Advanced oxidation processes for water treatment fundamentals and applications tủ tài liệu bách khoa

Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS Edited by Mihaela I Stefan Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment Fundamentals and Applications Edited by Mihaela I Stefan Published by IWA Publishing Alliance House 12 Caxton Street London SW1H 0QS, UK Telephone: +44 (0)20 7654 5500 Fax: +44 (0)20 7654 5555 Email: publications@iwap.co.uk Web: www.iwapublishing.com First published 2018 © 2018 IWA Publishing Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act (1998), no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publisher, or, in the case of photographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licenses issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licenses issued by the appropriate reproduction rights organization outside the UK Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to IWA Publishing at the address printed above The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for errors or omissions that may be made Disclaimer The information provided and the opinions given in this publication are not necessarily those of IWA and should not be acted upon without independent consideration and professional advice IWA and the Editors and Authors will not accept responsibility for any loss or damage suffered by any person acting or refraining from acting upon any material contained in this publication British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 9781780407180 (Paperback) ISBN: 9781780407197 (eBook) Cover images: TrojanUV system at Orange County Water District, CA, USA Courtesy of Dr George Tchobanoglous, UC Davis, CA, USA RO Membrane filtration system at Orange County Water District, CA, USA Courtesy of OCWD WEDECO PDO 1000 ozone generator installed at Sung-Nam water treatment plant, South Korea Courtesy of WEDECO, a Xylem brand All other images from istockphoto.com To all of those who dream big, believe in themselves and work hard to make a difference in the world My thoughts go to my parents who taught me the value of perseverance despite humble beginnings and to my family who supported me on this journey Mihaela I Stefan August 3, 2017 Contents About the Editor   xvii List of Contributors xix Preface xxiii Chapter A few words about Water    Mihaela I Stefan 1.1 References   4 Chapter UV/Hydrogen peroxide process   Mihaela I Stefan 2.1 Introduction   7 2.2 Electromagnetic Radiation, Photochemistry Laws and Photochemical Parameters   8 2.2.1 Electromagnetic radiation   8 2.2.2 Photochemistry laws   9 2.2.3 Photochemical parameters   11 2.3 UV Radiation Sources   15 2.3.1 Blackbody radiation   15 2.3.2 Mercury vapor-based UV light sources for water treatment   16 2.3.3 Mercury-free UV lamps   21 2.4 UV/H2O2 Process Fundamentals   23 2.4.1 Photolysis of hydrogen peroxide   23 2.4.2 Hydroxyl radical   27 2.4.3 Rate constants of •OH reactions with organic and inorganic compounds   32 viii Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment 2.5 Kinetic Modeling of UV/H2O2 Process   39 2.5.1 Pseudo-steady-state approximation and dynamic kinetic models   40 2.5.2 Computational fluid dynamics models for the UV/H2O2 process   46 2.6 Water Quality Impact on UV/H2O2 Process Performance   47 2.6.1 pH   48 2.6.2 Temperature   48 2.6.3 Water matrix composition   48 2.7 Performance Metrics for UV Light-Based AOPs   50 2.7.1 Electrical energy per order   50 2.7.2 UV Fluence (UV dose)   52 2.8 UV/H2O2 AOP Equipment Design and Implementation   55 2.8.1 UV Reactor design concepts   55 2.8.2 Sizing full-scale UV equipment from bench- and pilot-scale   57 2.8.3 Incorporating the UV light-based processes into water treatment trains   59 2.9 UV/H2O2 AOP for Micropollutant Treatment in Water   60 2.9.1 Laboratory-scale research studies   61 2.9.2 Pilot-scale tests   76 2.9.3 Full-scale UV/H2O2 AOP installations   82 2.9.4 Process economics, sustainability and life-cycle assessment   88 2.10 Byproduct Formation and Mitigation Strategies   93 2.11 Future Research Needs   99 2.12 Acknowledgments   100 2.13 References   100 Chapter Application of ozone in water and wastewater treatment 123 Daniel Gerrity, Fernando L Rosario-Ortiz, and Eric C Wert 3.1 Introduction  . 123 3.2 Properties of Ozone   123 3.3 Decomposition of Ozone in Water   124 3.4 Ozonation for Contaminant Removal   126 3.4.1 Overview   126 3.4.2 Direct reactions with ozone   126 3.4.3 Impact of water quality on process performance   129 3.4.4 Summary   138 3.5 Formation of Byproducts   139 3.6 Microbiological Applications   140 3.6.1 Disinfection in drinking water and wastewater applications   140 3.6.2 Microbial surrogates and indicators   141 3.6.3 Ozone dosing frameworks for disinfection   142 3.6.4 Vegetative bacteria   144 3.6.5 Viruses  . 146 3.6.6 Spore-forming microbes   147 3.7 Implementation at Full Scale Facilities   149 3.7.1 Ozone systems   149 Contents ix 3.7.2 Ozone contactor   149 3.7.3 Mass transfer efficiency   149 3.7.4 Cost estimates   150 3.7.5 Process control   152 3.8 Case Studies and Regulatory Drivers   153 3.8.1 Drinking water applications   153 3.8.2 Wastewater and potable reuse applications   154 3.9 References  . 156 Chapter Ozone/H2O2 and ozone/UV processes   163 Alexandra Fischbacher, Holger V Lutze and Torsten C Schmidt 4.1 Introduction  . 163 4.2 O3/H2O2 (Peroxone) Process Fundamentals   163 4.2.1 Mechanism of hydroxyl radical generation   163 4.2.2 O3 and •OH exposures: the Rct concept   165 4.2.3 Reaction kinetics and modeling   167 4.2.4 Water quality impact on process performance: O3 and H2O2 dose selection criteria   169 4.3 O3/H2O2 AOP for Micropollutant Removal   170 4.3.1 Bench-scale research studies   170 4.3.2 Pilot-scale studies   172 4.3.3 Full-scale applications   176 4.3.4 Process economics and limitations   180 4.4 O3/UV Process   182 4.4.1 Process fundamentals   182 4.4.2 Research studies and applications   184 4.5 Byproduct Formation and Mitigation Strategies   185 4.5.1 O3/H2O2 process   185 4.5.2 O3/UV process   187 4.6 Disinfection  . 