Revolution Against Empire THE LEWIS WALPOLE SERIES IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY CULTURE AND HISTORY The Lewis Walpole Series, published by Yale University Press with the aid of the Annie Burr Lewis Fund, is dedicated to the culture and history of the long eighteenth century (from the Glorious Revolution to the accession of Queen Victoria) It welcomes work in a variety of fields, including literature and history, the visual arts, political philosophy, music, legal history, and the history of science In addition to original scholarly work, the series publishes new editions and translations of writing from the period, as well as reprints of major books that are currently unavailable Though the majority of books in the series will probably concentrate on Great Britain and the Continent, the range of our geographical interests is as wide as Horace Walpole’s Published with assistance from the income of the Frederick John Kingsbury Memorial Fund, and from the Annie Burr Lewis Fund Copyright © 2017 by Justin du Rivage All rights reserved This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, including illustrations, in any form (beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S Copyright Law and except by reviewers for the public press), without written permission from the publishers Yale University Press books may be purchased in quantity for educational, business, or promotional use For information, please e-mail sales.press@yale.edu (U.S office) or sales@yaleup.co.uk (U.K office) Set in Fournier type by IDS Infotech, Ltd Printed in the United States of America ISBN 978-0-300-21424-6 A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress, and also from the British Library This paper meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper) 10 For Amanda Contents Acknowledgments Key Figures, and a Note on the Text Introduction: Enlightened Empire? Britain’s Controversial Empire Taxing America The Seven Years’ War and the Politics of Empire The Rise and Fall of the Stamp Act Britain’s Authoritarian Ascendancy Sons of Liberty, Sons of Licentiousness English Blood by English Hands Conclusion: Republican Empire List of Abbreviations Notes Index Acknowledgments It is a great pleasure to thank all of those who have helped bring this project to fruition Revolution Against Empire simply would not exist without the advice, criticism, and support of a great many people and institutions Indeed, the words that follow cannot possibly repay the debts that I have incurred Yale was an exceptionally rewarding place to research both a dissertation and a book that crosses geographic and disciplinary boundaries I was particularly fortunate to have advisors whose interests were as expansive as their intellectual generosity Steve Pincus taught me to keep asking, “Why?” while Joanne Freeman showed me how recovering fears and passions can help us answer the big questions of political history Holly Brewer and Julian Hoppit both helped guide the dissertation on which this book is based, while Claire Priest showed me how important legal institutions are for understanding the origins of the American Revolution James Vaughn taught me just how important conservatism was in shaping the politics of the eighteenth-century British Empire Conversations with Julia Adams, Jon Butler, John Demos, Paul Kennedy, Naomi Lamoreaux, Ed Rugemer, Keith Wrightson, and Charles Walton likewise shaped the way I think about the past All of you have made me a better thinker and a better historian In many ways, Revolution Against Empire began even before I arrived in New Haven The faculty of the Pomona College History Department, particularly Ron Cluett, Gary Kates, Helena Wall, and Sam Yamashita, taught me how history can help make sense of the world we inhabit At Cambridge, Mike Sonenscher and Istvan Hont introduced me to the myriad ways in which eighteenthcentury political economy can shed light on enduring problems of inequality, government, and international relations Together, these scholars and mentors have given me a compelling sense of why history matters The story that follows is the product of years of searching for documents on both sides of the Atlantic, a task that would have been impossible without the generosity of librarians, archivists, and institutions The Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, the Lewis Walpole Library, the Huntington Library, the American Philosophical Society, and the Clements Library all offered their exceptional collections as well as their financial support to make this book a reality Essential though these resources were, I would have been lost without the keen advice of Greg Eow, Kathryn James, Olga Tsapina, and countless other librarians and curators Moreover, the Smith Richardson Foundation, Yale International Security Studies, the Leitner Program in International Political Economy, the Macmillan Center for International and Area Studies, the Fox International Fellowship, and the Stanford History Department all offered invaluable financial assistance to make my many research expeditions possible I could not be more grateful for the encouragement and advice that I received as I transformed my Ph.D dissertation into this book At Stanford, Caroline Winterer was both a keen critic and exceptionally generous with her vast knowledge of the Enlightenment Nancy Kollmann and Ali Yaycioglu broadened my intellectual horizons by welcoming me into their seminar on Eurasian empires Jennifer Burns, Jim Campbell, David Como, Paula Findlen, Ana Minian, Jack Rakove, Jessica Riskin, Richard White, Kären Wigen, and Gavin Wright all made my time in Palo Alto as enjoyable as it was productive At Yale University Press, my editor Erica Hanson saw the potential of this project from the very beginning and worked tirelessly to improve it, while Phillip King and Andrew Frisardi did a brilliant job of transforming the manuscript into a finished product William Ashworth shared his knowledge of eighteenth-century taxation with me while Peter Onuf and George William Van Cleve offered suggestions that greatly improved both chapter and the conclusion Thank you all Colleagues and friends at Yale, Stanford, and around the world read chapters, offered guidance, and shared their knowledge with me Lucy Kaufman provided her keen editorial eye with unstinting generosity and good humor Richard Huzzey and Christian Burset read the manuscript and rescued me from a great many errors David Lydon, my sister Nathalie, and my parents Kent and Franỗoise all gave me phenomenal advice for how to make a book about eighteenth-century taxation accessible to a wide audience Thank you as well to Catherine Arnold, Teresa Bejan, Michael Blaakman, Bill Bullman, William Derringer, Chris Desan, Amy Dunagin, Allison Gorsuch, Penny Green, Andy Hammann, Michael Hattem, Elizabeth Herman, Todd Holmes, Tom Hopkins, Tony Hopkins, Robert Ingram, Sarah Kinkel, Megan Lindsay, Jim Livesey, Matt Lockwood, Noah Millstone, Lindsay O’Neil, Ken Owen, Mark Peterson, Allyssa Reichhardt, Sophus Reinert, John Shovlin, Phil Stern, Leslie Theibert, Matthew Underwood, Heather Welland, Jennifer Wellington, Carl Wennerlind, Nick Hoover Wilson, Alice Wolfram, and Nick Wrightson Our conversations have been at times thoughtful and profound, at others blithe and frivolous, but they have brightened my life and made this a far better book Finally, and most of all, I thank Amanda Behm She offered not only her invaluable counsel, but repaid my writerly obsessions and neuroses with love and grace Having her in my life has been my greatest joy Key Figures These names are organized by ideological group to help guide the reader through the debates that follow Keep in mind, however, that eighteenth-century opinion existed on a continuum, and people often changed their political stripes Authoritarian Reformers BARRINGTON, WILLIAM WILDMAN BARRINGTON, SECOND VISCOUNT Secretary at War who increasingly supported the use of military force to quell British and colonial disorder BEDFORD, JOHN RUSSELL, FOURTH DUKE OF An early Whig supporter of authoritarian reform, he advocated both austerity and strengthening Britain’s North American empire BERNARD, FRANCIS Governor of New Jersey and then Massachusetts who urged British leaders to assert greater authority in the colonies BUTE, JOHN STUART , THIRD EARL OF Childhood tutor of George III and the king’s favorite, he spearheaded controversial austerity policies as prime minister CLIVE, ROBERT Governor of Bengal and an ally of George Grenville who advocated reforming East India Company government and using Bengali tax revenue to pay Britain’s debts COLDEN, CADWALLADER Enlightened physician and natural philosopher who defended royal authority as New York’s lieutenant governor DECKER, MATTHEW East India Company Director and political economist whose single tax on houses inspired many proposals for authoritarian reform EDEN, WILLIAM Spymaster and member of the Carlisle Commission that attempted to negotiate peace with the rebellious American colonies in 1778 GAGE, THOMAS Commander in chief for North America and governor of Massachusetts from 1774 to 1775, he was a long-standing critic of colonial insubordination GALLOWAY, JOSEPH Benjamin Franklin’s protégé and