Taylor, P 163 Kreise 108 Kuala Lumpur 21, 27, 134, 135, 139 labour 12, 33, 38, 48, 55, 57, 148, 225 costs 103 educated 239 Labovitz, C et al 125, 126, 127n Lagos 27, 134, 135, 139 Lakshmanan, T.R and Chatterjee, L.R land prices 100, 103 land use 153–4 Landkreise 67–8, 72 Landry, C 163 Lang, R.E 83 259 Läpple, D 84 large cities 69, 72 Las Vegas 21, 22, 27, 213 Latin America 16, 18, 19, 20 law firms 15 learning 85, 148, 167 interactive 59 Lee, S et al 103 Lefebvre, H 98 legal services 101, 104 legislation 224, 226, 229 Leicester 26, 172 Leiden 189 Legler, H and Frietsch, R 61 leisure 80, 101, 164, 166, 167, 171, 218 Leverkusen 189 Levy, M.J 127 life-cycles 185 Limelight 125 linkages 11, 12, 32, 33, 35, 61, 73, 78, 91, 150, 204 see also connectivity Lipsey, R.G et al 152 LINX 129, 130 literature 11, 12, 57, 168, 184, 192, 194, 208 and digital economy 145, 147ff living space 97, 166–7 ‘local buzz’ 57–8 local economies 98, 152, 169, 170, 183 localization 34, 35, 36, 46, 55, 62, 98, 181 and airports 85 economies 98 growth 185 North German 108ff, 112, 114 localized externalities 184 location effects, and US airline hubs 216 location quotient analysis 240n location theory 205, 206, 209 locations 15, 16, 32, 36, 41, 43, 49, 57, 61, 83, 236ff airport 90, 91 change in 58–9, 73 creative 168ff differentiated 104 Internet 123, 125, 126, 150 peering 128ff, 132–9 Lockheed Martin 225, 240, 241 260 Hub Cities in the Knowledge Economy logistics 85, 96, 97, 100, 103, 104, 113 port firms 107 London 16, 17, 18, 21, 27, 87, 188 and Internet 124, 129ff, 145, 151 IXPs 131, 132 as Media City 164, 165–6, 172 Lopez-Roderiguez, J and Faiña, A 194, 198 Los Angeles 131, 133ff, 170, 172, 225 airport hub 211, 212, 218 IXP 129, 132 private peering 131, 135 Los Angeles-Long Beach-Riverside CSA 17, 21, 27 Ludwigshafen 47, 49 Lüthi, S 32, 48, 81, 84 Lüthi, S et al 2, 33, 48, 56, 97, 101 McCann, P and Van Oort, F 183 MacKinnon, D et al McRobbie, A 168, 175 Madrid 28, 134, 135, 194 Magdeburg 67, 68 Magrini, S 181 Mahutga, M.C et al 38 Mainz 48, 65 Malaysia 27, 134 Malecki, E.J 4, 23, 34, 56, 59, 82, 123ff, 128, 131, 132, 139, 152, 225 Malecki, E.J and Moriset, B 123, 148 Malecki, E.J and Wei, H 124, 150 Malmberg, A and Maskell, P 55 management consultancy 16, 80, 123, 124 Manchester 28, 134, 164, 173, 174 Mannheim 65, 68 manufacturing 70, 77, 80, 81, 87, 107, 239 Manzanella, G.P 197 maritime economy 95–6, 97 North German 106ff Maritime Technology 107 marketplaces, airport 91 ‘market’ trips 211 markets 13, 15, 49, 104, 175, 192, 194, 197 homeland security 227, 240–41, 242, 243 Markusen, A 226 Markusen, A et al 225, 226, 227, 230, 231, 236, 239 Marshall, Alfred 35, 57, 108, 184 Martin, R and Tyler, P 197 Maryland 230, 237, 240, 242 material processes 106 Matsumoto, H 23 Mayer, H 204, 238 Mayer, H et al 6, 204, 238 measurement 39, 60, 62, 185, 192, 210–12 Mecklenburg-Vorpommern 107 media cities 5, 163–76 and creative clusters 168–70 critique of 169, 175 definition of 163–4 finances of 175 as global hubs 170ff and private companies 166, 169 and real estate 166–7, 169, 171 second-tier 172–3 and technology 165–6, 174 media companies 169–70 global 170ff Mega-City Regions 83, 84, 85, 99 Melbourne 