188 4.7 References   190 Chapter Vacuum UV radiation-driven processes   195 Tünde Alapi, Krisztina Schrantz, Eszter Arany and Zsuzsanna Kozmér 5.1 Fundamental Principles of Vacuum UV Processes   195 5.1.1 VUV radiation sources for water treatment   195 5.1.2 VUV irradiation of water   201 5.2 Kinetics and Reaction Modeling   206 5.2.1 Reactions and role of primary and secondary formed reactive species   206 5.2.2 Kinetics and mechanistic modeling of VUV AOP   207 5.3 Vacuum UV Radiation for Water Remediation   208 Iron-based green technologies for water remediation 673 (HFeO4 −  H+ + FeO42−, pKa3 = 7.23 (Sharma et  al 2001)) and the oxidation of compounds slowed down with increasing pH Figure 17.1  ​Second-order rate constants and half-lives (t1/2) for the reactions of Fe(VI) with (a) selected micropollutants and (b) organic model compounds as a function of pH (5 − 11) and at T = 23 ± 2°C The symbols represent the measured data, and the lines represent the model fits from the present study The half-lives are calculated for a Fe(VI) concentration of 5 mg Fe L−1 (90 µM) (adapted from (Lee et al 2009) with the permission of the American Chemical Society) The second-order rate constants for the reactions of Fe(VI) with various emerging contaminants at pH 7.0 are summarized in Table 17.3 The values of k2 for oxidation of EDCs at pH 7.0 were determined in the range of 6.5 × 102–7.9 × 103 M−1s−1 with corresponding half-lives varying from 1.7 s – 21.2 s at Fe(VI) dosage of 10 mg/L (Table 17.3) In the oxidation of PPCPs by Fe(VI), a large variation in the values of of k2 was found (1.8 × 101 − 1.5 × 103 M−1s−1 at pH 7.0) The calculated half-lives for most of the PPCPs were in the order of seconds (Table 17.3) The data in Table 17.3 indicates that a large number of compounds can be oxidized efficiently by Fe(VI) The second-order rate constants for oxidation of micropollutants by O3 are also reported in Table 17.3, which are 3–4 orders of magnitude higher than those of Fe(VI) Most of the contaminants could be removed by O3 in less than a second (Table 17.3) Elimination of emerging contaminants by O3 is therefore more efficient than Fe(VI) It should be pointed out that the stability of an oxidant in the treated water also plays a significant role in determining the overall removal efficiency Fe(VI) was more stable (more than 30 minutes) than O3 (less than minutes) in a secondary effluent from a watewater treatment plant (Lee et al 2009) Degradation of EDCs and PPCPs in secondary effluents from two wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) by Fe(VI) was conducted by Yang et al (2012) Thirty-one selected EDCs and PPCPs were detected in the effluents of the two WWTPs at concentration levels in the range from 0.2 ± 0.1 ng L −1 to 1156 ± 182 ng L −1 Fe(VI) could oxidize most of the target micropollutants (Yang et al 2012) Basically, Fe(VI) easily oxidized electron-rich organic moieties of the micropollutants such as amine-, aniline-, olefin-, and phenolic- moieties The removal yield of the detected EDCs and PPCPs increased with the Fe(VI) dose The results suggest the effectiveness of Fe(VI)-based treatment technology for a wide range of EDCs and PPCPs (Yang et al 2012) The oxidation kinetics of microcystin-LR (MC-LR), a cyanotoxin found in water sources, by Fe(VI) (k2 = 1.3 ± 0.1 × 102 M−1 s−1 at pH 7.5 to 8.1 ± 0.08 M−1 s−1 at pH 10.0) revealed a rapid degradation of (Li et al 2008) (Yang et al 2014) (Li et al 2008) (Li et al 2008) (Li et al 2008) (Li et al 2008) (Sharma et al 2006) (Sharma et al 2006) (Sharma et al 2006) (Sharma et al 2006) (Sharma et al 2006) (Lee et al 2009) (Lee et al 2009) (Lee et al 2009) (Lee et al 2009) (Sharma et al 2013) (Sharma et al 2013) (Karlesa et al 2014) (Karlesa et al 2014) (Lee et al 2009) (Zimmermann et al 2012) (Anquandah et al 2011) (Lee & von Gunten, 2010) (Anquandah et al 2013) (Yang & Ying, 2013) 1.5 × 103 (9.2 s) 1.0 × 103 (13.2 s) 4.1 × 102 (33.9 s) 0.8 × 02 (175 s) 1.3 × 103 (10.4 s) 1.1 × 103 (12.3 s) 6.7 × 101 (202 s) 4.7 × 102 (28.8 s) 4.6 × 101 (294 s 2.8 × 103 (4.8 s) 1.1 × 103 (12.3 s) 1.1 × 102 (123 s) 6.9 × 102 (19.6 s) 1.3 × 102 (104 s) 1.4 × 101 (16 min) 4.0 × 101 (338 s) 1.3 × 103 (10.4 s) 1.8 × 101 (12 min) 2.2 × 102 (62.6 s) Reference 6.5 × 102 (21.2 s) 7.9 × 103 (1.7 s) 8.1 × 102 (17.0) 1.0 × 103 (13.7 s) 1.1 × 103 (12.6 s) 1.2 × 103 (10.9 s) k2 (M−1s−1) (t1/2 (s)*) Fe(VI) – – 2 − 3 × 105 (0.14 s) – 2.5 × 10 (0.01 s) 3.8 × 107 (0.01s) 3.0 × 105 (0.18 s) 1.9 × 104 (2.8 s) 1.5 × 105 (0.36 s) 6.0 × 10 (0.005 s) 4.1 × 105 (1.0 s) 4.8 × 103 (1.2 s) 8.7 × 104 (0.07 s) 1.0 × 10 (0.03 s) 2.2 × 103 (15.0 s) 2.7 × 105 (0.12 s) 1.7 × 103 (11.6 s) 1.0 × 105 (0.32 s) – 2.7 × 10 (0.01 s) – 1.6 × 10 (0.02 s) 1.0 × 10 (0.03 s) 1.7 × 10 (0.02s) 1.0 × 10 (0.03 s) k2 (M−1s−1) (t1/2 (s)**) O3 *calculated for 10 mg/L K 2FeO4 dose under pseudo-order conditions with Fe(VI) in excess **half-life at [O3] = 1.0 mg L−1 EDCs Bisphenol A (BPA) Tetrabromobisphenol A 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2) Estrone (E1) β-estradiol (E2) Estriol (E3) PPCPs Sulfisoxazole Sulfamethazine Sulfamethizole Sulfadimethoxine Sulfamethoxazole Triclosan Carbamazepine Ciprofloxacin Enrofloxacin Amoxicillin Ampicillin Penicillin G Cephalexin Diclofenac Tradamol Trimethoprim Atenolol Propranolol Benzophenone-3 Compound – – (Garoma et al 2010) – (Lee et al 2009) (Lee et al 2009) (Lee et al 2009) (Lee et al 2009) (Lee et al 2009) (Andreozzi et al 2005) (Jung et al 2012) (Dodd et al 2006) (Dodd et al 2006) (Lee et al 2009) (Zimmermann et al 2012) (Dodd et al 2006) (Benner et al 2008) (Benner et al 2008) – (Lee et al 2009) – (Lee et al 2009) (Jiang et al 2012) (Lee et al 2009) (Jiang et al 2012) Reference Table 17.3  ​Second-order rate constants for selected EDCs and PPCPs in reaction with Fe(VI) (pH 7.0 and 25°C) 674 Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment Iron-based green technologies for water remediation 675 MC-LR (Jiang et al 2014) Analysis of degradation products by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry/ mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) technique suggested that the oxidation products (OPs) resulted primarily from the hydroxylation of the double bond of the methyldehydroalanine (Mdha) aminoacid residue, diene, and aromatic functional groups A fragmentation of the cyclic MC-LR structure was also seen during the Fe(VI) treatment Significantly, the toxicity test performed using protein phosphatase (PP1) activity, demonstrated that the degradation byproducts of MC-LR were not biologically toxic Moreover, Fe(VI) could also degrade MC-LR in water containing carbonate ions and fulvic acid (FA) and in lake water samples However, higher amount of Fe(VI) was required to completely degrade MC-LR in lake water in comparison with deionized water (Jiang et al 2014) 17.4.3 ​Coagulation The ferric oxide generated from Fe(VI) acts as a powerful coagulant that is appropriate for the removal of humic acid, radionuclides, metals, and non-metals (Horst et al 2013; Joshi et al 2008; Potts & Churchwell, 1994; Prucek et al 2015; Qu et al 2003) The pre-oxidation step aids in the removal of contaminants Fe(VI) can destruct the organic coating on the particles present in the water matrix, thus enhances the coagulation For example, the decrease in the level of fulvic acid was larger for the combination of coagulant with Fe(VI) than for coagulant alone (Qu et al 2003) Enhanced coagulation of algae was observed when water sample was pretreated with Fe(VI) (Liu & Liang, 2008) Studies have shown that Fe(VI) can remove a wide