a loyalist advocate of British and American reconciliation GEORGE III King of Great Britain who supported strengthening the monarchy and increasing Britain’s control over its colonies GERMAIN, GEORGE Military veteran and secretary of state for the colonies during the American War of Independence who urged force as a way of securing colonial allegiance GRENVILLE, GEORGE Prime minister who advocated the Stamp Act as a means of rescuing Britain from 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 Confederation, ante Dec 16, 1777, Thomas Burke’s notes on the Articles of Confederation, ca Dec 18, 1777, in LDC, 8:419, 435 See also Abraham Clark to John Hart, Feb 8, 1777, Samuel Adams to James Warren, Oct 29, 1777, in LDC, 6:240, 8:209; and “Resolution,” Feb 15, 1777, in JCC, 7:125 Duane to Jay, Dec 23, 1777, in Jay Papers, 1:498; and John Adams to Robert Morris, July 11, 1783, in Papers of John Adams, ed Robert J Taylor et al., 18 vols (Cambridge, Mass., 1977–), 15:101 See also Charles Carroll of Carrollton to Benjamin Franklin, Aug 12, 1777, Charles Carroll of Carrollton to Charles Carroll Sr., Oct 5, 1777, Williams to Jabez Huntington, Oct 22, 1777, Elbridge Gerry to Joseph Trumbull, Nov 27, 1777, and Thomas Burke’s notes, ca Dec 18, 1777, in LDC, 7:463, 8:50, 162, 326– 327, 435 On European state building, see Michael Braddick, State Formation in Early Modern England, c 1550–1700 (Cambridge, 2000); John Brewer, Sinews of Power: War, Money, and the English State, 1688–1783 (New York, 1988); James B Collins, The State in Early Modern France, 2nd ed (Cambridge, 2009); Max Edling, A Revolution in Favor of Government: Origins of the U.S Constitution and the Making of the American State (New York, 2003), 47–58; and Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital and European States, a.d 990–1992 (Oxford, 1990) JCC, 6:1079–1080 See also “Notes of Debates on the Articles of Confederation,” July 30, Aug 1, 1776, in Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, 2:245–248; Harnett to Caswell, Oct 10, 1777, Henry Laurens to John Laurens, Oct 10, 1777, William Williams to Jonathan Trumbull Sr., Oct 11, 1777, Nathaniel Folsom to Meshech Weare, Oct 27, 1777, Samuel Adams to James Warren, Oct 29, 1777, Harnett to Thomas Burke, Nov 13 1777, Richard Henry Lee to Sherman, Nov 24, 1777, Harnett to William Wilkinson, Nov 30 1777, Thomas Burke’s remarks, ante Dec 16, 1777, in LDC, 8:98, 100–101, 108, 198, 209, 255, 319– 320, 348–349, 419; and Duane to Jay, Dec 23, 1777, in Jay Papers, 1:498 On slavery, taxation, and the Articles, see Robin Einhorn, American Taxation, American Slavery (Chicago, 2006), 124–145 Samuel Livermore to Meshech Weare, Nov 6, 1781, in LDC, 18:183 On Witherspoon’s influence, see Einhorn, American Taxation, 123–124 Under the Articles of Confederation, states with small slave populations paid a disproportionate share of Congress’s expenses relative to their population For example, between 1781 and 1788, Massachusetts’s tax quota was approximately 83 percent more per capita than Virginia’s and 76 percent more than South Carolina’s In terms of actual payments to Congress, it paid 65 percent and 23 percent more, respectively See Roger H Brown, Redeeming the Republic: Federalists, Taxation, and the Origins of the Constitution (Baltimore, 1993), 14; and John J McCusker, “Population, by Race and by Colony or Locality: 1610–1780,” in Historical Statistics of the United States, Millennial Edition, ed Susan B Carter et al., vols (Cambridge, 2006), 5:563 On the concessions to slavery in the articles, see George William Van Cleve, A Slaveholders’ Union: Slavery Politics, and the Constitution in the Early American Republic (Chicago, 2010), 45–50; and Einhorn, American Taxation, 124–145 See Charles Carroll to Benjamin Franklin, Aug 12, 1777, in PBF, 24:417–421; Richard Henry Lee to Roger Sherman, Nov 24, 1777, James Madison to Edmund Pendleton, Nov 27, 1781, in LDC, 8:319–320, 18:216; and JCC, 21:1087–1092, 23:564–572 On the intense pressure to create a confederation that could secure ratification by the states, see Rakove, Beginnings, 160–164 The states’ contributions were about one third of Congress’s requisitions See Brown, Redeeming the Republic, 14 In an important correction to Brown, George William Van Cleve notes that the states paid most of Congress’s requisitions after mid-1787 using heavily depreciated indents (meaning that their payments were worth far less than their face value) and that they failed for political (rather than economic) reasons to levy taxes that would defray domestic debts See George William Van Cleve, Stalemate Government: The Collapse of the Confederation, 1783–1787 (forthcoming), chap See John Adams to Thomas Jefferson, May 26, 1777, Richard Henry Lee to Sherman, Nov 24, 1777, and Harnett to Wilkinson, Nov 30 1777, in LDC, 7:120, 8:319–320, 348–349 Thomas Burke’s remarks, ante Dec 16, 1777, and Thomas Burke’s notes on the Articles of Confederation, ca Dec 18, 1777, in LDC, 8:419–420, 436–437 Even as it prompted a fierce debate about the nature of state sovereignty, the move to amend the Articles to grant Congress a percent impost on imports drew support from revolutionaries as diverse as Thomas Paine, John Adams, Robert Morris, and James Madison See Paine, “Six Letters to Rhode Island,” in Complete Writings of Thomas Paine, ed Philip Foner, vols (New York, 1945), 2:333–366; John Adams to Robert Morris, July 11, 1783, in Papers of John Adams, 15:100–102; and James Madison to Edmund Randolph, Nov 19, 1782, in Papers of James Madison: Congressional Series, ed William T Hutchinson and William M E Rachal, 17 vols (Chicago, 1962–1991), 5:288–292 See Samuel Cooper to Benjamin Franklin, Oct 25, 1777, HEH, Samuel Cooper Papers, box 1; Samuel Adams to James Warren, Jan 1, 1777, Elbridge Gerry to John Adams, Jan 8, 1777, Harnett to Caswell, Oct 10, 1777, in LDC, 6:3, 51–52, 8:98; and Arthur Lee to Samuel Loudon, Paris, Oct 7, 1777, BL, Add Ms 46490, fols 74–75 Memoire of Arthur Lee to Frederick the Great of Prussia, July 29, 1777, in Life of Arthur Lee, LL.D.: Joint Commissioner of the United States to the Court of France, and Sole Commissioner to the Courts of Spain and Prussia, During the Revolutionary War, vols (Boston, 1829), 1:92, 95 See also Franklin and Deane to Committee for Foreign Affairs, May 25, 1777, in PBF, 24:73–77; Robert Morris to John Hancock, Jan 6, 1777, Robert Morris to the Commissioners at Paris, Mar 7, 1777, Duane to the New York Convention, May 6, 1777, in LDC, 6:42–43, 415, 7:31; and Cooper to Benjamin Franklin, Oct 25, 1777, HEH, Samuel Cooper Papers, box On America’s need for a French alliance, see Charles Carroll of Carrollton to Benjamin Franklin, Aug 12, 1777, and Henry Laurens to Christopher Zahn, Aug 13, 1777, in LDC, 7:462, 476–477 On the economic consequences of the blockade, see Richard Buel, In Irons: Britain’s Naval Supremacy and the American Revolutionary 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 Economy (New Haven, Conn., 1998) Cooper to Benjamin Franklin, Oct 25, 1777, HEH, Samuel Cooper Papers, box See also Germain to Earl of Buckingham, Dec 22, 1777, WLCL, George Sackville Germain Papers, vol 6; and Charles Pratt, first Earl Camden to Robert Stewart, Dec 3, 1777, CKS, U840 C173/19 Thomas Walpole, “Reasons Why It Is Not Probable America Will Depart from Her Declaration of Independence,” 1777, CUL, Ms Add 8710/33; Camden to Stewart, July 19, 1777, CKS, U840 C173/17; William Pitt, Earl of Chatham to William Petty, second Earl Shelburne, Dec 18, 1777, BL, Add Ms 88906/1/7, fols 123–126, 128 See also [Richard Burke], The Letters of Valens (Which Originally Appeared in the London Evening Post) with Corrections, Explanatory Notes, and a Preface by the Author (London, 1777), xiv; Willoughby Bertie, fourth Earl of Abingdon, Thoughts on the Letter of Edmund Burke, 2nd ed (Oxford, 1777), 59; Champion to Izard, July 16, 1777, HEH, Robert Morris Collection, box 1; Izard to Almon, Oct 16, 1777, BL, Add Ms 20733, fols 59–60; Arthur Lee to Price, Apr 20, 1777, and Price to John Winthrop, June 15, 1777, APS, Richard Price Papers Abingdon, Thoughts, 64 See also Shelburne to Price, Sept 24, 1777, in The Correspondence of Richard Price, ed W Bernard Peach and D O Thomas, vols (Durham, N.C., 1983), 1:313; [Richard Burke], The Letters of Valens (London, 1777), v; Arthur Lee to Price, Apr 20, 1777, APS, Richard Price Papers; and Izard to Almon, Aug and Oct 16, 1777, BL, Add Ms 20733, fols 58–60 See Abingdon, Thoughts, 41–43; Camden to Robert Stewart, June 4, 1777, CKS, U840 C173/15; and Shelburne to Price, Sept 24, 1777, BL, Add Ms 88906/3/29, fol 82 For Burke’s pamphlet, which nonetheless defended the American cause, see A Letter from Edmund Burke Esq; on the Affairs of America (Bristol, 1777) Charles Watson-Wentworth, second Marquess of Rockingham, Nov 19, 1777, SA, WWM/R/151/7; “Proposition for a Meeting ‘in Common Hall’ of Some Principal Citizens,” ca 1777, MSC Not., PW F 2569; and Cobbett, 19:316–320, 344 See also Chatham to Rockingham, Nov 18, 27, 1777, Rockingham to Chatham [draft], Nov 28, 1777, SA, WWM/R/151; Camden to Stewart, June 3, July 2, 1777, CKS, U840 C173/14, 16; John Cartwright to William Cavendish-Bentinck, third Duke of Portland, Feb 22, Mar 31, 1777, MSC Not., PW