17, 28 Melody, W.H 150 MENA cities 171–2 messaging 4, 123 metageography methodology 11, 14, 60, 151, 207, 227–9 metropolitan areas 2, 11ff, 16, 19, 21, 22 and airline connectivity 11–23 predictors 19 and office networks 19 size of 14 US 228, 229 Mexico 21, 22, 27, 28 Mexico City 21, 22, 28 Meyer, D.R 124 Miami 29, 129, 133ff, 213, 216, 217 Michael Baker Corp 241, 242 Michigan 26, 217, 243 micro-business 169 Microsoft 126 Middle East/North Africa 18, 19, 20, 171–2 Milan 22, 24, 28, 133, 134ff, 151 milieus 99, 114, 168, 172 military industrial firms (MIFs) 240–42, 243 Miller, R 132, 133, 136 Index mimicking 98 Minneapolis 28, 213, 214 Mitchell, W.J 145 mobile internet 125 mobile phones 125, 132, 151 data analysis 152–4 mobility 79, 153, 198 models 11, 14, 15, 16, 38ff, 62, 85, 91, 131, 152ff interaction 16, 152 multi-linear 18 productivity growth 182, 186ff, 194 regression 18, 20ff, 154, 215 modules 111, 114, 154 mono-centric city 86 Montfort, P 181, 183 Montgomery, J 100, 101 Moreno, R et al 189 morphogenesis 77, 78 morphology 16, 95, 99, 100, 106 Moscow 27, 129, 133, 134, 135 Moss, M.L 146 Mould, O 5, 164 multi-layered spaces 77, 79, 97 multi-location firms 58 multiple hub types 203, 208ff multi-port gateway 104–5, 107 Mumbai 23, 28, 135, 139 Munich 28, 43, 47, 48, 49, 64ff, 72, 133ff, 170 Airport 77, 80 Myrdal, G 37, 59, 100 national scale 4, 13–14, 19, 20, 22, 23, 45, 49 Neal, Z.P 5, 13, 31, 204n, 206ff, 210 Neef, D 148 neighbours 43, 73 neoclassical theory 59 Netherlands 16, 17, 28, 86, 87, 129, 133, 153, 186ff, 192, 194 Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (PBL) 192 network access points (NAPs) 126, 131 network analysis 151 network data 62–4 network economies 32, 36, 38–9, 49, 83–4, 99 261 network science 146, 153 ‘network society’ 57, 149 networks 2, 3, 15, 31, 32ff, 55–73, 91, 98, 104, 227 and cities 55–6ff, 203ff and centrality types 206–7ff connectivities 41–2 changes in 62–4ff functional 31, 37, 57 integration 43, 45 office 11, 15, 41ff scale-free 152 and territory 57–8 types of 56 urban 204 New Economic Geography (NEG) 182–3 new firms 185, 226 new knowledge 33, 59, 70, 78, 83, 84, 98, 183, 197, 198 New York 12, 28, 124, 129, 131, 132, 134ff, 225, 230, 236, 243 New York City airport (LGA) 211, 212, 213 Newman, M.E 111 Niederrad 89 Niedersachsen 107 Nigeria 27, 134 Nijkamp, P and Jonkhoff, W 148 nodes 31, 38, 56, 57, 77, 81ff, 85, 95, 98, 99, 149, 203, 204 Internet 124 Nohria, N and Eccles, R 98 Nonaka, I and Takeuchi, H 56 non-aviation sector 80 non-material knowledge 56, 59, 62, 100, 223 non-objective-one regions 185, 189, 195, 197 non-physical flows 98 nonstop service (airline) 209, 211ff non-tariff barriers non-verbal communication 98 Nooteboom, B 55 Norcliffe, G et al 166 North Germany 96, 101–3, 105–15 collaboration in 107, 111, 114, 115 data 113 knowledge spillovers 108 262 Hub Cities in the Knowledge Economy maritime economy research study, 105–7ff functional connectivity 108–11 organizational proximity 107–8 physical connectivity 113ff physical proximity 106, 111 Northrop Grumman 225, 241 Norton, W.B 126, 131, 132 Notteboom, T 104 Notteboom, T and Rodrigue, J.