range of toxic metals and non-metals in a laboratory synthetic water (Bartzatt et al 1992) During the removal process, turbidity was also reduced Removal of these elements was accomplished by co-precipitation process in the ferric oxide gel formed by the action of Fe(VI) ion The mechanistic studies on removing arsenite, arsenate, copper(II), cadmium(II), nickel(II), and metals in metal-cyanide complexes showed that the main iron species responsible for the coagulation/co-precipitation were nanocrystalline Fe(III) oxides/hydroxides, produced via the reduction of Fe(VI) (Filip et  al 2011; Jain et  al 2009; Prucek et  al 2013; Prucek et  al 2015) In the case of arsenite, Fe(VI) in combination with Al(III) and Fe(III) ions could completely remove arsenic from water (Jain et al 2009) However, the matrix components like phosphate, nitrate, silicate, and natural organic matter (NOM) increased the amounts of Fe(VI) required for complete removal of arsenic from the de-ionized water 17.5 ​CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE OUTLOOK Magnetic ZVI and iron(III) oxide nanoparticles can be applied sustainably in removing a wide range of inorganic and organic contaminants from water Importantly, magnetic separation of such nanoparticles using a low-gradient magnetic field makes it cost-effective compared to membrane filtration It should be pointed out that aggregation of nanoparticles may reduce the removal capacity, aspect which needs to be further examined in order to recover and reuse magnetic nanoparticles In the use of nZVI, there are technical issues including mixing and injection of the suspensions The treatment of contaminants using nZVI in water sources is rather limited, as several difficulties are still to overcome The surface chemistry of both nZVI and Fe(III) oxides is complex But, there is a large scope for improving surface properties of iron nanoparticles, which would enhance practical applicability to environmental treatment Ferrate ion is highly promising environmentally benign compound that has shown multiple modes of action such as disinfection, high oxidation power, and coagulation effects In the past few years, the possibility of its in situ application in treating water contaminated with many emerging pollutants with superior efficiency to conventional processes has been proven However, there are still difficulties 676 Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment associated with ferrate solution stability control and process design for large-scale applications Standard unit operations for treatment (e.g., rapid mix, flocculation, settling, filtration, adsorption) need to be addressed in a large scale application Numerous examples in the water treatment in the laboratory setup have shown the main advantages of ferrate technology including process performance on oxidation/ disinfection and coagulation for a wide range of pollutants in a single-step treatment Future work must evaluate ferrate dosages under practical conditions required in the treatment of water and wastewater from different sources 17.6 ACKNOWLEDGMENT V.K Sharma acknowledges the support of the United States National Science Foundation for ferrate research (CBET-1439314) R Zboril acknowledges the financial support from the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic (LO1305), and by Technology Agency of the Czech Republic “Competence Centres” (project TE01020218) 17.7 ​REFERENCES Andreozzi R., Canterino M., Marotta R and Paxeus N (2005) Antibiotic removal from wastewaters: The ozonation of amoxicillin Journal of Hazardours Materials, 122, 243–250 Anquandah G A K., Sharma V K., Knight D A., Batchu S R and Gardinali P R (2011) Oxidation of Trimethoprim by Ferrate(VI): Kinetics, Products, and Antibacterial Activity Environmental Science & Technology, 45, 10575–10581 Anquandah G A K., Sharma V K., Panditi V R., Gardinali P R., Kim H and Oturan M A (2013) Ferrate(VI) oxidation of propranolol: kinetics and products Chemosphere, 91, 105–109 Bae S and Hanna K (2015) Reactivity of nanoscale zero-valent iron in unbuffered systems: effect of pH and Fe(II) dissolution Environmental Science Technology, 49, 1036–1045 Bae S and Lee W (2010) Inhibition of nZVI reactivity by magnetite during the reductive degradation of 1,1,1-TCA in nZVI/magnetite suspension Application Catal B Environmental, 96, 10–17 Baikousi M., Georgiou Y., Daikopoulos C., Bourlinos A B., Filip J., Zboril R., Deligiannakis Y and Karakassides M A (2015) Synthesis and characterization of robust zero valent iron/mesoporous carbon composites and their applications in arsenic removal Carbon, 93, 636–647 Bartzatt R., Cano M., Johnson L and Nagel D (1992) Removal of toxic metals and nonmetals from contaminated water Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, 35, 205–210 Bauer I and Knölker H (2015) Iron catalysis in organic synthesis Chemical Reviews, 115, 3170–3387 Benner J., Salhi E., Ternes T and von Gunten U (2008) Ozonation of reverse osmosis concentrate: Kinetics and efficiency of beta blocker oxidation Water Research, 42, 3003–3012 Carr J D (2008) Kinetics and product identification of oxidation by ferrate(VI) of water and aqueous nitrogen containing solutes ACS Symposium Series, 985(Ferrates), 189–196 Chen D and Huang S (2004) Fast separation of bromelain by polyacrylic acid-bound iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles Process Biochem, 39, 2207–2211 Chen J., Al-Abed S R., Ryan J A and Li Z (2001) Effects of pH on dechlorination of trichloroethylene by zerovalent iron Journal of Hazardous Materials, 83, 243–254 Cho M., Lee Y., Choi W., Chung H and Yoon J (2006) Study on Fe(VI) species as a disinfectant: Quantitative evaluation and modeling for inactivating Escherichia coli Water Research, 40, 3580–3586 Crane R A and Scott T B (2012) Nanoscale zero-valent iron: Future prospects for an emerging water treatment technology Journal of Hazardous Materials, 211–212, 112–125 Delaude L and Laszlo P (1996) A novel oxidizing reagent based on potassium ferrate(VI) The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 61, 6360–6370 Iron-based green technologies for water remediation 677 Dodd M C., Buffle M and Von Gunten U (2006) Oxidation of antibacterial molecules by aqueous ozone: Moietyspecific reaction kinetics and application to ozone-based wastewater treatment Environmental Science & Technology, 40, 1969–1977 Dong J., Zhao Y., Zhao R and Zhou R (2010) Effects of pH and particle size on kinetics of nitrobenzene reduction by zero-valent iron Journal of Environmental Sciences, 22, 1741–1747 Doong R and Lai Y (2005) Dechlorination of tetrachloroethylene by palladized iron in the presence of humic acid Water Research, 39, 2309–2318 Farmand M., Jiang D., Wang B., Ghosh S., Ramaker D E and Licht S (2011) Super-iron nanoparticles with facile cathodic