F 2567–2568; Walpole, “Reasons Why,” 1777, CUL, Ms Add 8710/33; Abingdon, Thoughts, 59; and [Burke], Valens, 3, 69 Jenkinson, memo, 1776 or 1777, BL, Add Ms 38342, fols 282–284; Jenkinson to North, June 26, July 9, 1777, BL, Add Ms 38306, fol 72–74; and Jenkinson, “Plan for the North American Colonies,” 1777, BL, Add Ms 38342, fols 172–184 See also [William Barron], History of the Colonization of the Free States of Antiquity: Applied to the Present Contest Between Great Britain and her American Colonies (London, 1777); and Jenkinson to Barron, June 11, 1777, BL, Add Ms 38306, fol 70 On the tyranny of republican government, see “Political Remarks on the Present State of Affairs, in Respect to the Rebellion in America and the Danger of Its Involving Us in a War in Europe,” Mar 18, 1777, WLCL, George Sackville Germain Papers, vol Adam Ferguson to John Macpherson, Dec 1777, in The Correspondence of Adam Ferguson, ed Vincenzo Merolle, vols (London, 1995), 1:163; and North to George III, Jan 12, 1778, in The Correspondence of King George the Third from 1760 to December 1783, ed J W Fortesque, vols (London, 1927–1928), 4:13 Britain’s combined military expenses in 1775, 1776, and 1777 totaled £20.2 million B R Mitchell, British Historical Statistics (Cambridge, 1988), 579 Elliot to Eden, Mar 20, 1778, HEH, HM 22541 See also Eden to Paul Wentworth, Dec 5, 1777, in B F Stevens’s Facsimiles of Manuscripts in European Archives Relating to America, 1773–1783, ed Benjamin Franklin Stevens, 25 vols (London, 1889– 1895), no 483; David Hartley to Franklin, Feb 13, 18, 20, 1778, in PBF, 25:662–665, 689–692, 699–700; and O’Shaughnessy, Men Who Lost America, 61 William Eden, “Measures for an Accommodation with America,” Jan 1778, in Stevens’s Facsimiles, no 346 See also Alexander Wedderburn, “Paper Sent to L.N upon the State of Affairs in America Containing Heads of a Plan for a Treaty,” Jan 1778, WLCL, Alexander Wedderburn Papers, box 2; Hutton to Germain, Jan 26, 1778, John Fisher to Germain, Feb 2, 1778, WLCL, George Sackville Germain Papers, vol 7; Joseph Yorke to Jeffrey Amherst, Feb 10, 1778, CKS, U1350/C41/122; Wedderburn note to Eden, 1778, [Alexander Thurlow], “Resolution Relative to the Taxation of the American Colonies,” Jan 1778, [William Eden], “First Sketch of an Idea for a Conciliating Act,” Feb 1778, Wedderburn to Eden, Feb 1778, Eden note to Wentworth, Dec 5, 1777, in Stevens’s Facsimiles, nos 347, 349, 355, 367, 483; Ferguson to Macpherson, Dec 1777, in Correspondence of Adam Ferguson, 1:163; James Hutton to Benjamin Franklin, Jan 27, and Feb 1, 1778, in PBF, 25:529–530, 562–563 Parliamentary Register, 8:379–385, 404–405; and London Chronicle, Feb 19, 1778, 177 Cobbett, 19:767; Charles Jenkinson to Sir John Blaquiere, Feb 19, 1778, BL, Add Ms 38306, fols 84–85; and Hutchinson to Hardwicke, Aug 3, 1778, BL, Add Ms 35427, fol 137 See also O’Shaughnessy, Men Who Lost America, 62 Cobbett, 19:369, 870; Franklin to William Pulteney, Mar 30, 1778, in PBF, 26:195; and John Dalrymple, “Thoughts on Instructions to the American Commissioners,” Mar.[?] 1778, WLCL, George Sackville Germain Papers, vol See also Henry Laurens to Caswell, June 11, 1778, in LDC, 10:73–74; and Franklin to Hartley, Feb 26, 1778, in PBF, 25:712–714 For the peace proposals of North’s supporters, see Wedderburn to Eden, Apr 1, 1778, BL, Add Ms 46491, fols 18–19; Joseph Yorke to Jeffrey Amherst, Mar 3, 1778, CKS, U1350/C41/125; Elliot to Eden, Mar 20, 1778, HEH, HM 22541; and [William Pulteney], Thoughts on the Present State of Affairs with America, and the Means of Conciliation, 5th ed (London, 1778), 63, 70 George III to North, Mar 15[?], 1778, and North to George III, Mar 29, 1778, in Correspondence of George III, 4:58, 84 For radical Whig attitudes, see Chatham to Rockingham, Jan 27, 1778, SA, WWM/R/151/10; Camden to Shelburne, Apr 7, 1778, BL, 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 Add Ms 88906/3/4, fol 110; and Camden to Robert Stewart, Mar 29, 1778, CKS, U840 C173/29 Camden to Stewart, Mar 29, Apr 30, 1778, CKS, U840 C173/29, 31; and “On Chatham’s Funeral,” May 1778, WLCL, Pitt Family Papers, box Joseph Yorke to Jeffrey Amherst, May 17, 1778, CKS, U1350/C41/132 See “William Knox’s Explanation for the American Revolution,” ed Jack P Greene, WMQ 30, no (Apr 1973): 293–306; Price to Franklin, May 10, 1778, in Correspondence of Richard Price, 2:19–20; James Hutton to Franklin, May 19, 1778, in PBF, 26:507–510; Edward Smith to Eden, July, 10, 1778, BL, Add Ms 46491, fol 41; and [Pulteney], Thoughts, 63 [William Knox], “Secret Instructions for the Commissioners,” Apr 1778, “An Account of the Number of Persons Who Have Taken the Oath of Allegiance at Philadelphia from the 30th of September 1777 to the 17th June 1778,” WLCL, George Sackville Germain Papers, vol 7; Eden to “My Dear Sir,” June 19, 1778, and Eden to Germain, June 19, 1778, BL, Add Ms 46491, fols 28– 29 See also Price to Franklin, May 10, 1778, in Correspondence of Richard Price, 2:19–20; Charles Grey to Shelburne, June 15, 1778, BL, Add Ms 88906/1/16, fol 11; Germain to Henry Clinton, Mar 8, 1778, and George Germain, “Draft to the Commissioners,” July 1778, WLCL, George Sackville Germain Papers, vol Extract of the letter of His Majesty’s Commissioners to the President of the Congress, June 10, 1778, NAUK, CO 5/7, fol 13, 15– 16 See also Charles Carroll of Carrollton to Charles Carroll Sr., June 15, 1778, in LDC, 10:94 Pennsylvania Packet, and Daily Advertiser, Sept 19, 1778, See also Pennsylvania Packet, and Daily Advertiser, Sept 12, 1778, 2–4; and John Witherspoon to unknown, Sept 3, 1778, in LDC, 10:557 Reed to George Johnstone, June 13, 1778, APS, Sol Feinstone Collection, item 1192 See also Dr Samuel Adams to Sally Preston Adams, Aug 5, 1778, Thomas McKean to Caesar Rodney, Apr 20, 1778, Thomas Paine to Dr Samuel Adams, Jan 5, 1778, APS, Sol Feinstone Collection, items 29, 860, 1051; William Henry Drayton to the Carlisle Commissioners, June 17, 1778, Robert Morris to Duane, Sept 8, 1778, in LDC, 10:116–121, 607; Rush to James McHenry, May 17, 1778, in Letters of Benjamin Rush, 1:215; and Pennsylvania Gazette, June 20, 1778 William Henry Drayton to the Carlisle Commissioners, June 17, 1778; John Witherspoon to unknown, Sept 3, 1778, in LDC, 10:116–121, 557; Morris in Pennsylvania Packet, and Daily Advertiser, Sept 19, 1778, 1–2 See also Pennsylvania Packet, and Daily Advertiser, Sept 12, 1778, 2–4 Rush to Jonathan Bayard Smith, Apr 20, 1778, in Letters of Benjamin Rush, 1:211; Reed to Johnstone, June 13, 1778, APS, Sol Feinstone Collection, item 1192; and Richard Henry Lee to John Adams, June 20, 1778, in LDC, 10:153–154 See also Charles Carroll of Carrollton, to Charles Carroll Sr., June 7, 1778, William Henry Drayton to the Carlisle Commissioners, June 17, 1778, and Richard Henry Lee to John Adams, June 20, 1778, in LDC, 10:42, 116–121, 153–154 Franklin to Hartley, Oct 26, 1778, in PBF, 27:629–630 See also Dr Samuel Adams to Sally Preston Adams, Aug 5, 1778, APS, Sol Feinstone Collection, item 29; and George Johnstone to Ferguson, Sept 22, 1778, in Correspondence of Adam Ferguson, 1:185 Adam Ferguson, Henry Clinton, William Eden, and the Earl of Carlisle, Manifesto and Proclamation: To the Members of the Congress, the Members of the General Assemblies or Conventions of the Several Colonies, broadside (New York, 1778) Cobbett, 19:1400, 20:12 See also Pennsylvania Packet; or, The General Advertiser, Oct 29, 1778, 1–2 Extract of a letter from New York, Dec 27, 1778, WLCL, George Sackville Germain Papers, vol 8; Public Advertiser, Jan 2, 1779, 4; [James Ramsay], Plan of Re-Union Between Great Britain and Her Colonies (London, 1778), 94–95; [Joseph Galloway], A Candid Examination of the Mutual Claims of Great-Britain and the Colonies (New York, 1780), 76; and Germain to His Majesty’s Commissioners, Oct 15, 1778, BL, Add Ms 46491, fols 54–55 See also Germain, “Draft to the Commissioners,” July 1778, WLCL, George Sackville Germain Papers, vol 7; Germain to the Commissioners [draft], Nov 4, 1778, extract of a letter from New York, Dec 27, 1778, Ramsey to Germain, “Hints for the Conduct of Britain Towards America in the Proposed New Compromise,” 1778, WLCL, George Sackville Germain Papers, vol 8; Germain to Knox, July 23, 1778, WLCL, William Knox Papers, box 4, fol 17; extract of a letter from the Commissioners for Restoring Peace to Lord George Germain, Mar 8, 1779, WLCL, Alexander Wedderburn Papers, box 1, fol 14; Eden to “My Dear Sir,” Sept 22, 1778, BL, Add Ms 46491, fols 52–53; Cobbett, 19:1397–1398, 20:22; Adam Ferguson, “Notes on the Enquiry into General Sir William Howe’s Conduct in the American War,” May 10, 1779, in Correspondence of Adam Ferguson, 2:566, and London Chronicle, Jan 23, 1777, 85 John Berkenhout, “Journal of an Excursion from New York to Philadelphia in the Year 1778,” July 24, 1778, WLCL, George Sackville Germain Papers, vol See Gouverneur Morris to George Clinton, Sept 2, 1778, Robert Morris to Duane, Sept 8, 1778, in LDC, 10:551, 607; and Rush to Jonathan Bayard Smith, Apr 20, 1778, in Letters of Benjamin Rush, 1:211–212 John Adams to Hendrik Calkoen, Oct 26, 1780, in Papers of John Adams, 10:243 See also Henry Marchant to William Greene, July 20, 1778, John Elmer to Ebenezer