-P 96, 97, 103, 104 Nuremberg 43, 48, 65 NUTS-2 level 186, 189, 192 NUTS-3 level 39, 61 Oklahoma 218 objective-one funds 182, 185–6, 188ff, 197 see also non-objective-one regions occupational groups 60–61ff informational 147 knowledge-based 148 O’Connor, J 168, 170 O’Connor, K 23, 38, 95 OECD 148 office development 86, 87–90, 169 rents 87–8 office networks 11, 12, 13, 14, 15ff, 73 and airline connectivity 19 and China 14 and city connectivity 41ff, 62ff Office of Naval Research 238 O’Kelly, M.E 207 openness 192, 195, 197 operational alliances 111 Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) 194 organizational networks 69, 113 organizations 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 58, 99 origin 14, 15, 17, 38, 209, 211ff Orlando 21, 22, 27, 213, 217 outsourcing 81, 226, 243 Pakistan 21, 27 Palo Alto 129, 133, 136 panel data 152, 154 Paris 77, 87, 132, 135ff, 151, 168, 188, 192 Park, S.O 56 Pasinetti, L.L 185 past 59, 78, 99, 100 patent citations 184, 198 path dependency 4, 59 Pathan, M et al 125 Pauly 14 Pearl River Delta 16, 17, 21, 28 Pearson correlation 17, 45 Peck, J 165, 175 Peel Group 167 peering 4, 123, 126–7ff hubs 123 locations 132–9 paid 126 private 127, 128–30, 132, 136, 138 public 127, 128–9, 131, 138 PeeringDB 127ff people 33, 34, 37, 39, 56, 57, 58, 79, 91, 97, 123, 167, 183, 194, 208, 218 movement of 32, 45, 85, 100 network studies of 150, 153 peripheral regions 185 Pfeifer, R et al 98 Phoenix-Tucson 21, 28, 213 physical connectivity 3–4, 11, 37, 39ff, 49 physical flows 100 physical interaction 83–4, 85, 98 physical proximity 98–9, 106, 111, 167 place 31, 55, 57, 100, 104, 206ff, 213, 218, 228 and city hubs 204, 206, 209 and development policies 181, 182, 197, 198 importance of 97–8 Poland 186, 188, 192 Polanyi, M 34, 56, 59, 81–2 polarization theories 59 policy 130, 145, 146, 157, 163, 165, 168, 170, 173, 175, 181ff, 197–8, 217, 239, 243 see also urban planning political power 6, 223 polycentrism 73, 82, 83, 86, 99 population 39, 41, 45, 194 densities 103 distribution 153, 183, 216 size 4, 11, 14, 18, 22 Porrat, M 147 port cities 95–115 competitiveness of 101, 106 Index costs 103, 104 function 95, 96, 98, 100ff hubs 103–4 interdependencies 95, 103, 108 North German 105–15 regional scale 96, 97, 104, 106, 108ff research 105–7ff, 115 and urban development 96–7, 103–5 ports 95–6ff and competition 96, 98ff, 104 regeneration failures 96–7 relational networks 103 see also port cities Portugal 186, 192 post-industrial economy 148 power 124, 204n, 223, 240, 242, 243 Prague 28, 134, 135, 188 Pratt, A.C 165, 170, 175 predictors 4, 19, 22, 95 Preston, R.E 209n, 210 privacy 153 private companies and media cities 166, 169 and US defence procurement 223, 224, 225ff private organizations 99, 146 private sector-state interactions 223–4ff, 239 privatization 151, 167 processes 33, 34, 35, 37, 55, 59, 80, 91, 103, 106 and innovation 185 producer services 4, 48, 61 and airline connectivity 13–14ff diversification 48 intensity 11 specialization 48 see also Advanced Producer Services (APS) production 59, 72, 73, 103, 104, 107, 147, 148, 150, 163, 164, 206 creative 167ff companies 169, 170 media 170ff productivity gains, and Internet 148, 151–2 productivity growth 182, 185 models 