This page intentionally left blank Environmental Liability and Ecological Damage in European Law Providing a comprehensive analysis of environmental liability law in Europe, this book offers a general introduction to the status of environmental liability in Europe It describes the relevant international treaties and the EC Environmental Liability Directive and discusses the conflict of laws issues regarding transfrontier environmental damage It also contains the results of a comparative project covering fourteen jurisdictions in thirteen European countries (Austria, Belgium, England, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Portugal, Scotland, Spain and Sweden) on the private law aspects of environmental liability It addresses the main problems of the application of tort law in environmental law, such as the availability of no-fault liability, the establishment of causation, the scope of available remedies and the issue of legal standing Due to the very limited harmonizing effect of the EC Environmental Liability Directive national tort law will keep its importance in the field of environmental liability M O N I K A H I N T E R E G G E R is a Professor of Civil Law at the Institute of Civil Law, Foreign and Private International Law, Karl Franzens University of Graz Her teaching covers topics of European Private Law and Austrian Civil Law For the past fifteen years she has been a legal advisor to the Austrian Government and Parliament on several topics of tort law The Common Core of European Private Law General Editors Mauro Bussani, University of Trieste Ugo Mattei, University of Turin and University of California, Hastings College of Law Honorary Editor Rodolfo Sacco, University of Turin Editorial Board James Gordley, Cecil Turner Professor of Law, University of California, Berkeley; Editor in Chief of the American Journal of Comparative Law Antonio Gambaro, Professor of Law, University of Milan; President of the Italian Society of Comparative Law Franz Werro, University of Freiburg and Georgetown University Law Center Rodolfo Sacco, President of the International Association of Legal Science (UNESCO) For the transnational lawyer the present European situation is equivalent to that of a traveller compelled to cross legal Europe using a number of different local maps To assist lawyers in the journey beyond their own locality The Common Core of European Private Law Project was launched in 1993 at the University of Trento under the auspices of the late Professor Rudolf B Schlesinger The aim of this collective scholarly enterprise is to unearth what is already common to the legal systems of European Union member states Case studies widely circulated and discussed between lawyers of different traditions are employed to draw at least the main lines of a reliable map of the law of Europe Books in the series Environmental Liability and Ecological Damage in European Law Edited by Monika Hinteregger 978 521 88997 Hardback The Enforcement of Competition Law in Europe Edited by Thomas M J Moăllers and Andreas Heinemann 978 521 88110 Hardback Commercial Trusts in European Private Law Edited by Michele Graziadei, Ugo Mattei and Lionel Smith 978 521 84919 Mistake, Fraud and Duties to Inform in European Contract Law Edited by Ruth Sefton-Green 521 84423 Hardback Security Rights in Movable Property in European Private Law Edited by Eva-Maria Kieninger 521 83967 X Hardback Pure Economic Loss in Europe Edited by Mauro Bussani and Vernon Valentine Palmer 521 82464 Hardback The Enforceability of Promises in European Contract Law Edited by James Gordley 521 79021 Hardback Good Faith in European Contract Law Edited by Reinhard Zimmermann and Simon Whittaker 521 77190 Hardback Environmental Liability and Ecological Damage in European Law Edited by Monika Hinteregger CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521889971 © Cambridge University Press 2008 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2008 ISBN-13 978-0-511-41416-9 eBook (EBL) ISBN-13 978-0-521-88997-1 hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Contents Preface Acknowledgments General editors’ preface Notes on the contributors Table of treaties Table of legislation List of abbreviations Part I Environmental liability in Europe International and supranational systems of environmental liability in Europe Monika Hinteregger Some observations on the law applicable to transfrontier environmental damage Willibald Posch Part II page xvii xix xx xxii xxiv xxvii lv 33 The case studies 53 The Questionnaire I Goal of the Questionnaire II Text of the Questionnaire Part A 55 55 57 Scope of liable persons 65 Case Industrial plant Comparative remarks Discussions Austria Belgium 67 67 80 80 84 vii viii CONTENTS England Finland France Germany Greece Ireland Italy The Netherlands Portugal Scotland Spain Sweden Case Sudden incident Comparative remarks Discussions Austria Belgium England Finland France Germany Greece Ireland Italy The Netherlands Portugal Scotland Spain Sweden Case Dangerous substances Comparative remarks Discussions Austria Belgium England Finland France Germany Greece Ireland 90 102 103 108 114 117 128 138 142 150 151 159 161 161 167 167 170 174 177 178 181 184 185 189 191 195 196 198 202 204 204 205 205 206 209 211 212 213 215 215 INDEX asbestos compensation fund, 357 Case (industrial plant), 103–7 Case (sudden accident), 178–81 Case (dangerous substances), 212 Case (GMOs), 232 Case (micro-organisms), 255 Case (waste disposal site), 267–8 Case (hazardous waste production), 282 Case (nuclear damage), 300–1 Case (harmless substance), 319 Case 10 (historic pollution), 333–4 Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 356–7 Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate), 382–3 Case 13 (dying forest), 399 Case 14 (fish kill), 418–19 Case 15 (contaminated land), 451–2 Case 16 (polluted river), 489–91 Case 17 (oil spill), 538–40 Case 18 (contaminated drinking water), 566–7 causation, 356–7 alternative causation, 413, 419 cumulative causation, 418–19 intervening causation, 419 prima facie evidence, 357 standard of proof, 348, 350 statistical evidence, 373–4, 382 collective actions, 78, 107 contaminated land damages, 451–2 emergency measures, 451–2 loss of profits, 452 restoration costs, 451 standing, 451 contravention de grande voirie, 213 custody doctrine, 103–4, 178 dangerous substances, 212 historic pollution, 333–4 strict liability, 521 damages, 71 contaminated land, 451–2 death, 567 emotional distress, 567 future damages, 106–7 industrial pollution, 105–6 moral damages, 419, 491 oil pollution by ships, 538–40 personal injuries, 566–7 perte d’une chance, 373–4 pure economic loss, 419, 491, 524, 539–40 road traffic accidents, 521 subrogation, 375, 382–3, 540 sudden accidents, 179–80 water pollution, 489–91 683 dangerous substances, 212 administrative liability, 213 asbestos compensation fund, 350 custody doctrine, 212 defences contributory negligence, 165, 167, 181, 567 force majeure, 162, 180 public authorisation, 181, 418 third party damage, 163, 180–1 fault liability, 68–9 dangerous substances, 212–13 GMOs, 232 fault liability, 225 licensing, 232 strict liability, 224 Italian law and, 128 joint and several liability, 396, 399, 413, 418–19 alternative causation, 413 judicial role, 79 jurisdiction, 107, 491 administrative jurisdiction, 106, 255, 451 civil courts, 451 nuclear damage, 300 limitation periods, 330 neighbourhood law, 70, 104 nuclear damage, 300–1 bomb tests, 357 EDF, 290, 300 international conventions, 29 jurisdiction, 300 limitation period, 301 regime, 290 oil pollution by ships Amoco Cadiz, 539 clean-up costs, 538–9 criminal liability, 540 damages, 538–40 ecological damage, 540 emergency measures, 538 Erika disaster, 539 