Elmer, July 23, 1778, in LDC, 10:323, 340; and the American Commissioners to the Comte de Vergennes, Dec 7, 1778, in Papers of John Adams, 7:259–262 Franklin to Cooper, Apr 22, 1779, Benjamin Franklin, “Of the Paper Money of America,” ca 1780, in PBF, 29:355–356, 34:228– 232 See also John Jay, “Circular Letter from Congress to Their Constituents,” Sept 13, 1779, in Jay Papers, 1:672; Thomas Paine to Dr Samuel Adams, Jan 5, 1778, APS, Sol Feinstone Collection, item 1051; Marchant to John Carter, July 14, 1778, in LDC, 10:279; John Adams to Edmund Jenings, Feb 25, 1780, John Adams to Edme Jacques Genet, May 28, 1780, John Adams to Hendrik Calkoen, Oct 26, 1780, and John Adams to Joan Derk van der Capellen tot den Pol, Jan 21, 1781, in Papers of John 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 Adams, 8:364–365, 9:353–354, 10:235–237, 11:65–66 Benjamin Franklin, Arthur Lee, and John Adams to Price, Oct 6, 1778, and Price to Franklin, Arthur Lee and John Adams, Jan 18, 1779, in Correspondence of Richard Price, 2:29–20, 34–35 John Robinson to George III, Oct 25, 1778, BL, Add Ms 37834, fols 36–37; and Cobbett, 20:990 See also Robinson to George III, Aug 30, 1778 [unsent draft], BL, Add Ms 37833, fols 239–240; William Eden, Letters to the Earl of Carlisle, from William Eden, Esq., 3rd ed (London, 1780), 9–10, 92–101, 111; and [Pulteney], Thoughts, 6, 56 See [Pulteney], Thoughts, 45–48; Eden, Letters, 94, 98, 101–131; and John Berkenhout, Lucubrations on Ways and Means: Humbly Addressed to the Right Hon Lord North (London, 1780), esp 14–52 Berkenhout’s proposal included taxes on beer, bachelors, ice houses, farms, minstrels, fiddlers, dancing masters, masquerades, horse-racing, cockfighting, hair dressers, lawyers, dentists, Jews, boarding schools for young ladies, circulating libraries, milliners, hairpowder, gloves, hats, buckles, lace, ribbons, cloth, silk, cushions worn by ladies on their heads, pistols, guns, dogs, parrots, diamonds, greenhouses, liveries, swords, coats of arms, servants, and saddle horses as well as licenses for pubs, teahouses, chocolate houses, and chophouses There would also be new stamp taxes on cards, prints, charts, engravings, handbills, music, books, and bills of exchange On financing the American War, see Mitchell, British Historical Statistics, 601; and Stephen Dowell, A History of Taxation and Taxes in England: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day, vols (London, 1884), 2:165–176 John Sykes to Almon, Mar 11, Apr 17, 1778, BL, Add Ms 20733, fols 122, 126; and Camden to Stewart, Sept 27, 1779, CKS, U840 C4/6 See also “W.W.” to Almon, Jan 14, 1778, BL, Add Ms 20733, fols 132–133; and Mitchell, British Historical Statistics, 450 David Hartley, Letters on the American War, 5th ed (London, 1779), 1, 3; Joseph Massie, To the Principal Land-Holders of England, and to the Principal Citizens of London, broadside (London, 1779); Hartley, Letters, 3; and London Evening Post, Mar 2, 1779, See also General Advertiser and Morning Intelligencer, Jan 12, 1779, 4; and Public Advertiser, Dec 4, 1778, 1–2 William Knox, “Considerations on the Great Question What Is to Be Done with America? Part the Second,” spring 1778, Galloway to Germain, Mar 18, 1779, WLCL, George Sackville Germain Papers, vols 17, 9; and [Ramsay], Plan of Re-Union, 4–6, 13, 28– 29, 35–36, 42–43, 171, 187 George III to Robinson, Aug 29, 30, 1778, BL, Add Ms 37833, fols 236, 240; and Jenkinson to John Scott, Aug 25, 1778, BL, Add 38306, fol 94 See also Thomas Browne to Germain, Nov 28, 1778, WLCL, George Sackville Germain Papers, vol 8; Henry Addison to Jonathan Boucher, Oct 14, 1778, WLCL, Henry Addison Papers; Robinson to George III [draft], June 7, 1778, BL, Add Ms 37833, fols 227–228; George III to Robinson, Nov 6, 1778, BL, Add Ms 37834, fol 39; Adam Ferguson, “Notes on the Enquiry,” in Correspondence of Adam Ferguson, 2:565; and Eden, Letters, 17 Adam Ferguson, “Memorial Respecting the Measures to be Pursued on the Present Immediate Prospect of a Final Separation of the American Colonys from Great Britain,” in Correspondence of Adam Ferguson, 2:558; Berkenhout, Lucubrations, 16, 63; and Eden, Letters, 56–57 Hartley, Letters, 51 Berkenhout, Lucubrations, 18–19; and “Memorandum of the King’s Speech to his Cabinet,” June 21, 1779, WLCL, William Knox Papers, box 10, fol 26 John Jay, “Circular Letter from Congress to Their Constituents,” Sept 13, 1779, in Jay Papers, 1:667, 674–675 Those excluded from citizenship—slaves, women, Native Americans, and the very poor—fared far worse See Christopher Tomlins, Freedom Bound: Law, Labor, and Civic Identity in Colonizing English America, 1580–1865 (Cambridge, 2006) Henry Laurens to George Washington, Nov 20, 1778, in LDC, 11:229–230 See also Pennsylvania Packet; or, The General Advertiser, Jan 26, 1779, 2–3; Jay, “Circular Letter,” 1:672; and JCC, 15:1135–1136 Robert Morris to Stacey Hepburn, Sept 23, 1779, HEH, Robert Morris Collection, box On the difficulties of the war, see Woody Holton, Unruly Americans and the Origins of the Constitution (New York, 2007); and McDonnell, Politics of War Conclusion Benjamin Rush to David Ramsay, Nov 5, 1778, in Letters of Benjamin Rush, ed L H Butterfield, vols (Princeton, N.J., 1951), 1:219; and David Ramsay, An Oration on the Advantages of American Independence (Charlestown, S.C., 1778), 1–6, 16–19 Ramsay, Oration, 7–19 For one example of radical Whig racism, see An American [Arthur Lee], An Essay in Vindication of the Continental Colonies of America, from a Censure of Mr Adam Smith, in His Theory of Moral Sentiments (London, 1764) Thomas Pownall, A Memorial, Most Humbly Addressed to the Sovereigns of Europe, on the Present State of Affairs, Between the Old and New World, 2nd ed (London, 1780), 3–4, 44, 105–106; John Adams to the President of Congress, Apr 19, 1780, in Papers of John Adams, ed Robert J Taylor et al., 18 vols (Cambridge, Mass., 1977–), 9:164–196; and Thomas Pownall to Samuel Cooper, Apr 19, 1778, HEH, Samuel Cooper Papers, box Richard Price, Observations on the Importance of the American Revolution and the Means of Making It a Benefit to the World (London, 1784), 5–6 10 George III, speech to the HoC, Nov 30, 1774, in The Annual Register, or a View of the History, Politics, and Literature, for the Year 1775 (London, 1783), 40 For the relationship between the American Revolution and conservative critiques of slavery in Britain, see Christopher Leslie Brown, Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism (Chapel Hill, N.C., 2006) On the persistent influence of Britain on the political culture and economy of the nineteenth-century United States, see Sam W Haynes, Unfished Revolution: The Early American Republic in a British World (Charlottesville, Va., 2010) Benjamin Vaughan to William Petty, second Earl of Shelburne, Nov 1, 1782, BL, Add Ms 88906/1/18, fol 255; and Oswald to Shelburne, July 10, 1782, WLCL, Shelburne Papers, vol 70, pp 43–44 See also Richard Oswald to Thomas Townshend, Oct 8, 1782, Richard Oswald, “Minutes of Sundry Articles Recommended in My Instructions, Not Included in the Treaty,” Oct 11, 1782, WLCL, Shelburne Papers, vol 70, pp 299–300, 311–314; “Orders and Instructions to Richard Oswald, Peace Commissioner” [draft], 1782, WLCL, Shelburne Papers, vol 71, pp 14–15; and Vaughan to Shelburne, Jan 5, 1783, BL, Add Ms 88906/1/18, fol 279 On democratization in the new American republic, see Sean Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (New York, 2005) On the very gradual curtailing of slavery in northern United States, see James J Gigantino II, The Ragged Road to Abolition: Slavery and Freedom in New Jersey, 1775–1865 (Philadelphia, 2014) On economic development, see Gavin Wright, “The Role of Nationhood in the Economic Development of the USA,” in Economic Change and the Nation State in History, ed Alice Teichova and Herbert Matis (Cambridge, 2003), 387–403 On growing inequality, see Peter Lindert and Jeffrey Williamson, “American Incomes, 1774–1860,” NBER Working Paper, no 18396 (Sept 2012) On the legal constraints to freedom in the new republic, see Christopher Tomlins, Freedom Bound: Law, Labor, and Civic Identity in Colonizing English America, 1580–1865 (Cambridge, 2010); and Christopher Tomlins, Law, Labor, and Ideology in the Early American Republic (Cambridge, 1993) On the symbiotic relationship between slavery and the American state, see David Ericson, Slavery in the American Republic: Developing the Federal Government, 1791–1861 (Lawrence, Kans., 2011); Padraig Riley, Slavery and the Democratic Conscience: Political Life in Jeffersonian America (Philadelphia, 2015); and George William Van Cleve, A Slaveholders’ Union: Slavery, Politics, and the Constitution in the Early American Republic (Chicago, 2010) On the tensions between liberalism, exclusion, and authoritarianism in American history, see Gary Gerstle, Liberty and Coercion: The Paradox of American Government (Princeton, N.J., 2015); Aziz Rana, The Two Faces of American Freedom (Cambridge, Mass., 2010); and Rogers M Smith, Civic Ideals: Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in U.S History (New Haven, Conn., 1999) Index Abercromby, James, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Abingdon, fourth Earl of (Willoughby