186ff 263 and diversity 197 and employment growth 194–7 and productivity level 188 and R&D 195 and specialization, 185, 189ff, 198 research 186, 198 productivity level 188, 193, 194, 195ff products 61, 103, 224, 227, 229, 235, 239 innovation of 185 profit 33, 56, 80, 175 projects, creative 173–4 proximity 3, 31, 34, 46, 81, 82, 101, 111 geographical 34, 46, 48, 85 organizational 36 physical 98–9, 106, 111–12, 167 relational 34, 36, 46, 83, 85, 243 spatial 60, 99, 243 public areas 167 public organizations 99 Puga, D 182, 194 Pune 21, 23, 28 qualitative analysis 91, 152, 184 quantitative data 157 Quinn, S et al 172 radio studios 166 rail networks 3, 36, 41, 45, 79, 149 and airports 85, 86–7, 89 freight 114 high speed 41, 85 Raleigh-Durham International Airport 212 Randstad 16, 17, 28 Rasti, A.H et al 126 Rath, J 124 Ratti, C et al 153 Reades, J et al 153 real estate 4, 60, 63, 77, 78, 80, 88, 90, 91 and media cities 166–7, 169, 171 real time 146, 166 recursivity 99, 100 Redondi, R et al 38, 78 Reese, S 224 Regensburg 67 regional internet networks 125, 126 regional policy 157 regional scale 41, 43, 45, 96, 97, 104, 106 North German 105, 107, 108ff, 111 264 Hub Cities in the Knowledge Economy research 105, 115 regions 6, 11, 16, 18, 20, 31, 34, 72, 73, 204, 206, 218 accessibility 39–41 and agglomeration economies 181, 182ff differentials 182–3 clusters 105 and creative industries 171 differentials 181, 182ff and diversity 185, 189ff, 197 educational levels 194 employment growth 186ff global connectivities 43 and innovation 35 as knowledge hubs 183–4 and market potential 192, 194, 197 and ports 104 productivity gains, and Internet 152 productivity growth 186ff size of 183, 184 and specialization 185, 189ff, 197 spill-overs 83, 183 wage levels 194 see also Mega-City Regions; objectiveone funds regression model 11, 14, 17, 18, 20ff, 154, 215 deviance from 21–2 Reich, R 239 relationality 2, 33, 36, 38, 46, 151, 203 data 107, 113 logics 100 networks 103 place 97 proximity 34, 36, 46, 81ff, 107, 243 scales 55 space 96, 99ff, 105 Reliance Globalcom 125 relocation 103, 164, 167, 169 rents 87–8, 164, 168, 169 research 1, 12, 15, 22, 23–4, 60ff, 107, 73, 170, 183, 198, 321 and digital data 145–6, 151–2ff, 157 and homeland security contracts 225, 226 port cities 105–6, 115 research and development (R&D) 32, 36, 48, 198 private 189, 191, 195ff public 189, 191, 195ff and regional growth 183, 186, 189, 192ff research institutions 104, 107, 125, 239 residential areas 57, 154 residuals 21–2, 23 resources 97, 98, 101, 181 restaurants 57, 80, 166 retail developments 80, 84, 166, 169, 171 Rhine-Main airport Rhine-Ruhr region 28, 48, 103 transport network 45 Rimmer, P.J 150 Ringbeck, J et al 80 Rio de Janeiro 17, 27 roads 41, 45, 86 Robinson, J 22, 103, 104, 108 Rodríguez-Pose, A and Crescenzi, R 150 Rodríguez-Pose, A and Tselios, V 186, 192 Romania 186, 188, 192, 195 Rome 17, 21, 22, 23, 28, 189 Rook Contiguity 43 Rooney, B 127 Rosenthal, S.S and Strange, W.C 184 Rotterdam Rundquist, B and Carsey, T 225, 227 Russia 27, 29, 133, 134 Sabre Airport Data Intelligence (ADI) 15 St Louis 21, 29, 136, 137 Salet, W and Majoor, S 86 Salford Media City 164 and broadband 165–6, 174 