international conventions, 538–9 lost profits, 539–40 strict liability, 539 precautionary principle, 316, 319 Product Liability Convention (1973), 43 public works, liability, 251 remedies closing orders, 106 industrial pollution, 105–7 repair, 106 reparation in kind, 419 suspension of activities, 106 ship oil pollution conventions, 26 684 INDEX France (cont.) social insurance, subrogation of damages, 375, 382–3 standing, 104, 436, 451 ecological damage, 490 personal injuries, 213 property damage, 213 social insurance, 375, 382–3 state-of-the-art defence, 316, 319 product liability, 316 strict liability, 73, 76, 79 categories of installations, 105 custody doctrine, 521 oil pollution by ships, 539 public services, 106 sudden accidents, 161, 178–9 technological disasters, 179 Toulouse (2001), 178 vicarious liability, 489, 521 waste management, 267–8 hazardous waste production, 282 water pollution clean-up costs, 489 damages, 489–91 ecological damage, 490–1, 527–8 standing, 490 Germany Case (industrial plant), 108–14 Case (sudden accident), 181–3 Case (dangerous substances), 213–14, 215 Case (GMOs), 233–4 Case (micro-organisms), 255–6 Case (waste disposal site), 268 Case (hazardous waste production), 282–3 Case (nuclear damage), 301 Case (harmless substance), 319–20 Case 10 (historic pollution), 334–5 Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 357–9 Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate), 383–4 Case 13 (dying forest), 400–2 Case 14 (fish kill), 419–21 Case 15 (contaminated land), 452–4 Case 16 (polluted river), 491–3 Case 17 (oil spill), 540–3 Case 18 (contaminated drinking water), 567–8 causation alternative causation, 421 burden of proof, 357–9 circumstantial evidence, 359 cumulative causation, 419–20 easing burden of proof, 349 free evaluation of evidence, 359 intervening causation, 421 presumption of causation, 350, 400–1, 402 standard of proof, 348 statistical evidence, 373, 383 collective actions, 77 conflict of laws, 36, 37, 47 contaminated land costs and reasonableness, 108–9 damages, 452–4 fault liability, 454 prevention measures, 453 restoration costs, 453 standing, 452 damages contaminated land, 452–4 death, 111–12, 568 environmental impacts, 111 limitation periods, 334 mental health, 113–14 minor health impairments, 112–14 neighbourhood law, 71, 110–11 oil pollution by ships, 540–3 personal injuries, 110–11, 112–14, 182, 567–8 road traffic accidents, 491–2 secondary economic loss, 441, 454, 492–3, 525, 542 subrogation, 384 sudden accidents, 182–3 water pollution, 111, 491–3 defences compliance with authorisation, 183 contributory negligence, 183 force majeure, 109, 183, 214 state-of-the-art, 316, 319–20 third party sabotage, 163, 183 Environmental Protection Act burden of proof, 357–8 causation, 420 damages, 111 dangerous substances, 214 definition, 109 exemptions from liability, 112 historic pollution, 334 joint and several liability, 400–1 meaning of installation, 491 minor health impairment, 113 standing, 452 state-of-the-art defence, 316, 319 statistical evidence, 373, 383 sudden accidents, 181 use for victims, 371 environmental scholarship, 79 fault liability, 110, 214 authorised occupation, 214 burden of proof, 68, 110, 111 INDEX damages, 454 GMOs, 233 limitation periods, 334 minor health impairments, 113–14 nuclear damage, 301 protective law, 68 state-of-the-art defence, 320 sudden accidents, 182 Federal Immission Control installations, 358 GMOs fault liability, 233 specific regime, 225, 233–4 strict liability, 225 immissions, 79 joint and several liability, 396, 400–2, 419–21 limitation periods, 328, 334–5 negotiorum gestio, 440, 492, 541 neighbourhood law, 69, 70, 71 customary standards, 108, 156, 214 damages, 71, 110–11 dangerous substances, 213 importance, 71 requirements, 108–9 standing, 71 sudden accidents, 181 thresholds, 108–9, 112 nuclear damage, 301 operators’ liability, 