Bertie), (i), (ii), (iii) Adams, John, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii); advocacy for government-sponsored manufacturing, (i); criticism of the Stamp Act, (i), (ii); defense of mobs, (i); and the Howe Commission, (i); opposition to price controls, (i); republicanism of, (i); support for high taxes, (i), (ii); Thoughts on Government, (i) Adams, Samuel, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) Administration of Justice Act (1774), (i) Albany plan, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Allason, William, (i) Almon, John, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) American Independence, (i); attachment to, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); economic, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); European reactions to, (i), (ii), (iii); precariousness of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); republicanism and, (i) American Revolution: causes of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii); as unexceptional, (i); economic interpretation, (i); and equality, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix); as libertarian, (i); compared to other revolutions, (i); and state building, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); and support for government, (i), (ii), (iii) American War of Independence, (i); American confidence during, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); colonial difficulties, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); economic consequence in Britain, (i); inflation, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); violence against loyalists, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) Amherst, Jeffery, (i) Anderson, Fred, (i) Andrews, Charles M., (i), (ii), (iii) “Anti-Sejanus” (James Scott), (i), (ii), (iii) Articles of Confederation, (i), (ii); and foreign assistance, (i); and pubic borrowing, (i); and slavery, (i), (ii)n49; and taxation, (i), (ii)n49, (iii)nn50 & 53 Auchmuty, Robert, (i), (ii) austerity, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv), (xv)n28 See also under authoritarian reformers authoritarian reformers, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)n27; and austerity, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi); attacks on colonial boycotts, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); and colonial democracy, (i), (ii), (iii); and colonial subordination, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x); and colonial taxation, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii); confidence in the British war effort against America, (i); and consumption, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); critique of Whig governance, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi); criticism of elites for encouraging disorder, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi); criticism of colonial behavior, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv), (xv), (xvi), (xvii); desire to emulate France, (i), (ii); dislike of Chatham and his allies, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); and East India Company reform, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); economic views, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi); efforts to negotiate with rebellious colonies, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); and excise taxes, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); faith in the better sort of colonists, (i), (ii); fear of colonial development, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); fear of colonial independence, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi); foreign policy of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); and George III, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi); and geopolitical rivalry with France, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi); and imperial expenses, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi); inability to achieve reforms, (i), (ii); and liberty, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii); and militia reform, (i); and Native Americans, (i), (ii); and North’s conciliatory resolution, (i); opposition to republicanism, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); opposition to westward expansion, (i), (ii); and parliamentary sovereignty, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix); perception of anarchy in revolutionary America, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); political strategy, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); and public debt, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv), (xv), (xvi), (xvii), (xviii); and regulating colonial trade, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); responses to disorder, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii); and Stamp Act, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv), (xv), (xvi), (xvii); strengthening colonial government, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix); support for low wages and inequality, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); support for military intervention in North America, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x); and Tory influence, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); vision of empire, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix); and weakness of colonial government, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) authoritarianism, (i), (ii)n6 Baker, William, (i), (ii) Bank of England, (i) Barclay, David, (i) Barnard, John, Sir, (i), (ii) Barnard, Thomas, (i) Barré, Isaac, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) Barrington, William Wildman (second Viscount), (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Battle of Saratoga, (i), (ii) Beckford, William, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x)n65 Bedford, fourth Duke of (John Russell), (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii); and austerity, (i); authoritarian reform, (i), (ii), (iii); influence in Grafton administration, (i); rioting against, (i); support for the Militia Act, (i) Bengal, (i); famine, (i) Berkenhout, John, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Bernard, Francis, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Bland, Richard, (i) Board of Trade, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Bolingbroke, Viscount (Henry St John), (i), (ii)n13 Bollan, William, (i) Boston: manufacturing, (i); occupation of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); tea party, (i), (ii), (iii); town meeting, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Boston Massacre, (i) Boston Port Act, (i), (ii), (iii) Boston Society for Encouraging Trade and Commerce, (i) Boucher, Jonathan, (i) Bouquet, Henry, (i), (ii), (iii) Bourbon reforms, (i) Braddock, Edward, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Breen, T H., (i) Britain: eighteenth-century transformation of, (i), (ii); electoral system, (i); fiscal health, (i)n57; increasing conservatism, (i), (ii), (iii) British East India Company See East India Company Brown, John, (i), (ii) Burgoyne, John, (i) Burke, Edmund, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); attack on the Carlisle Commission, (i); conciliatory motion, (i); criticism of, (i); defense of the East India Company, (i); and elite rule, (i); and “influence,” (i); preference for West Indian colonies, (i); Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents, (i); views on colonial taxation, (i) Burke, Thomas, (i), (ii), (iii) Burke, William, (i) Bute, third Earl of (John Stuart), (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); administration of, (i); and authoritarian reform, (i); attacks on, (i), (ii); and the Enlightenment, (i); influence at the accession of George III, (i), (ii) Camden, first Earl of (Charles Pratt), (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii); colonial popularity, (i); criticism of, (i), (ii); drafting of the Ohio colony’s constitution, (i) Canada, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Cannon, James, (i) capitalism, history of, (i) Carroll, Charles (of Carrollton), (i) Cartwright, John, (i) Caribbean, (i), (ii), (iii); and revenue collection, (i); trade with, (i), (ii); unpopularity of the Stamp Act in, (i), (ii), (iii); unwillingness to revolt, (i), (ii) Carlisle Commission, (i); attacks on Continental Congress, (i); failure of, (i); origins of, (i); promises of peace for obedience, (i) Carlisle, fifth Earl of (Frederick Howard), (i) Cato’s Letters (Trenchard and Gordon), (i), (ii) Chamier, Anthony, (i) Champion, Richard, (i), (ii) Chandler, Thomas, (i) Chatham, first Earl of (William Pitt), (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii); administration of, (i), (ii); aggressive foreign and military policy, (i); criticism of the Stamp Act, (i), (ii); criticism of authoritarian imperial reform, (i); collaboration with Franklin, (i), (ii), (iii); concerns about colonial disorder, (i); criticism of Lord North’s conciliatory resolution, (i); defense of the American Congress, (i); desire for peace with the rebellious colonies, (i); and the East India Company, (i), (ii), (iii); and electoral reform, (i); frustrations with establishment