and companies 167 criticism of 169 and local clusters 169, 170, 174 Salford Quays 164, 166 Salt, J.123 San Francisco 174 San Francisco Bay 28, 132, 134, 136ff San Francisco Metropolitan Area 235–6, 238 San Jose 130, 132n, 133 Index Sassen 12, 15, 31, 33, 37, 57, 95, 97, 99, 123 saturation 69 Savageau, J 126 Saviotti, P.P 185 Saxenian, A.L 99 scale 35, 45, 100, 104, 106, 111, 114, 115 Scandinavia 186, 188 Schaafsma, M 3, 38, 83, 88 Schaafsma, M et al 38, 49 Schamp, E.W 36, 82 Schipol Group 87, 88 Schipol-Centre 87 see also Amsterdam Schipol Airport Schleswig Holstein 107 Schmidt, S 38 Schmidt, S and Wolke, M Schubert, J and Conventz, S 85 Schumacher, P 98 science 146, 151, 153, 184 scientific knowledge 33, 34, 56 Scott, A.J 2, 59, 165, 168, 225 Scott, A.J et al 57, 59–60 seaports 2, see also hub ports; port cities Seattle 29, 130, 132ff, 216, 217, 225 sectoral diversity 189, 192 segregation 57 Seoul 21, 29, 164, 167, 171, 175 servers 125, 127, 166 ‘service values’ 15 services 61, 72, 73, 95, 96, 104, 107, 171, 204, 206 and digital economy 147, 148 regional 192 US homeland security 224, 225, 226 procurement 227ff see also knowledge-based services Shaw, S.-L 207 Shenzhen 16, 21, 28 shipbuilders 104, 107 shipping companies 104, 107 shopping malls 80, 166, 167 Short, J.R 14, 18, 22 Short, J.R et al 11, 21, 23 Silicon Valley 99, 132n, 136 Simmie, J 3, 34, 82, 83 Singapore 29, 130, 132, 133, 135ff size 14, 62, 64, 66, 68–9, 73, 183, 184, 192 265 skills 2, 12, 33, 36, 103, 185, 194 Slovakia 186, 188, 192 small cities 64, 68, 69 SMEs 168, 169, 175 Smith, D and Timberlake, M 150 Smith, K social exclusion 181 social groups 98, 149 social networks 146, 167 social practices 57 social science 147, 149 society 57, 98, 149 software 165, 166, 195 Soho 168 Soja, E 98 Sokol, M et al 31, 33 Song, C et al 153 Soureli, K and Youn, E 77 South Africa 20, 26, 29, 134, 173 South America 217 South-East Asia 31, 49 southern Germany 186 space 2, 3, 5, 35, 36, 59, 79, 103, 115, 152 ‘of flows’ 57, 149, 150 local 35 media 166 ordering of 97–8 and peering 126 ‘of places’ 57 relational 96, 99ff, 105 urban 100 Spain 26, 28, 186, 188, 192, 194 spatial accessibility 32ff spatial analysis 108ff, 114–15, 152–3, 195 and digital data 151–2, 157 and ICTs 145, 146 and mobile phones 153–4 spatial concentration 31, 35, 36, 56, 59, 67, 68, 72, 183 spatial differential 98, 114 spatial diffusion 183 spatial distribution 72–3, 223, 225, 236, 239, 240, 243 spatial hierarchy 204 spatial logic 31, 57, 83 spatial networks 56, 57 spatial patterns 4, 58–9 spatial scales 45, 111, 114, 115 266 Hub Cities in the Knowledge Economy spatial units 63, 108, 111, 185 spatio-temporal analysis 146, 154 specialization 4, 48, 49, 55, 78, 80ff, 107, 114, 185, 186, 188, 194ff and cities 35, 183, 204, 206 functional 48, 97, 101, 104, 106 global 83 homeland security 224, 225, 226, 239 regional 83, 185, 189ff, 198 and research 198 sectoral 189, 195, 198 specialized knowledge 33 ‘spiky’ world 31, 49, 150, 186 spill-overs 2, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 81–2, 83, 181, 183, 184, 192, 198 and Internet 152 local 184 and market potential 192 North Germany 108, 114 Stanley, B 171 Star, S.L 145 state-owned