301 ratification of conventions, 29, 291 third party actions, 301 oil pollution by ships clean-up measures, 540–1 damages, 540–3 ecological damage, 542–3 international conventions, 26 liability, 541 lost profits, 541–2 specific regime, 521 standing, 541 product liability burden of proof, 68, 110 drugs, 316 state-of-the-art defence, 316 property damage, meaning, 419 removal of infringements, 109, 112, 214 Salzburg Airport, 48 social insurance, 114, 384 standing, 435, 452 legal interests, 419–20 NGOs, 492, 541 non-owners, 493 social insurance, 384 users’ rights, 493 water pollution, 492 685 strict liability, 72, 75 GMOs, 225 water pollution, 521, 522 sudden accidents, 161–2, 166, 181–2 waste management, 261, 268 hazardous waste production, 282–3 water pollution, 109–10 burden of proof, 358 causation, 383, 420 clean-up costs, 491–2 damages, 111, 491–3 dangerous substances, 214 ecological damage, 492, 542–3 meaning of installation, 491 secondary economic loss, 492–3, 542 specific liability regime, 522 standing, 492 strict liability, 521, 522 sudden accidents, 181–2 GMOs Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, 32 Case 4, 56, 58–9, 222 comparisons, 222–6, 595–8 Environmental Liability Directive, 20, 25 neighbourhood laws, 223–4 Products Liability Directive, 222, 595–6 specific regimes, 225, 597 Greece Case (industrial plant), 114–17 Case (sudden accident), 184–5 Case (dangerous substances), 215 Case (GMOs), 234–6 Case (micro-organisms), 256 Case (waste disposal site), 269–70 Case (hazardous waste production), 283–5 Case (nuclear damage), 301–3 Case (harmless substance), 320–1 Case 10 (historic pollution), 335–7 Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 359–60 Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate), 384–6 Case 13 (dying forest), 402–3 Case 14 (fish kill), 421–2 Case 15 (contaminated land), 454–6 Case 16 (polluted river), 493–4 Case 17 (oil spill), 543–4 Case 18 (contaminated drinking water), 568–9 causation alternative causation, 421 burden of proof, 359, 385 cumulative causation, 421 intervening causation, 421–2 prima facie evidence, 360 reversing burden of proof, 349, 359 686 INDEX Greece (cont.) standard of proof, 348 statistical evidence, 373, 384–5 constitutional rights, environment, 115 construction law, latent damages, 336–7 contaminated land damages, 437–8, 454–6 emergency measures, 455 lost profits, 456 property damage to third parties, 440 remedies, 116–17 restoration costs, 455 standing, 435, 454–5 damages contaminated land, 437–8, 454–6 death, 568–9 environmental protection law, 114 fault liability, 116 moral harm, 116, 455 oil pollution by ships, 543–4 personal injuries, 385, 561, 568 personality rights, 116–17 secondary economic loss, 440, 456, 494, 543–4 state property, 494 subrogation, 386 water pollution, 493–4 defences administrative compliance, 184 contributory negligence, 184–5 force majeure, 184, 320 state-of-the-art, 316, 320–1 third party damage, 184 fault liability, 115 burden of proof, 68, 116–17 damages, 116 origins-of-risk principle, 321, 359, 384 GMOs, 223, 224 intentional release, 234–5 product liability, 235 unintentional release, 235 historic pollution, 335–7 immissions, 79 injunctions, 455 joint and several liability, 396, 402–3, 421–2 limitation periods, 329, 336–7 Lugano Convention and, negotiorum gestio, 440, 543 neighbourhood law, 69, 70, 71, 115 damages, 71 nuclear damage conventions, 29, 291, 301–3 legal channelling, 30 operators’ liability, 302–3 oil pollution by ships clean-up measures, 543 damages, 523, 543–4 ecological damage, 525, 544 international conventions, 543, 544 lost profits, 543–4 standing, 543 personality rights, 115–17, 455 product liability burden of proof, 68, 116 GMOs, 235 public service undertakings, 251 ship oil pollution conventions, 26 social insurance, 386 standing contaminated land, 435, 454–5 NGOs, 543 oil pollution by