Whigs, (i); funeral of, (i); and military force in the colonies, (i), (ii); and militia reform, (i), (ii); opposition to the Treaty of Paris, (i); plan for reconciliation with the colonies, (i); popularity in America, (i), (ii), (iii); as radical Whig, (i); and reimbursement of the colonies, (i), (ii), (iii); as secretary of state, (i); unwillingness to accept American independence, (i); views on imperial governance, (i), (ii), (iii); and Wilkes, (i) Chauncy, Charles, (i), (ii) Cholmondeley, George (third Earl of), (i) Church of England, (i) cider tax, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) cities, and colonial taxation, (i) Clarendon, first Earl of (Thomas Villiers), (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Clarke, William, (i), (ii) Clarkson, David, (i) Clive, Robert, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Cohen, Sheldon S., (i) Colden, Cadwallader, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii) Colebrooke, George, (i) Colley, Linda, (i) Colley, Thomas, The Reconciliation Between Britania and Her Daughter America, (i) colonial boycott, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); and the Association, (i); and British manufacturing, (i), (ii); and colonial manufacturing, (i); as colonial self-sufficiency, (i); limited effectiveness of, (i); moderate criticisms of, (i) colonial money shortage, (i), (ii), (iii) colonial assemblies: clashes with colonial executives, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); criticisms of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix); defenses of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); demands for fiscal autonomy, (i), (ii); negotiations with governors, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); willingness to raise funds, (i) colonial union, (i); Albany plan, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) colonies, American: British hostility toward, (i); and fiscal independence, (i), (ii); and fiscal-military state building, (i), (ii); growing similarity to Britain, (i); lobbying of Parliament, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); and manufacturing, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii); resistance against British taxation, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii); and trade, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv), (xv), (xvi), (xvii), (xviii), (xix), (xx), (xxi), (xxii), (xxiii), (xxiv), (xxv), (xxvi), (xxvii) colonists, American: English identity of, (i), (ii); familiarity with British debates, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii); and raising funds for imperial expenses, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); sense of economic vulnerability, (i) Connecticut, (i), (ii), (iii) conservatism, (i), (ii) Continental Congress: borrowing, (i), (ii); boycott of British goods, (i); Chatham’s praise of, (i); and economic management, (i); diplomatic efforts, (i); efforts at conciliation, (i); encourages colonial manufacturing, (i); Hamilton’s defense of, (i); limited powers of, (i); measures against counterfeiting, (i); military mobilization, (i); and paper money, (i); and raising money, (i); struggle for American loyalty, (i), (ii); and taxation, (i), (ii), (iii) Conway, Henry Seymour, (i), (ii), (iii) Cooper, Samuel, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Cornwall, Frederick, (i) Crisis, The, (i) Cumberland, Duke of (William Augustus), (i), (ii), (iii) Currency Act (1751), (i), (ii) Currency Act (1764), (i); colonial frustrations with, (i); economic consequences of, (i) Curwen, Samuel, (i) Cushing, Thomas, (i) customs duties, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) Dalrymple, John, (i) Dampier, Thomas, (i) Dartmouth, second Earl of (William Legge), (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); seeking peace with the colonies, (i); support for Ohio colony, (i) Dashwood, Francis, Sir, (i), (ii) Davenant, Charles, (i) Dawkins, Henry, (i) De Berdt, Dennys, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Decker, Matthew, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); universal tax on houses, (i), (ii) Declaration of Independence, (i), (ii), (iii); Adam Smith’s response to, (i) Declaratory Act, (i), (ii), (iii) Delany, Daniel, (i) Denbigh, Earl of (Basil Feilding), (i), (ii) Denny, William, (i) Dickinson, John, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania to the Inhabitants of the British Colonies, (i) Dickson, H T., (i) Dinwiddie, Robert, (i), (ii); and pistole fee, (i) diwani of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Douglass, William, (i) Dowdeswell, William, (i) Draper, Richard, (i) Drayton, William Henry, (i) Drinker, Henry, (i), (ii) Duane, James, (i), (ii) Dulany, Daniel, (i), (ii) Dunlap, William, (i) Dupplin, Lord (Thomas Hay), (i) East India Company, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii)n18; attacked in the American colonies, (i), (ii); and Parliamentary Inquiry, (i); revenue of, (i); and reducing Britain’s debts, (i) economic downturn (of the mid-1760s), (i) economic institutions, (i) economic growth, (i) Eden, William, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) Egmont, second Earl of (John Perceval), (i) Elliot, Hugh, (i) Ellis, Henry, (i) empire: concept of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); and the United States, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii) Enlightenment, (i), (ii) equality, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv), (xv), (xvi), (xvii), (xviii) establishment Whigs, (i), (ii), (iii); and colonial liberties, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); common ground with radical Whigs, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv); conservatism of, (i), (ii), (iii); and corruption in British politics, (i); criticism of political opposition, (i), (ii); criticism of war against American colonies, (i), (ii); defense of the British economy, (i); defense of the East India Company, (i), (ii); and fiscal-military state, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); foreign policy views, (i), (ii), (iii); and inequality, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); opposition to austerity, (i), (ii), (iii); opposition to colonial taxation, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii); opposition to the Stamp Act, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); opposition to using military force against the colonies, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); and overseas trade and empire, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi); and Parliament’s right to tax colonies, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); and patronage politics, (i), (ii); and popular politics, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); and public debt, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); and regressive taxation, (i), (ii); relations with authoritarian reformers, (i); support for a professional military, (i); support for Wilkes, (i), (ii); tensions with radical Whigs, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv), (xv); ties to London finance, (i), (ii) Eton, (i) excise, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii)n48 Fauquier, Francis, (i), (ii) Ferguson, Adam, (i), (ii), (iii) fiscal austerity See austerity fiscal-military state, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv), (xv), (xvi) Fothergill, John, (i), (ii) Fox, Charles James, (i), (ii) Fox, Henry, (i), (ii), (iii) France, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii); alliance with the United States, (i), (ii); colonies of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Franklin, Benjamin, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii); and Anglo-American reconciliation, (i), (ii); appearances in the House of Lords, (i), (ii); assessment of British politics, (i), (ii); collaboration with Chatham, (i), (ii); confidence in the American war effort, (i); confidence in the continental currency, (i), (ii); criticism of North’s conciliatory resolution, (i); criticism of the Carlisle Commission, (i), (ii); and land speculation, (i); lobbying against the Stamp Act, (i); opposition to slavery, (i); as radical Whig, (i), (ii); rejection of Britain, (i), (ii); views on inflation, (i); and westward expansion, (i), (ii); writings in the British press, (i) Frederick the Great, (i) French and Indian War See Seven Years’ War French Revolution, (i) “friends of government.” See loyalists Gage, Thomas, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) Galloway, Joseph, (i), (ii), (iii); proposed imperial reforms of, (i); plan of reconciliation, (i) general warrants, (i), (ii) George III, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv); relationship with authoritarian reform, (i), (ii), (iii) Germain, George, (i), (ii), (iii) Gideon, Samson, (i) Glorious Revolution, (i), (ii), (iii) Glyn, John, (i) Gould, Eliga, (i) Grafton, third Duke of (Augustus Henry Fitzroy), (i), (ii); administration of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); colonial criticism of, (i) Granville, John Carteret, (i) Gray, Thomas, (i) Greene, Jack P., (i) Greenough, Thomas, (i) Grenville, George, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii); and