charge transfer Electrochemistry Communications, 13, 909–912 Filip J., Yngard R A., Siskova K., Marusak Z., Ettler V., Sajdl P., Sharma V K and Zboril R (2011) Mechanisms and efficiency of the simultaneous removal of metals and cyanides by using ferrate(VI): Crucial roles of nanocrystalline iron(III) oxyhydroxides and metal carbonates Chemistry European Journal, 17, 10097–10105 Gan W., Sharma V K., Zhang X., Yang L and Yang X (2015) Investigation of disinfection byproducts formation in ferrate(VI) pre-oxidation of NOM and its model comounds followed by chlorination Journal of Hazardours Materials, 292, 197–204 Garoma T., Umamaheshwar S K and Mumper A (2010) Removal of sulfadiazine, sulfamethizole, sulfamethoxazole, and sulfathiazole from aqueous solution by ozonation Chemosphere, 79, 814–820 Ge F., Li M., Ye H and Zhao B (2012) Effective removal of heavy metal ions Cd2+, Zn2+, Pb2+, Cu2+ from aqueous solution by polymer-modified magnetic nanoparticles Journal of Hazardours Materials, 211–212, 366–372 Goff H and Murmann R K (1971) Studies on the mechanism of isotopic oxygen exchange and reduction of ferrate(VI) ion (FeO42−) Journal of the American Chemical Society, 93, 6058–6065 Guan X., Sun Y., Qin H., Li J., Lo I M C., He D and Dong H (2015) The limitations of applying zero-valent iron technology in contaminants sequestration and the corresponding countermeasures: The development in zerovalent iron technology in the last two decades (1994–2014) Water Research, 75, 224–248 Gutiérrez L., Costo R., Grüttner C., Westphal F., Gehrke N., Heinke D., Fornara A., Pankhurst Q A., Johansson C., Veintemillas-Verdaguer S and Morales M P (2015) Synthesis methods to prepare single- and multi-core iron oxide nanoparticles for biomedical applications Dalton Transactions, 44, 2943–2952 Hao Y., Man C and Hu Z (2010) Effective removal of Cu (II) ions from aqueous solution by amino-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles Journal of Hazardours Materials, 184, 392–399 Horst C., Sharma V K., Clayton Baum J and Sohn M (2013) Organic matter source discrimination by humic acid characterization: Synchronous scan fluorescence spectroscopy and Ferrate(VI) Chemosphere, 90, 2013–2019 Hu J., Lo I M C and Chen G (2004) Removal of Cr(VI) by magnetite nanoparticle Water Science and Technology, 50, 139–146 Hu J., Chen G and Lo I M C (2005) Removal and recovery of Cr(VI) from wastewater by maghemite nanoparticles Water Research, 39, 4528–4536 Hu L., Page M A., Sigstam T., Kohn T., Mariñas B J and Strathmann T J (2012) Inactivation of bacteriophage MS2 with potassium ferrate(VI) Environmental Science & Technology, 46, 12079–12087 Jain A., Sharma V K and Mbuya M S (2009) Removal of arsenite by Fe(VI), Fe(VI)/Fe(III), and Fe(VI)/Al(III) salts: Effect of pH and anions Journal of Hazardours Materials, 169, 339–344 Jarošová B., Filip J., Hilscherová K., Tucek J., Šimek Z., Giesy J P., Zboril R and Bláha L (2015) Can zero-valent iron nanoparticles remove waterborne estrogens? Journal of Environmental Management, 150, 387–392 Jiang J., Pang S., Ma J and Liu H (2012) Oxidation of phenolic endocrine disrupting chemicals by potassium permanganate in synthetic and real waters Environmental Science & Technology, 46, 1774–1781 Jiang W., Chen L., Batchu S R., Gardinali P R., Jasa L., Marsalek B., Zboril R., Dionysiou D D., O’Shea K E and Sharma V K (2014) Oxidation of microcystin-LR by ferrate(VI): Kinetics, degradation pathways, and toxicity assessment Environmental Science & Technology, 48, 12164–12172 and Jiang J Q (2014) Advances in the development and application of ferrate(VI) for water and wastewater treatment Journal Chemical Technology Biotechnology, 89, 165–177 and 678 Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment Jiang J Q (2015) The role of ferrate(VI) in the remediation of emerging micropollutants: a review Desalination and Water Treatment, 55, 828–835 Jiang J Q., Wang S and Panagoulopoulos A (2006) The exploration of potassium ferrate(VI) as a disinfectant/ coagulant in water and wastewater treatment Chemosphere, 63, 212–219 Joshi U M., Balasubramanian R and Sharma V K (2008) Potential of ferrate(VI) in enhancing urban runoff water quality ACS Symposium Series, 985, 466–476 Jung Y J., Kim W G., Yoon Y., Hwang T and Kang J (2012) pH effect on ozonation of ampicillin: Kinetic study and toxicity assessment Ozone Science and Engineering, 34, 156–162 Karlesa A., De Vera G A D., Dodd M C., Park J., Espino M P B and Lee Y (2014) Ferrate(VI) oxidation of ß-lactam antibiotics: Reaction kinetics, antibacterial activity changes, and transformation products Environmental Science & Technology, 48, 10380–10389 Kim C., Panditi V R., Gardinali P R., Varma R S., Kim H and Sharma V K (2015) Ferrate promoted oxidative cleavage of sulfonamides: kinetics and product formation under acidic conditions Chemical Engineering Journal, 279, 307–316 Lee C., Jee Y K., Won I L., Nelson K L., Yoon J and Sedlak D L (2008) Bactericidal effect of zero-valent iron nanoparticles on Escherichia coli Environmental Science & Technology, 42, 4927–4933 Lee Y and von Gunten U (2010) Oxidative transformation of micropollutants during municipal wastewater treatment: Comparison of kinetic aspects of selective (chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ferrateVI, and ozone) and non-selective oxidants (hydroxyl radical) Water Research, 44, 555–566 Lee Y., Yoon J and von Gunten U (2005) Spectrophotometeric determination of ferrate (Fe(VI)) in water by ABTS Water Research, 25, 1946–1953 Lee Y., Zimmermann S G., Kieu A T and von Gunten U (2009) Ferrate (Fe(VI)) application for municipal wastewater treatment: A novel process for simultaneous micropollutant oxidation and phosphate removal Environmental Science & Technology, 43, 3831–3838 Lee Y., Kissner Y and von Gunten U (2014) Reaction of ferrate(VI) with ABTS and self-decay of ferrate(VI): Kinetics and mechanism Environmental Science & Technology, 48, 5154–5162 Li C., Li X Z., Graham N and Gao N Y (2008) The aqueous degradation of bisphenol A and steroid estrogens by ferrate Water Research, 42, 109–120 Licht S., Wang B and Ghosh S (1999) Energetic iron(VI) chemistry: The super-iron battery Science, 285, 1039–1042 Ling D., Lee N and Hyeon T (2015) Chemical synthesis and assembly of uniformly sized iron oxide nanoparticles for medical applications Accounts of Chemical Research, 48, 1276–1285 Liu T., Li X and Waite T D (2013) Depassivation of aged Fe (0) by ferrous ions: Implications to contaminant degradation Environmental Science & Technology, 47, 13712–13720 Liu T., Li X and Waite T D (2014) Depassivation of aged Fe(0) by divalent cations: Correlation between contaminant degradation and surface complexation constants Environmental Science & Technology, 48, 14564–14571 Liu W and Liang Y (2008) Use of ferrate(VI) in enhancing the coagulation