companies 14 statistical analysis 153 Steenbergen, R 127 Steenbruggen et al 153 Stehr, N 56 Stockholm 29, 130, 134, 135, 189 Stone, B 136 storage (data) 125, 135, 165 Storper, M 107, 108 Storper, M and Venables, A.J 31, 98, 108 Storper, M and Walker, R.A 59 strategic alliances 111 structural deficit 72 structure 2, 37, 59, 97, 103, 149 internet 126, 127–8 spatial 149 Stuttgart 43, 48, 49, 65, 68, 69, 73, 189 sub-systems 104 suburban areas 69, 236, 238 Südekum 62 super-regional scale 96, 105, 107ff, 111, 115 suppliers 104, 107 supply 103, 145, 146 surplus labour 33, 48 surveys 48, 107 sustainability 5, 80, 91, 97, 101, 172, 175, 181 Sweden 28, 136 Sydney 164, 166 symbolic knowledge 34, 34, 81, 239 synergies 96, 100, 148 synthetic knowledge 34 systems 91, 99, 104, 106, 113, 152, 154, 241 Taaffe, E.J 12, 79 tacit knowledge 4, 31, 34ff, 45, 49, 81ff, 123, 168, 183, 198 Taipei 21, 27, 135 talent 97, 103 tariff reductions Tata Communications 125 Taylor, P.J 11, 15, 16, 21, 31, 32, 37ff, 55ff, 62, 101 Taylor, P.J and Lang, R.E 13, 20 Taylor, P.J et al 11, 13, 14, 15, 19, 85, 101, 123, 124, 170, 173, 175 technology 2, 4–5, 56, 78, 79, 149 and creative industries 165–6, 174 generic 151 maritime 107 technology services 225, 226, 230, 239ff technology transfer Telecity Group 126, 131 telecommunications 3, 4, 12, 46, 89, 124, 125, 148, 242 research on 146, 152ff teleconferencing 4, 123, 126 Telehouse 126, 131 television 166, 170, 173, 174 terminology 209–10 territorial approach 16, 31, 37, 55, 57, 60, 63ff, 103 territorial development 56, 98, 99 tertiarization 223, 226, 239–40, 242, 243 Texas 225, 230, 231, 235, 242 theme parks 166, 171 theory 35, 59, 183, 204ff Thierstein, A et al 34, 48, 80, 99, 100, 101 Thierstein, A and Schein, E 101 Thierstein, A and Wiese, A 97, 98, 100 Thissen, M and Van Oort, F 181, 182, 183 Thissen, M et al 194 Index 267 ‘ticket’ trips 211 ties 106, 107ff formal 106 functional 108, 114 informal 106 organizational 113 time 36, 58–9, 61, 62ff, 69, 72, 81, 85, 90, 124, 135, 149, 152, 165, 184, 185, 207, 226ff, 235 lags 194 and land use types 153, 154 Time Magazine 80 Titley, N 126, 127 TNCs 36, 123 Toffler, A 145 Tokyo 12, 17, 22, 27, 124, 132, 133, 136ff, 172, 217 Törnqvist, G 46 Torre, A and Rallet, A 36 Toulouse 189 tourism 22, 23, 96, 153, 171, 172, 224 Townsend, A.R 125 trade 3, 36, 78, 103, 192, 195, 197 traffic 41, 154 training 108, 168, 230 Tranos, E 2, 23, 38, 125, 150, 152 Tranos, E and Gillespie, A 38, 140, 151, 157 Tranos, E and Nijkamp 5, 145ff transaction costs 59, 60, 69, 73 ‘transactional cities’ 224 transit, internet 126 transport costs 59, 104, 184, 185 transport economics 103 transport hubs 104, 207 transport modes 78–9 data 113 transport services 88, 89 Transportation Security Administration (TSA) 229–30, 238, 241 travel 4, 13, 36, 85, 123, 241 triangulation 115 trip conceptions 211, 212 trust 36, 84 Turin 134 Turok, I 168 see also Britain uncertainty 101 Unisys Corp 241 United States 11, 14, 16, 223ff air passenger market 13 airline connectivity 19, 20ff, 207 and economic growth 217–18 and geography 216–17 and hub types 211–12ff and Internet 124, 127, 129ff IXPs 130, 131 see also homeland security contracting