ships, 543 social insurance, 386 state liability, 256 defences, 320 third party actions, 320 strict liability, 72 sudden accidents, 184–5 unjust enrichment, 440, 543 waste management, 261, 269–70 hazardous waste production, 278, 283–5 water pollution clean-up costs, 493, 523 damages, 493–4 ecological damage, 494 lost profits, 494 Hague Conference, 48–9, 50 Hungary, 29, 37, 46 Iceland, immissions, 79 information Environmental Liability Directive, 23 EU obligations, 24 Lugano Convention, insurance Environmental Liability Directive, 22–3, 25 oil pollution by ships, 27 international law, 637–8 Ireland air pollution causation defence, 118–19 damages, 118 defences, 118–19 licensing exception, 119 nuclear damage, 303–4 state-of-the-art defence, 321 statutory liability, 118–19, 128 Case (industrial plant), 117–28 Case (sudden accident), 185–9 INDEX Case (dangerous substances), 215–16 Case (GMOs), 236–9 Case (micro-organisms), 256–7 Case (waste disposal site), 270–2 Case (hazardous waste production), 285 Case (nuclear damage), 303–5 Case (harmless substance), 321–2 Case 10 (historic pollution), 337–8 Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 360–2 Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate), 386–7 Case 13 (dying forest), 403–4 Case 14 (fish kill), 422–3 Case 15 (contaminated land), 456–8 Case 16 (polluted river), 494–6 Case 17 (oil spill), 544–7 Case 18 (contaminated drinking water), 569–70 causation alternative causation, 422 burden proof, 360 cumulative causation, 422 intervening causation, 422–3 res ipsa loquitur, 123, 348–9, 360–1 standard of proof, 348–9, 361–2 statistical evidence, 374, 386 collective actions, 128, 238 common law torts, 121–6 GMOs, 236–7 Irish and English law, 118, 122, 127 nuclear damage, 304 Constitution, 122 contaminated land damages, 216, 456–8 emergency measures, 439, 457 lost profits, 441, 458 property damage, 216 remedies, 438 restoration costs, 456–7 standing, 456 damages air pollution, 118 contaminated land, 216, 456–8 death, 123, 186, 570 emotional distress, 562, 570 GMOs, 238 negligence, 123 nuisance, 124 oil pollution by ships, 544–7 personal injuries, 216, 386–7, 569–70 pure economic loss, 238, 441, 458, 495, 525, 546 subrogation, 375, 387 waste, 271 water pollution, 120, 494–6 687 defences acts of God, 118, 163, 166 compliance with public law, 188 contributory negligence, 166, 189 force majeure, 186–7 state-of-the-art, 316, 321–2 third party damage, 163, 187–8 EU environmental law and, 127–8 fault liability, 69 GMOs, 223, 225 common law liabilities, 236–7 damages, 238 permits, 236, 237 immissions, 79 injunctions, 126–7, 456–7 joint and several liability, 396, 403–4, 422–3 licensing system air pollution, 119 water pollution, 120 limitation periods, 329, 338 negligence, 71, 128 damages, 123 historic pollution, 338 pure economic loss, 458 res ipsa loquitur, 123 state-of-the-art defence, 322 sudden accidents, 185, 186 tort, 122–3 waste, 270–1 noise, 121 nuclear damage, 292, 303–5 air pollution, 303–4 conventions, 28 jurisdiction, 304 torts, 304 water pollution, 303 oil pollution by ships clean-up measures, 544–5 damages, 544–7 ecological damage, 527, 546–7 international conventions, 26, 545–6 liability, 545–6 lost profits, 546 public authorities, 544 standing, 528–9, 545 private nuisance, 70, 126 common law, 122, 124, 126 damages, 71, 124 remedies, 124 standing, 124, 238–9 state-of-the-art defence, 322 strict liability, 185 tort, 124, 186 waste, 270 public nuisance, 126, 239 Rylands v Fletcher, 121 688 INDEX Ireland (cont.) limitation period, 338 nuclear damage, 304 pure economic loss, 458 scope, 122, 126, 128 sudden accidents, 185, 187, 188 tort, 124–5 waste, 270, 337 social insurance, 375, 387 standing contaminated land, 215, 456 nuisance, 124, 238–9 oil pollution by ships, 528–9, 545 public nuisance, 239 social insurance, 375, 387 trespass, 239 state immunity, 251–2, 257, 