of algae-bearing water: effect and mechanism study ACS Symposium Series, 985(Ferrates), 434–445 Liu Y and Lowry G V (2006) Effect of particle age (Fe(0) content) and solution pH on NZVI reactivity: H2 evolution and TCE dechlorination Environmental Science & Technology, 40, 6085–6090 Luo Z., Strouse M., Jiang J Q and Sharma V K (2011) Methodologies for the analytical determination of ferrate(VI): A Review Journal of Environmental Science and Health: Part A Toxic/Hazardous Substances Environmental Engineering, 46, 453–460 Machala L., Tucˇek J and Zborˇil R (2011) Polymorphous transformations of nanometric iron(III) oxide: A review Chemical Materials, 23, 3255–3272 Mácová Z and Bouzek K (2012) The influence of electrolyte composition on electrochemical ferrate(VI) synthesis Part III: Anodic dissolution kinetics of a white cast iron anode rich in iron carbide Journal of Applied Electrochemistry, 42, 615–626 Macova Z., Bouzek K., Hives J., Sharma V K., Terryn R J and Baum J C (2009) Research progress in the electrochemical synthesis of ferrate(VI) Electrochimica Acta, 54, 2673–2683 Iron-based green technologies for water remediation 679 Marsalek B., Jancula D., Marsalkova E., Mashlan M., Safarova K., Tucek J and Zboril R (2012) Multimodal action and selective toxicity of zerovalent iron nanoparticles against cyanobacteria Environmental Science & Technology, 46, 2316–2323 Mueller N C., Braun J., Bruns J., Cerník M., Rissing P., Rickerby D and Nowack B (2012) Application of nanoscale zero valent iron (NZVI) for groundwater remediation in Europe Environmental Science & Pollution Research, 19, 550–558 Noubactep C (2015) Metallic iron for environmental remediation: A review of reviews Water Research, 85, 114–123 Pereira M C., Oliveira L C A and Murad E (2012) Iron oxide catalysts: Fenton and Fenton-like reactions – A review Clay Mineral, 47, 285–302 Perfiliev Y D., Benko E M., Pankratov D A., Sharma V K and Dedushenko S D (2007) Formation of iron(VI) in ozonolysis of iron(III) in alkaline solution Inorganic Chimistry Acta, 360, 2789–2791 Poleshchuk O., Kruchkova N., Perfiliev Y and Dedushenko S (2010) Estimations of the isomer shifts for tetraoxoferrates Journal Physical: Conference Series, 217, 012041–012044 Potts M E and Churchwell D R (1994) Removal of radionuclides in wastewaters utilizing potassium ferrate(VI) Water Environmental Research, 66, 107–109 Prucek R., Tucˇek J., Kolarˇík J., Filip J., Marušák Z., Sharma V K and Zborˇil R (2013) Ferrate(VI)-induced arsenite and arsenate removal by in situ structural incorporation into magnetic iron(III) oxide nanoparticles Environmental Science & Technology, 47, 3283–3292 Prucek R., Tucek J., Kolarik J., Huskova I., Filip J., Varma R S., Sharma V K and Zboril R (2015) Ferrate(VI)prompted removal of metals in aqueous media: mechanistic delineation of enhanced efficiency via metal entrenchment in magnetic oxides Environmental Science & Technology, 49, 2319–2327 Qu J., Liu H., Liu S.-X and Lei P J (2003) Reduction of fulvic acid in drinking water by ferrate Journal of Environmental Engineering, 129, 17–24 Raychoudhury T and Scheytt T (2013) Potential of Zerovalent iron nanoparticles for remediation of environmental organic contaminants in water: A review Water Science & Technology, 68, 1425–1439 Reddy L H., Arias J L., Nicolas J and Couvreur P (2012) Magnetic nanoparticles: Design and characterization, toxicity and biocompatibility, pharmaceutical and biomedical applications Chemical Reviews, 112, 5818–5878 Sharma V K (2007a) Disinfection performance of Fe(VI) in water and wastewater: a review Water Science & Technology, 55, 225–232 Sharma V K (2007b) Ferrate Studies for Disinfection and Treatment of Drinking Water In: Nikolaou, A., Rizzo, L., Selcuk, H (Eds.) Advances in Control of Disinfection by-Products in Drinking Water Systems Nova Science Publishers, New York, USA, pp 373–380 Sharma V K (2010a) Oxidation of inorganic compounds by Ferrate (VI) and Ferrate(V): One-electron and twoelectron transfer steps Environmental Science & Technology, 44, 5148–5152 Sharma V K (2010b) Oxidation of nitrogen containing pollutants by novel ferrate(VI) technology: A review Journal of Environmental Science and Health: Part A Toxic/Hazardous Substances Environmental Engineering, 45, 645–667 Sharma V K (2011) Oxidation of inorganic contaminants by ferrates(Fe(VI), Fe(V), and Fe(IV))- Kinetics and Mechanisms - A Review Journal Environmental Manage, 92, 1051–1073 Sharma V K (2013) Ferrate(VI) and ferrate(V) oxidation of organic compounds: Kinetics and mechanism Coordination Chemistry Reviews, 257, 495–510 Sharma V K., Burnett C R and Millero F J (2001) Dissociation constants of monoprotic ferrate(VI) ions in NaCl media Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 3, 2059–2062 Sharma V K., Kazama F., Jiangyong H and Ray A K (2005) Ferrates as environmentally-friendly oxidants and disinfectants Journal of Water and Health, 3, 45–58 Sharma V K., Mishra S K and Nesnas N (2006) Oxidation of sulfonamide antimicrobials by ferrate(VI) [FeVIO42−] Environmental Science & Technology, 40, 7222–7227 Sharma V K., Liu F., Tolan S., Sohn M., Kim H and Oturan M A (2013) Oxidation of β—lactam antibiotics by ferrate(VI) Chemical Engineering Journal, 221, 446–451 680 Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment Sharma V K., Perfiliev Y., Zboril R., Machala L and Wynter C (2013) Ferrates (IV, V, and VI): Mössbauer Spectroscopy Characterization In: Virender K Sharma, Gostar Klingelhofer, Tetsuaki Nishida (Ed.) Mossbauer Spectroscopy: Applications in Chemistry, Biology, Industry, and Nanotechnology, Hoboken, New Jersey, USA Sharma V K., Zboril R and Varma R S (2015) Ferrates: Greener oxidants with multimodal action in water treatment technologies Accounts of Chemical Research, 48, 182–191 Sharma V K., Chen L and Zboril R (2016) A Review on high valent FeVI (ferrate): A sustainable green oxidant in organc chemistry and transformation of pharmaceuticals ACS Sustainable Chemical Eng., In press Soukupova J., Zboril R., Medrik I., Filip J., Safarova K., Ledl R., Mashlan M., Nosek J and Cernik M (2015) Highly concentrated, reactive and stable dispersion of zero-valent iron nanoparticles: Direct surface and site application Chemical Engineering Journal, 262, 813–822 Tang S C N and Lo I M C (2013) Magnetic nanoparticles: Essential factors for sustainable environmental applications Water Research, 47, 2613–2632 Tratnyek P G., Scherer M M., Deng B and Hu S (2001) Effects of natural organic matter, anthropogenic surfactants, and model quinones on the reduction of contaminants by zero-valent iron Water Research, 35, 4435–4443 Wang Y., Zhou D., Wang Y., Zhu X and Jin S (2011) Humic acid and metal ions accelerating the dechlorination of 4-chlorobiphenyl by nanoscale zero-valent iron Journal Environmental Science, 23, 1286–1292 Wang