universities 80, 81, 125, 169, 186, 189 up-scaling 83 urban analysis 146, 151, 152ff urban economies 204–7 see also urban networks urban geography 13, 23, 38, 145, 151 urban governance 5, 96, 115, 163, 165, 175 urban networks 58ff, 69, 72, 147, 170ff, 203–19 and centrality 204–7ff global 181 hub city types 203, 208ff urban planning 91, 96, 97, 103, 115 and creative industries 163, 165, 167, 168, 175 urban renewal 96, 164, 165, 166, 173 urban space 100, 149–50 urbanization 2, 4, 183 and airline infrastructure 12ff, 79–80, 86ff, 91 concentration in 31, 34ff, 43 port areas 95–6, 103–5 size US Coast Guard 224, 228, 235, 236, 241, 242 US Department of Justice 228 US Department of Defense 225, 229, 233, 240, 242 US Federal government 224, 228 agencies 228, 238–9ff defence procurement 225ff, 239ff spending 229–30 users 125, 151 Utrecht 186 UK 19, 26ff, 164ff, 170, 186n Valancius, V 126 268 Hub Cities in the Knowledge Economy value 1, 2, 148, 192, 239 value chains 2, 33, 35, 37, 47, 48, 49, 55, 77, 80, 91, 96 and APS 101 industrial 95, 99, 106 maritime 107–8 Van Geenhuizen, M and Nijkamp, P 103 Van Oort, F 181, 182, 195 Van Oort, F and Lambooy, J.G 185 van Wijk 83 variables 18, 20, 31, 182, 186ff, 192, 194 variety 183, 184, 185 vendor laws 167 venture capital 235 vertical integration 2, 31, 37, 55 vibrancy 2, 31, 37, 172 video content 125, 126, 133 Vienna 29, 130, 151 Virginia 29, 133, 136, 230, 231, 235, 236, 237, 239, 240, 242 virtual space 149, 150 visibility 145 wage levels 194, 197 Warf, B 12, 124, 227 Warsaw 134 Warsewa, G 95, 96, 97 Washington D.C 6, 132ff, 213, 217, 223ff and defence procurement 223, 225–6, 236–42 and private firms 226, 239–42 spending 231, 235, 236ff and diversification 226 as knowledge hub 224, 242–3 and specialization 226 and technology services 225, 226, 230, 239ff Washington Metropolitan Area 29, 129, 231ff waterfront developments 96–7, 166 Watson, A and Hoyler, M 163, 170, 172 Web 2.0 125, 146 Weber, A 59 welfare 181, 183 Weser-Ems region 113, 114, 115 West, J and Mace, M 125 West Virginia 240 Westeren, K.I 182 Western Europe 186 Wiesbaden 64, 65 Wilhelmshaven 111 Wilson, A 95, 96 Wirth, L 100 Witlox, F and Derudder, B 56 Wolfsburg 47, 48, 49 workers 49, 82, 103, 167, 168, 198, 209, 239 see also knowledge workers working-days 154 World City Network (WCN) 15 world cities 12–13, 31, 36–7, 38, 123, 139, 150, 204 and hubs 124 hypothesis 36–7, 204 and Internet 124–5, 150 network 38, 62 research 23 World Wide Web 38 content 125, 127ff WTO 14 Wuppertal 67, 68 Yamanouchi, K 218 Yangtze River Delta 17, 29 YouTube 133 Zook, M 56 Zurich 26, 80, 130, 133ff ... discussing the role of hub cities in the knowledge economy 6 Hub Cities in the Knowledge Economy In the final chapter, Mayer and Cowell discuss the key features of a particular type of hub city:... and the finance and insurance industries The rising importance of knowledge generation within the economy, then, is not a general, ‘spaceless’ phenomenon: the (rising) centrality of knowledge in. .. this specific take on the linkages between the knowledge- intensity of urban economies and their physical infrastructure 12 Hub Cities in the Knowledge Economy The remainder of this chapter is