austerity, (i), (ii), (iii); Bengal revenue, (i), (ii); customs enforcement, (i), (ii); colonial disorder, (i), (ii); and colonial reform, (i), (ii), (iii); constitutional concerns, (i), (ii); economic views, (i); empire, (i); fear of public debt, (i); foreign policy views, (i); as gentle shepherd, (i); licentiousness in Britain, (i), (ii), (iii); relationship with George III, (i), (ii); and the Stamp Act, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); support for colonial taxes to replace Stamp Act, (i), (ii) Grosvenor, Lord (Richard), (i) Halifax, second Earl of (George Montague Dunk), (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) Hall, David, (i) Hallowell, Benjamin, (i) Hamilton, Alexander, (i) Hancock, John, (i) Hardwicke, first Earl of (Philip Yorke), (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), Hardwicke, second Earl of (Philip Yorke), (i) Hartley, David, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); The Budget, (i), (ii) Herries, Michael, (i) Hillsborough, Earl of (Wills Hill), (i), (ii), (iii); objections to western settlement, (i) Hogarth, William, (i); Gin Lane, (i); Beer Street, (i); The Times, (i), (ii) Hollis, Thomas, (i), (ii) Hopkins, Stephen, (i), (ii) Hose, John, (i) Hovering Act, (i), (ii); colonial opposition to, (i); economic consequences of, (i) Howard, Martin, (i), (ii) Howe, Richard (Earl of), (i), (ii) Howe, William, (i), (ii) Howe Peace Commission, (i), (ii), (iii) Hughes, John, (i) Hulton, Ann, (i) Hulton, Henry, (i), (ii) Hume, David, (i) Hutchinson, Thomas, (i) ideology: as a concept, (i), (ii), (iii) industrial revolution, (i) inequality, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii)n97 Izard, Ralph, (i) Jackson, Richard, (i) Jacobitism, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi) Jamaica, (i), (ii) James, Abel, (i) Jay, John, (i), (ii), (iii) Jefferson, Thomas, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) Jenkinson, Charles, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii); proposal to reform the colonies, (i) Jennyns, Soame, (i) Jewish Naturalization Act, (i) Johnson, John, (i) Johnson, Samuel, (i) Johnson, William (first Baronet), (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Johnstone, George, (i), (ii) “Junius,” (i), (ii), (iii) Keith, William, (i) Kennedy, Archibald, (i), (ii) Knox, William, (i), (ii), (iii); colonial reforms, (i), (ii); strategy for ending the American War of Independence, (i) landed interest, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii); support for colonial taxation, (i) land speculation, (i), (ii), (iii) land tax, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x) Laurens, Henry, (i), (ii) Lee, Arthur, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Lee, Charles, (i) Lee, Francis Lightfoot, (i) Lee, Richard Henry, (i), (ii), (iii) Leicester House, (i) Leonard, Daniel, (i) Livermore, Samuel, (i) Livingston, Robert R., (i), (ii) Locke, John, (i), (ii), (iii) Loudoun, fourth Earl of (John Campbell), (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) loyalists, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii) Lynch, Thomas, (i) MacLean, Daniel, (i) Mansfield, Earl of (William Murray), (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Martin, Joseph, (i) Martin, Josiah, (i) Martin, Samuel, (i), (ii) Mason, George, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Massachusetts, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii); and taxation, (i) Massachusetts Government Act, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Massie, Joseph, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) Matlack, Timothy, (i) Mauduit, Israel, (i) Maunsell, John, (i), (ii) Mayhew, Jonathan, (i), (ii), (iii) McCulloh, Henry, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) McKean, Thomas, (i) Mein, John, (i), (ii) Meredith, William, (i), (ii) Mifflin, Thomas, (i) militia reform, (i) Mississippi Land Company, (i) moderate colonists, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); criticism of parliamentary taxation, (i); and fear of disorder, (i), (ii), (iii); views on imperial trade, (i) Monitor; or, The British Freeholder, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Montesquieu, (i) Morgan, Edmund and Helen, (i) Morgann, Maurice, (i) Morris, Gouverneur, (i), (ii) Morris, Robert, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Mughal Empire, (i), (ii) Murray, James, (i), (ii) Mutiny Act, (i), (ii) Namier, Lewis, (i), (ii)n11 Native Americans, (i), (ii) Navigation Acts, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)n40 Newcastle, Thomas Pelham-Holles, first Duke of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv); criticism of the Stamp Act, (i), (ii), (iii); and mobs, (i) Newcastle-Pitt Ministry, (i), (ii), (iii) Newell, Margaret Ellen, (i) New York, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); state constitution, (i); manufacturing, (i) North, Frederick, Lord North, (i), (ii), (iii); administration of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); authoritarian reform, (i), (ii); colonial criticism of, (i); colonial taxation, (i); conciliatory resolution, (i), (ii); East India Company reform, (i); efforts to suppress disorder, (i); efforts to fund the American War without borrowing, (i); desire to avoid war, (i); seeking peace, (i), (ii) nonexportation See colonial boycott nonimportation See colonial boycott Ohio Company, (i) Oliver, Andrew, (i), (ii) Oliver, Peter, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Onslow, George, (i) Osborn, Danvers, (i) Oswald, Richard, (i) Otis, James, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x) Paine, Thomas, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); American Crisis, (i); Common Sense, (i); support for Pennsylvania state constitution, (i), (ii) Paoli, Pasquale, (i) Parker, James (printer), (i), (ii) Parker, James (trader), (i) parliamentary sovereignty, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv), (xv), (xvi), (xvii) party politics, (i), (ii), (iii) patriotism, (i) Peale, Charles Willson, (i) Pelham, Henry, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) Pemberton, James, (i) Pennsylvania, (i), (ii); colonial political controversies, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); debate over state constitution, (i) Penn, Thomas, (i), (ii) petitioning, (i), (ii), (iii); against American taxation, (i), (ii), (iii) pistole fee, (i)n116 Pitt, William See Chatham, first Earl of popular protest: American, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii); British, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), political economy, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv), (xv), (xvi), (xvii) Postlethwayt, Malachy, (i), (ii) Pownall, John, (i) Pownall, Thomas, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x); Administration of the Colonies, (i)n116; criticism of the East India Company, (i); proposed Ohio colony, (i), Memorial, Most Humbly Addressed to the Sovereigns of Europe, (ii) Price, Richard, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); invitation to manage Congress’s finances, (i); Observations on the Nature of Civil Liberty, (i), (ii); and public debt, (i), (ii) price controls, (i) Priestley, Joseph, (i) Privy Council, (i) progressive historians, (i) public debt, (i), (ii) Pulteney, William, (i), (ii) Quartering Act, (i), (ii) Quincy, Edmund, (i), (ii) radical Whigs, (i), (ii), (iii); attacks on the Grafton administration, (i); and British criticism of the American War, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii); and British manufacturing, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); and British support for American independence, (i), (ii); and class politics, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); and consumption, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); and colonial manufacturing, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi); and colonial representation in Parliament, (i), (ii), (iii)n39; and colonial rights, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); common ground with establishment Whigs, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii); constitutional views, (i), (ii), (iii); and corruption, (i), (ii), (iii); critique of Whig elites, (i); criticism of the East India Company, (i), (ii), (iii); fear of authoritarian reform, (i), (ii), (iii); and fiscal-military state, (i), (ii); and foreign policy, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); and France, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); and government accountability to the public, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii); and government’s obligation to support the public’s welfare, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii); and the land tax, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); and liberalism, (i); limited egalitarianism, (i); and militia, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi)n26; and moral decline, (i); and the Navigation Acts, (i); opposition to austerity, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); opposition to excise taxes, (i), (ii); opposition to parliamentary taxation of the colonies, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv), (xv)n116; opposition