C., Klamerth N., Huang R., Elnakar H and Gamal El-Din M (2016) Oxidation of oil sands process-affected water by potassium ferrate(VI) Environmental Science & Technology, 50, 4238–4247 Xie L and Shang C (2007) The effects of operational parameters and common anions on the reactivity of zerovalent iron in bromate reduction Chemosphere, 66, 1652–1659 Xie Y and Cwiertny D M (2012) Influence of anionic cosolutes and ph on nanoscale zerovalent iron longevity: Time scales and mechanisms of reactivity loss toward 1,1,1,2-tetrachloroethane and Cr(VI) Environmental Science & Technology, 46, 8365–8373 Yan W., Lien H., Koel B E and Zhang W (2013) Iron nanoparticles for environmental clean-up: Recent developments and future outlook Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts, 15, 63–77 Yang B and Ying G (2013) Oxidation of benzophenone-3 during water treatment with ferrate(VI) Water Research, 47, 2458–2466 Yang B., Ying G G., Zhao J., Liu S., Zhou L J and Chen F (2012) Removal of selected endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) during ferrate(VI) treatment of secondary wastewater effluents Water Research, 46, 2194–2204 Yang B., Ying G., Chen Z., Zhao J., Peng F and Chen X (2014) Ferrate(VI) oxidation of tetrabromobisphenol A in comparison with bisphenol A Water Research, 62, 211–219 Yang W., Kan A T., Chen W and Tomson M B (2010) PH-dependent effect of zinc on arsenic adsorption to magnetite nanoparticles Water Research, 44, 5693–5701 Yang X., Guo W., Zhang X., Chen F., Ye T and Liu W (2013) Formation of disinfection by-products after preoxidation with chlorine dioxide or ferrate Water Research, 47, 5856–5864 Yates B J., Zboril R and Sharma V K (2014) Engineering aspects of ferrate in water and wastewater treatment – A Review Journal of Environmental Science and Health: Part A Toxic/Hazardous Substances Environmental Engineering, 49, 1603–1604 Zimmermann S G., Schmukat A., Schulz M., Benner J., von Gunten U and Ternes T A (2012) Kinetic and mechanistic investigations of the oxidation of tramadol by ferrate and ozone Environmental Science Technology, 46, 876–884 Index A Absorbed dose, 246, 258, 271, 274 Acoustic cavitation, 433, 463–466, 476, 484 Actinometry, 220–221, 539 Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs), 4, pilot-scale tests of, 76–82 full scale applications of, 82–84 Ames II assay, 97, 98 Anatoxin-a, 3, 34, 39, 66, 67, 84, 154, 172, 213, 225 Andijk Water Treatment Plant case study, 608–610 full-scale UV/H2O2 AOP, 608–610 Antibiotics, 30–31, 73, 170, 267–271, 345, 555–556, 632, 637 Anthraquinone dyes, 274–275 Arsenic, 3, 71, 213, 319, 657, 668, 669 Assimilable organic carbon (AOC), 96, 139, 186, 624 formation of, 624 removal of, 218 Aurora Water, 597 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, 4, 587 B Biodegradability, 70, 71, 96, 170, 217, 277, 297, 368, 634, 645, 654 Biological activated carbon (BAC) filtration, for assimilable carbon removal, 607, 609, 624, 626, 627 H2O2 residual removal, 94 mutagenicity removal, 99 nitrite removal, 218–219 post-ozonation, 633 Biological aerated filter, 651 Biological oxygen demand (BOD), 277, 313, 472 Bromate (BrO3−), 49, 70, 139 control of, 154, 170 formation of, 139–140, 175, 177, 184, 607 mitigation strategies for, 154, 185–188 Bundamba AWTP, 594, 596 Byproduct formation, 8, 32, 70, 71, 93–99, 185–188, 358–361, 420–423, 672 C Capital costs, 151–152, 282, 357, 462 Carbonate radical (CO3•−), 170, 253–254, 448, 543, 546, 547, 550 Carbon-centered radical, 28, 205, 206, 210, 211, 252, 261, 273, 439 Catalytic ozonation, 63, 649, 651 Cavitation bubble collapse, 463, 465, 466 Ceramic membranes advantages of, 611 CeraMac® system combined with IX, 59, 82 design features of, 619 demonstration plant, 619 ozone for fouling control of, 618–619 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), 173, 258, 277, 313, 346, 356, 479, 632, 635 Chick and Watson equation, 189 Chloramination, 68, 82, 94, 95–96, 140, 156, 586, 587–588, 599 Chloramines speciation in water reuse, 49, 93, 197, 228 reactions with •OH of, 405, 423 NDMA formation, in relation to, 586–587 682 Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment Chlorate, 383, 386, 388, 390, 418, 420, 421, 422, 449, 454 Chlorine atom (radical, Cl•), 29 quantum yield of, 448 rate constants of, with, 398–399 chloride ion, 398, 469 inorganic compounds, 29, 398, 401–402 organic compounds, 29, 398, 399–401 water, 29, 63, 402–403 Chlorite, 383, 386, 388, 390, 420, 422 p-Chlorobenzoic acid (pCBA), 37, 164, 404, 409 Coagulation sand filtration (CSF), 98 CSF vs IX-UF, 59, 70–71, 621 60 Co gamma radiation, 241, 244 Compression and rarefaction waves, 463 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), 7, 46–47, 208, 455, 600 Criegee mechanism, 127 Critical control points, 590, 595 Clopyralid, 65–66, 83 Comet assay, 97 Cryptosporidium parvum, 85, 86, 143, 417, 611 Cyanotoxins, 3, 4, 34, 39, 66–68, 153–154, 345, 358, 672 Cyclohexadienyl radical, 252, 401 Cylindrospermopsin, 3, 66, 67, 154, 445 D Daegu (Republic of Korea) wastewater facility, 280–281 Dichlorine radical (Cl2•−), 448 equilibria, 448 rate constants of, with, 398 organic compounds, 398–403 inorganic compounds, 398–403 2,8-Dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2,8-DCDD), 94, 562 Dielectric barrier discharge (DBD), 21, 198, 493, 501, 508 1,4-Dioxane, 3, 11–12, 70–71, 79, 86, 87, 91, 178, 213, 364, 588–589, 590–591, 592, 622 Direct plasma, 494, 498–520 Direct potable reuse, 2, 49, 82, 412, 583 Disinfection, 16, 20, 140–141, 332, 585, 672 Disinfection byproducts (DBPs), 3, 4, 15, 75, 420–422 formation of, 123, 494 precursors of, 420–421, 612 quantum yields of, 76, 388, 389 Dissolved organic matter (DOM), 39, 50, 125, 322, 403, 450 see also Natural organic matter (NOM) E Effluent Organic Matter (EfOM), 36, 50, 130, 134, 270, 546, 549 Electrical Energy per Mass (EEM), 180 Electrical Energy per Order (EEO), 41, 50–52, 180, 208, 405, 416, 519, 590, 622 Electromagnetic radiation, 8–9 spectrum of, fraction of light absorbed, 10 Electron accelerator, 241, 243, 244, 278 Electron beam treatment, 280 Emerging contaminants, removal of, 80, 414–415 Empty bed contact time (EBCT), 59–60, 609, 625 Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs), 15, 71–72, 126, 262–264, 369, 509, 519 Enhanced coagulation, 607, 612–613, 614, 675 Excimer, 21, 197, 198 formation of, 197 lamps, 195, 197, 199, 200–201, 229 Xe2* excimer, 198, 199, 201 Exciplex, 21, 197 definition of, 21, 198 formation of, 197 lamps, 21, 197, 199 Extended Fenton processes, 297, 302–307 F Fenton reaction, 319, 320, 383, 651–652, 669 Fenton-like processes, 297, 307, 318–319, 323 Ferrates, 670 contaminant removal with, 675 microorganism inactivation, 671 redox potentials of, 670 self-decomposition of, 671 synthesis of, 670–671 Free chlorine species (HOCl, ClO−), 383 absorption spectra of, 