272 strict liability, 73, 75, 76 historic pollution, 337–8 sudden accidents, 162, 185–6 trespass, 126, 185, 187 limitation period, 338 nuclear damage, 304 spitting, 322 tort, 125 waste, 271 waste management, 262, 270–2 damages, 456 hazardous waste production, 285 historic pollution, 337 statutory liability, 121 trespass, 125 water pollution clean-up costs, 494, 523 damages, 120, 494–6 definitions, 120 ecological damage, 495 injunctions, 494 licensing defence, 120 lost profits, 495, 525 nuclear damage, 303 sewage discharges, 120–1 statutory liability, 119–21 Italy Brussels Convention (1961), 133 canon law tradition, 129 Case (industrial plant), 128–37 Case (dangerous substances), 216 Case (GMOs), 239 Case (micro-organisms), 257 Case (waste disposal site), 272 Case (hazardous waste production), 286 Case (nuclear damage), 305 Case (harmless substance), 322 Case 10 (historic pollution), 338–9 Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 362 Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate), 387 Case 13 (dying forest), 404 Case 14 (fish kill), 423 Case 15 (contaminated land), 458 Case 16 (polluted river), 496–7 Case 17 (oil spill), 547 Case 18 (contaminated drinking water), 571 causation burden of proof, 362 problems of proof, 133–4 res ipsa loquitur, 130, 133–4 standard of proof, 348, 362 citizens suits, 459 collective actions, 78 conflict of laws, 35, 37, 43 Constitution, right to health, 137 contaminated land damages, 458 lost profits, 441 preventive measures, 439, 440 damages contaminated land, 458 fault liability, 130, 131, 135 gravity of faults and, 132 neighbourhood law, 137 oil pollution by ships, 547 personal injuries and death, 571 restoration and, 135 restoration costs, 459 secondary economic loss, 441, 497, 524, 547 standing, 135–6, 458 water pollution, 496–7 dangerous activities, 136 dangerous substances, 216 defences compliance with public law, 190 contributory negligence, 191 force majeure, 163, 189 licensing defence, 165 neighbourhood law, 137 state-of-the-art, 317, 322 third party damage, 164, 190 fault liability 1986 statute, 132–6 access to information, 134–5 damages, 130, 131, 135 incoherences, 133–6 problems of proof, 133–4 remedies, 135 standing, 137 French legal model, 128 GMOs, 224 immissions, 79 joint and several liability, 396, 404, 423 legal culture, 130 limitation periods, 328, 338–9 INDEX Lugano Convention and, neighbourhood law, 69, 70, 71, 136–7 nuclear damage, 305 conventions, 29, 305 oil pollution by ships clean-up measures, 547 conventions, 26 damages, 547 jurisdiction, 547 liability, 547 lost profits, 547 product liability conflict of laws, 43 state-of-the-art defence, 322 standing, 458, 496 strict liability, 73, 133 defences, 166 legal history, 128–31 sudden accidents, 161 Venezian law, 129 waste management, 279, 286 water pollution, 423 clean-up costs, 496 damages, 496–7 ecological damage, 496–7, 526 lost profits, 497, 524 joint and several liability Case 13, 57, 61 Case 14, 57, 61, 413 comparisons, 395–7, 413, 615–17 land damage See contaminated land landfill, 20 Larenz, Karl, 474 Latvia, 29 Leflar, Robert, 34 legal standing See standing Lepage, Minister, 103 lex damni, 50–1 lex loci delicti commissi, 34, 37–8, 41 licensing, 164–5 Liechtenstein, limitation periods Case 10, 56, 328 comparisons, 328–30, 607 Environmental Liability Directive, 22 Lugano Convention, oil pollution by ships, 28 Lithuania, 29 Lugano Convention contents, 3–6 defences, gene technology, scope, 5–6, 638 Luxembourg, 4, 29, 43 689 Macedonia, 29, 43 methodology background, 55–6 cases, 56–7 Common Core project, 55–6 questionnaires, 56–7 micro-organisms See dangerous microorganisms Moldova, 29 Montenegro, 29, 38, 43 Morocco, 29 national security, 20 natural disasters, 20 natural resource damage compensation, 526, 543–4, 647–8 Environmental Liability Directive, 14–16, 18–19 specific regimes, 531–2 terminology, 