to the Stamp Act, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); opposition to using military force against the colonies, (i), (ii), (iii); and oppressive taxation, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); political economic views, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii); and political liberty, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv), (xv); and political reform, (i), (ii), (iii); and popular protest, (i), (ii); and popular sovereignty, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii); and public debt, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); and republicanism, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); and requisitions as a means of raising colonial revenue, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); and slavery, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); and standing armies, (i); and state-sponsored manufacturing, (i), (ii); tensions with establishment Whigs, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); transatlantic connections, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix); vision of empire, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii); and western settlement, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Ramsay, David, (i), (ii) Ramsay, James, (i), (ii) Randolph, John, (i) Reed, Joseph, (i), (ii) republican imperialism, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x) republicanism, (i), (ii) Revenue Act (1766), (i) Revere, Paul, (i), (ii) Richmond, Duke of (Charles Lennox), (i) Rigby, Richard, (i) rioting: American, (i), (ii), (iii); British, (i), (ii), (iii) Robinson, Thomas, (i) Rockingham, Charles Watson-Wentworth, second Marquess of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix); opposition to Britain’s war against its colonies, (i); and Declaratory Act, (i); defense of the East India Company, (i); ministry of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); negotiations with authoritarian reformers, (i); opposition to austerity, (i); popularity of, (i); and repeal of the Stamp Act, (i), (ii), (iii); support for Wilkes, (i) Ruggels, Timothy, (i) Rush, Benjamin, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); Observations upon the Present Government of Pennsylvania, (i) Rutledge, Andrew, (i) Rutledge, Edward, (i) Saint George’s Fields massacre, (i), (ii) salutary neglect, (i), (ii) Sandwich, Earl of (John Montagu), (i), (ii) Sawbridge, John, (i) Scott, James (“Anti-Sejanus”), (i), (ii), (iii) Seven Years’ War, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); and borrowing, (i); and British political debate, (i); colonial cooperation, (i), (ii), (iii); colonial political debate, (i); colonial property rights, (i); and early British setbacks, (i), (ii); expense of, (i), (ii); and French encroachment, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); and peace negotiation, (i); and political divisions, (i), (ii), (iii); and postwar colonial recession, (i); and requisition and reimbursements, (i), (ii), (iii); and taxation, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x) Sharpe, Horatio, (i) Shebbeare, John, (i), (ii), (iii) Shelburne, William Petty, second Earl of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii); and electoral reform, (i) Shipley, Jonathan, (i) Shirley, William, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), slavery, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x)n14; as unrepresentative taxation, (i), (ii), (iii) Smith, Adam, (i), (ii), (iii) Smith, William, (i) Smith, William, Jr., (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Smyth, Frederick, (i) Sons of Liberty, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) Spanish Empire, (i), (ii) Stamp Act, (i); American opposition to, (i), (ii); American support of, (i), (ii); as an attack on consumption, (i); as authoritarian reform, (i), (ii), (iii); and Britain’s public finances, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii); celebration of repeal, (i), (ii); and colonial obedience, (i), (ii); and colonial printing industry, (i); colonial protests against, (i), (ii), (iii); and colonists’ inability to pay, (i); and Declaratory Act, (i); economic consequences of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)n30; establishment Whig opposition to, (i), (ii), (iii); and imperial expenses, (i); as imperial reform, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); introduction of, (i); and military expenses, (i), (ii); moderate opposition to, (i); parliamentary inquiry into, (i); parliamentary representation, (i); passage of, (i); perceived economic consequences in Britain, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); petitions against, (i), (ii); press campaign against, (i); and preventing land speculation, (i), (ii); and public opinion, (i); as regressive, (i), (ii), (iii); repeal of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); right of Parliament to tax, (i), (ii); as social reform, (i), (ii); and sovereignty, (i); and Stamp Act Congress, (i), (ii); as a tax on legal services, (i), (ii); transatlantic opposition to, (i), (ii), (iii); in the West Indies, (i) state building, (i); American, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); and economic growth, (i) Stiles, Ezra, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii) Strachey, Henry, (i) Sugar Act, (i), (ii); colonial opposition to, (i) Sykes, John, (i) taxation, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); of Britain, (i), (ii), (iii); in the colonies, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); of the colonies by Parliament, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv), (xv), (xvi), (xvii), (xviii), (xix), (xx), (xxi), (xxii), (xxiii), (xxiv), (xxv), (xxvi), (xxvii), (xxviii), (xxix), (xxx), (xxxi); and inequality, (i), (ii); progressive, (i), (ii); regressive, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii); and representation, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); as social control, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii); and sovereignty, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii); in the United States, (i), (ii), (iii); as unjust, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Temple, Earl of (Richard Grenville), (i) Temple, John, (i) Thompson, John, (i) Thurlow, Alexander, (i) Tilghman, William, (i) Tories, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x) Townshend, Charles, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), and colonial taxation, (vii); and East India Company, (i); efforts to reduce colonial independence, (i) Townshend, third Viscount (Charles), (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Townshend duties, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); colonial opposition to, (i), (ii), (iii); repeal of, (i), (ii), (iii) trade regulation See Navigation Acts Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, (i), (ii) Treaty of Paris (1763), (i), (ii), (iii) Treaty of Utrecht (1713), (i) Trecothick, Barlow, (i), (ii), (iii) Trenchard, John, (i), (ii) Tucker, Josiah, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Turgot, Anne-Robert Jacques, (i) United States, (i), (ii); constitution, (i); economic growth of, (i); egalitarian aspirations, (i), (ii), (iii); as republican empire, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); state building, (i), (ii), (iii) Vandalia See Ohio Company Vaughn, Benjamin, (i) Vergennes, Comte de (Charles Gravie), (i) Villiers, Thomas See Clarendon, first Earl of Virginia, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x) Waln, Richard, (i) Walpole, Horace, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Walpole, Robert, (i) Walpole, Thomas, (i), (ii) Ward, Samuel, (i) War of Austrian Succession, (i), (ii); in the American colonies, (i) Warren, Joseph, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Warren, Mercy Otis, (i), (ii) Washington, George, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); as commander in chief of the Continental Army, (i) Watts, John, (i), (ii) Wedderburn, Alexander, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Wentworth, Benning, (i) West Indies See Caribbean Wharton, Samuel, (i) Whately, Thomas, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); Regulations Lately Made, (i) Wheelwright, Nathaniel, (i) Whig Party, (i) Whittlesey, Chauncey, (i) Wilkes, John, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi) Williams, William, (i) Wilson, James, (i) Witherspoon, John, (i), (ii), (iii) Wood, Gordon, (i) Woodhouse, Armine, (i) Yorke, Charles, (i), (ii)n27 Yorke, Joseph, (i) Young, Thomas, (i) ... Figures, and a Note on the Text Introduction: Enlightened Empire? Britain’s Controversial Empire Taxing America The Seven Years’ War and the Politics of Empire The Rise and Fall of the Stamp... intellectuals, and prominent clergymen, all expressed these views Making sense of the twists and turns of imperial politics requires pushing the origins of the American Revolution back to the mid–eighteenth... Concord, the storming of Bunker Hill, and the signing of the American Declaration of Independence signaled that the age of imperial exploitation was coming to an end Adam Smith, Benjamin Franklin, and