384–385, 387 distribution of, 384, 385 photolysis of, 383–384 primary quantum yields, 386–388 reaction quantum yields, 391–394 chain reactions of, 394 degradation pathways of, 388–391 photodecomposition rates of, 394 G G-value, 245–246, 263 Genotoxicity, 98, 99 Geosmin, 68, 79, 91, 96, 154, 172, 176, 213, 217, 224, 409, 416, 417, 445, 473 683 Index Giardia, 84, 140, 142, 148, 585 Gibson Island, 594, 595 Global warming potential (GWP), 90, 91 Glow discharge, 17 Goethite, 301, 317 Granular activated carbon (GAC), 173, 179, 218, 584, 601, 607, 615, 651 Graphene, 337, 338, 339, 343–344 Graphitic carbon nitride, 337, 344–345 Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, 90–91 Green technologies, 667–675 Groundwater Replenishment System (GWRS), 584, 592–593 Group Contribution Method (GCM), 33, 38 H Hydrated electron (eaq−), 33, 202, 246, 251–252, 265, 267, 271, 279, 433, 546, 549–550 Hydrogen atom (H•), 33, 243, 246, 252–253, 308, 433, 623 Hydrogen peroxide, 23, 264, 314, 479, 593, 597, 624 photolysis of, 24 quantum yield of, 25 • OH primary quantum yield from, 25 reaction with free chlorine, 86 reaction with ozone, 168 residual, removal of, 96 Hydroperoxyl radical (HO2•), 32, 247, 504, 513 Hydroxyl radical (•OH), 27–32, 37, 206, 248–251, 265, 316, 383, 438, 546–547, 611, 623 addition reactions of, 30, 206, 253 determination of rate constants of, 68 electron transfer reactions of, 31, 448 exposure, 37, 44–45, 126, 133, 136, 137, 139, 165–167 formation of, in, 25, 46, 169, 217, 307, 388 Fenton reactions, 306 free chlorine photolysis, 388 hydrogen peroxide photolysis, 11, 24 ionizing radiation process, 270 natural waters, 24, 25 ozone reactions, 124, 127 photocatalysis mechanism, 24 sonolysis, 502 sulfate radical, 253, 437 water photolysis, 202 water radiolysis, 248–251 fraction calculation in O3/H2O2 AOP, 599, 619 H-abstraction reactions of, 206, 450 properties of, 27 quantum yield of, in UV/Cl2 AOP, 404 UV/H2O2 AOP, 407 O3/UV AOP, 189 water photolysis, 202 water radiolysis, 248–251 rate constants of, 28, 32–39 temperature dependency of, 36, 73, 223 reaction with DOM, 46 water matrix background demand of, 45–46 yield in O3/H2O2 AOP, 619 Hypochlorite ion, 383, 384 photolysis byproducts of, 386–388 see also Free chlorine species Hypochlorous acid, 384, 386–388 see Free chlorine species I Indirect photochemistry, 540–541, 555, 559, 560 Indirect potable reuse, 2, 49, 412, 583 In-situ Chemical Oxidation (ISCO), 319 Instantaneous ozone demand (IOD), 131, 141 Ion exchange (IX), 59, 613–618 combined with AOPs, 617–618 IX – UF for nitrate and DOC removal, 621 IX – UF for enhanced MP UV/H 2O2 performance, 59 MIEX® process, 615 Suspended Ion Exchange (SIX®), 616, 622 Ionizing radiation sources, 241 Iron ligands diethylenetriaminepentaacetate (DTPA), 300 ferrioxalate, 302–303, 317 tetraamido macrocyclic ligand (TAML), 300 IROX, 317 J Jablonski diagram, 11, 538 K Kinetic modeling of Fenton-type processes, 33 ionizing radiation processes, 276 O3/H2O2 AOP, 619 O3/UV AOP, 189 UV/Cl2 AOP, 405 UV/H2O2 AOP, 407 VUV AOP, 207–208 684 Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment L β-Lactam antibiotics, 30, 31, 36, 268–271 Lifecycle assessment (LCA), 2, 90, 91 Linear microwave accelerator, 244, 245 Luggage Point, 594, 595 M Magnetic iron (III) oxide nanoparticles, 669, 670 Magnetostrictive and piezoelectric transducers, 464 Metaldehyde, 65, 175 Methyl-tert-butyl ether (MTBE), 11, 34, 170–171, 400 Miami (USA) Electron Beam Research Facility, 279 Microcystins, 66, 67, 669 Microwave-assisted synthesis, 333, 341 Military explosives, 74 treatment of, 74 Molar absorption coefficients, 11–12, 68, 384 Molecular probes, 543, 544, 546 Moosbrunn Waterworks, Austria, 176, 177 Mutagenicity, 97, 98, 99, 100, 423, 627 N Nano-heterojunctions, 341–342 Nanotubular TiO2, 334–337 Natural organic matter (NOM), 50, 208, 313, 411–412, 611, 669, 675 size exclusion chromatography (SEC), 614 role of, in the indirect photochemistry, 546 excited state triplet of (3OM), 546, 547–549 N, F co-doping, 347 Nitrate photolysis, 42, 48, 49, 97, 98, 625, 627 Nitrite, 48, 49, 97, 98 formation of, 97, 626 • OH scavenger, 43 removal of, 97, 626 N-Nitrosamines, 4, 34, 61–63, 94, 99 N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), 13, 94, 140, 182, 586–588, 622 as byproduct, 99 photolysis of, 99 treatment of, 99 O O3/H2O2 treatment of, 163–170 algal toxins, 172 1,4-dioxane, 172 metaldehyde, 175–176 methyl-tert-butyl ether (MTBE), 170–171 pesticides, 171 taste-and-odor (T&O) compounds, 172 tetrachloroethene (PCE), 177 trichloroethene (TCE), 177 O3/UV Process, 187 • OH yield, 165–167 mechanism of, 182–185 Operations and maintenance (O&M), 150 Orange County Water District, 592–593, 594 Ozone decay, pH effect on, 124–126 exposure (CT), 129–130 implementation, cost estimates for, 150–152 mass transfer efficiency, 149 microbiological applications of, 140 DOC ratio to, (O3/DOC), 153 rate constants (kO3) of, with organic contaminants, 127 UV spectrum of, 214–215 wastewater and potable reuse applications, 154–156 Ozone contactors, 149 Ozone demand, 129 P Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), 210, 298, 446–447, 517, 637 Peroxomonosulfate ion (PMS ion), 431 Peroxydisulfate (persulfate) ion absorption spectrum of, 430 decomposition of, 433 photolysis of, 430–431 Peroxone process economics of, 180 energy demand of, 180, 181 mechanism of, 163–165 Peroxyl radicals formation of, 206, 260 reactions of, 32, 206, 308 Pesticides degradation of, in natural waters, 38 treatment of, with ionizing radiation, 211–212 O3/H2O2, 63–64 UV/H2O2, 63 Pharmaceuticals, 73–74, 77, 444, 554, 668 Photocatalysis, 213, 354, 358, 484, 652 mechanism of, 352 commercial reactors, 207, 228 Photochemically produced reactive intermediates (PPRIs), 540, 546–550 generation of, 540 steady-state concentration of, 541 Index rate constants with organic pollutants of, 544, 545 Photochemistry Laws, 8, 9–11 Photo-Fenton process, 313, 314–315, 317, 319, 367, 645 Photolithography, 200, 227 Photolysis, 23–27, 63, 556, 588 Photosensitization, 540, 548 Phthalates, 72, 263–264 Point-of-use (POU), 226 Powdered activated carbon (PAC), 90 Prairie Waters Project, 592, 597–598, 601 Process performance, 100 water quality impact on, 129–138, 215–219 Pulse radiolysis, 27, 30, 36, 125, 211, 242, 243, 263, 398, 433 Pyrolysis, 471, 516 Q Quantitative Structure Activity Relationships (QSARs), 37, 38, 76, 127–129, 168, 351–356, 567 Quantum yield definition of, 12 determination of, in natural waters, 15, 25, 72, 537, 551 pH, temperature, wavelength-dependency of, 61 Quartz spectra, 20 solarization of, 20, 625 R Rct, 165–167 ROH,UV, 44–45 Radiation chemistry, 241, 242, 269, 276, 283, 501 Ranitidine NDMA precursor, 94 degradation in surface waters, 552 RDX, 15, 74–75, 88 Reaction mechanism, 7, 27, 38–40, 63–65, 208, 241–242, 345, 436 Reactor design of, 56 controls, 57 Reactive nitrogen species (RNS), 494, 501, 520, 521 Reactive oxygen species (ROS), 28, 48, 345, 351, 362, 494, 519 Reclamation Plant, Recombinant yeast estrogen screen (YES) test, 99 S Semiconductor industry, 225, 227 Sensors, 19, 56, 220–221 685 Serial AOPs, 78, 181 Singlet oxygen (1O2), 15, 183, 352, 543, 549 Solar radiation, 388, 404 naphthenic acids degradation with UV/Cl2, 419 Solar spectrum, 535–536, 540, 551, 567 Sol-gel process, 333–334 Solvothermal process, 333–334, 340, 344 Sonochemical degradation of, 471 azo-dyes, 307 gasoline oxygenates, 473 pharmaceutical waste, 472, 475, 478 taste-and-odor causing compounds, 473 Sonoelectrochemical, decomposition of, 479 dyes, 480 nitrotoluenes, 479 Sonolysis, 264 formation of oxidizing species, 264 of water, 470 Sonolytic-ozonation, 475 Sonophotocatalytic degradation, 477, 478 Sonophotochemical remediation, 477 Sources of ionizing radiation, 241, 244–245 Spark discharge, 505, 520 Sulfate radical (SO4•−) generation of, 429–434 pH-dependent distribution of, 435–436 quantum yield of, 430 oxidation potential of, 434 rate constants of, 444 reactions with organic compounds, 429, 437 reactions with inorganic compounds, 429, 437 treatment of, 442 perfluorinated compounds, 446–447 pesticides, 444 pharmaceuticals, 444 VOCs, 445 Sulfonamides, 268, 672 Superfund Site Projects, 70, 91, 364–365 Superoxide anion radical (O2•−), 549–550 T Taste-and-odour (T&O) causing compounds full-scale treatment installations for, 70 occurrence of, 3, 68 UV/H2O2-control of, 68, 90 Terminal Island Water Reclamation Plant (TIWRP) case study, 52, 416–419 Tetrachloroethene (PCE), 7, 14, 69, 177, 209, 364 Thermodynamic limit, 496, 501, 502, 521 686 Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment Titanium dioxide (TiO2), 214, 333, 348, 358 Title 22 Regulations, 593 Total organic carbon (TOC), 277, 453 mineralization of, 476 Toxicity, 3, 67, 72, 258–259 Trace organic contaminants, 80, 93, 126, 130–131, 156, 509, 585 s-Triazines, 30, 93, 265, 316 Tricloroethene (TCE), 41, 69, 93, 364, 413, 442 Triclosan, 15, 76, 94, 561–564 Tucson Airport Remediation Project (TARP), 86 U Ultrapure water (UPW) production vacuum UV process, 226–229 sulfate radical-based process, 454 Ultrasonic equipment, 480–485 UV/Chlorine treatment of atrazine, 405, 409, 411 1,4-dioxane, 409, 412, 417–419 emerging contaminants, 414–415 ibuprofen, 405, 406 NDMA, 413, 417–419 pharmaceuticals, 415 taste-and-odor causing compounds, 416 trichloroethene (TCE), 409, 412 VOCs, 412–414 UV/Cl2 versus UV/H2O2 byproduct formation, 420–423 cost comparison, 414, 416 Electrical Energy per Order (EEO), 415, 416 UV Fluence (UV dose) as critical control point, 590, 596 as performance metric, 52–54 UV lamps emission spectra of, 196–197 excilamps, 21 light-emitting diode (LED), 22–23 low-pressure (LP), 19, 414 medium-pressure (MP), 19 power supplies of, 56 Trojan Technologies’ Solo LampTM, 18–19 VUV light sources, 188, 198, 225, 229 V Vacuum-ultraviolet (VUV) radiation, 20–21, 195–201 172 nm, 198, 199, 200, 201, 203, 207, 209, 210, 211–212 184.9 nm, 195, 196, 197, 201–202, 203 VOCs treatment, 68–71, 178, 209, 333, 364, 412–414, 445–446 VUV treatment of aromatic compounds, 211 perfluorinated compounds, 210 pesticides, 211–212 pharmaceuticals, 212 taste-and-odor causing compounds, 68, 444–445 trihalomethanes (THMs), 228 W Wastewater ozonation, 137, 633 Wastewater treatment of emerging contaminants, 633, 637 dyestuffs, 631, 632, 635 pesticides, 640, 643–645 petrochemical waste, 648–651 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), 212 textile wastes, 635–637 Water absorption coefficient of, 201–202 homolysis of, 202, 203, 204, 223, 478 ionization of, 203, 228 photolysis of, 207, 229 Waterborne viruses, 566–567 Water reuse, 44, 49, 59, 93, 123, 139, 146, 151, 152, 155, 173, 356, 416–419, 581, 619 West Basin Water Recycling Plant, 582 Western Corridor Project, 582, 595 Z Zeolite, 298, 301, 302, 318, 360, 479, 506, 507 Zero valent iron (ZVI), 475, 476 reactions of, 475 contaminants treated with, 668–669 microbial inactivation with, 301 Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) rely on the efficient generation of reactive radical species and are increasingly attractive options for water remediation from a wide variety of organic micropollutants of human health and/or environmental concern Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment covers the key advanced oxidation processes developed for chemical contaminant destruction in polluted water sources, some of which have been implemented successfully at water treatment plants around the world The book is structured in two sections; the first part is dedicated to the most relevant AOPs, whereas the topics covered in the second section include the photochemistry of chemical contaminants in the aquatic environment, advanced water treatment for water reuse, implementation of advanced treatment processes for drinking water production at a state-of-the art water treatment plant in Europe, advanced treatment of municipal and industrial wastewater, and green technologies for water remediation The advanced oxidation processes discussed in the book cover the following aspects: • Process principles including the most recent scientific findings and interpretation • Classes of compounds suitable to AOP treatment and examples of reaction mechanisms • Chemical and photochemical degradation kinetics and modelling • Water quality impact on process performance and practical considerations on process parameter selection criteria • Process limitations and byproduct formation and strategies to mitigate any potential adverse effects on the treated water quality • AOP equipment design and economics considerations • Research studies and outcomes • Case studies relevant to process implementation to water treatment • Commercial applications • Future research needs Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment presents the most recent scientific and technological achievements in process understanding and implementation, and addresses to anyone interested in water remediation, including water industry professionals, consulting engineers, regulators, academics, students iwapublishing.com @IWAPublishing ISBN: 9781780407180 (Paperback) ISBN: 9781780407197 (eBook) .. .Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment Fundamentals and Applications Edited by Mihaela I Stefan... Process: Andijk Water Treatment Plant (WTP) Case Study   608 xvi Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment 15.3 Pretreatment Strategies for AOP in Drinking Water Treatment ... research and technology The implementation of water treatment processes will continue to be driven by the water regulations The suitability of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) for water and wastewater