12 negotiorum gestio, 439–40, 528, 624, 634 neighbourhood laws burden of proof, 68 comparisons, 69–71, 581–3 GMOs, 223–4 scope of damages, 592–3 standing, 71, 583 tolerance thresholds, 70–1, 582–3 Netherlands Case (industrial plant), 138–42 Case (sudden accident), 191–5 Case (dangerous substances), 216–17 Case (GMOs), 240–1 Case (micro-organisms), 257–8 Case (waste disposal site), 272–4 Case (hazardous waste production), 286–7 Case (nuclear damage), 305–10 Case (harmless substance), 322–5 Case 10 (historic pollution), 339–41 Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 362–4 Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate), 387–90 Case 13 (dying forest), 405–6 Case 14 (fish kill), 423–5 Case 15 (contaminated land), 460–6 Case 16 (polluted river), 497–505 Case 17 (oil spill), 548–51 Case 18 (contaminated drinking water), 571–3 causation alternative causation, 387–9, 405, 424–5 burden of proof, 362–3 cumulative causation, 423–4 easing burden of proof, 349 free evaluation of evidence, 363 690 INDEX Netherlands (cont.) intervening causation, 425 personal injuries, 140 presumption of causation, 364 reasonable attribution, 364 res ipsa loquitur, 363 shifting burden of proof, 363–4 standard of proof, 348, 363–4 statistical evidence, 374 collective actions, 77, 78 Constitution, environmental protection, 460, 550 contaminated land damages, 460–6 lost profits, 441–40, 465–6 preventive measures, 438, 439, 463–4 property damage to third parties, 440 restoration costs, 192, 463 standing, 460–1, 462 damages, 71 categories of harm, 500–1 common resources, 498 contaminated land, 460–6 death, 573 mental health, 140, 572 oil pollution by ships, 548–51 personal injuries, 140–1, 571–2 proof, 309 pure economic loss, 217, 441–40, 465–6, 503–4, 524, 549–50 relatives, 141 restitutio in integrum, 503 scope, 77–8, 139–40 state-owned amenities, 504–5 subrogation, 389–90 waste, 273 water pollution, 497–505 dangerous substances, 138–9 force majeure, 162 GMOs, 240–1 joint and several liability, 406 micro-organisms, 251 specific regime, 204, 216–17 standing, 240, 241 state-of-the-art defence, 322–3 thresholds of inconvenience, 141–2, 240, 241 waste production, 286–7 defences compliance with public law, 193–4 contributory negligence, 60, 194–5, 464 force majeure, 162, 192–3 state-of-the-art, 317 third party damage, 193 environmental scholarship, 79 GMOs, 225 compliance with licences, 240 dangerous substances, 240–1 group liability, 424 immissions, 79 injunctions, 462 joint and several liability, 388, 396, 405–6, 423–5 limitation periods, 329, 340–1 environmental damage, 310 general rules, 310 torts, 309 Lugano Convention and, Mines de Potasse d’Alsace, 44, 45, 141–2 noise levels, 142 nuclear damage, 305–10 conventions, 29, 291, 305–6 limitation periods, 309 operators’ liability, 305–6 third party actions, 306–9 nuisance law, 70 oil pollution by ships clean-up measures, 548–9 conventions, 26 damages, 548–51 ecological damage, 550–1 liability, 549 lost profits, 549–50 standing, 548–9 product liability Product Liability Convention (1973), 43 state-of-the-art defence, 323–5 public authorities preventive measures, 463–4 recovery of prevention costs, 439 standing, 436, 462, 497–8, 505 remedies, torts, 139–41 res communis, 550 res nullius, 498 segmented liability, 340 social insurance, 389–90 standing contaminated land, 435, 460–2 dangerous substances, 240, 241 NGOs, 460–1, 462, 498–500, 529, 548–9 property damage, 217 public authorities, 436, 462, 497–8, 505 social insurance, 389–90 strict liability, 74, 138–9 GMOs, 224 sudden accidents, 161, 191–2 licensing consent and, 193–4 restoration costs, 192 tortious liability, 138 breach of statutory duty, 307 causation, 308–9 INDEX clean-up costs, 523 foreseeability, 307–8 latent damage, 310 nuclear damage, 306–9 proof of damage, 309 requirements, 306, 307–9 ‘unless clause’, 192–3, 306, 307–9 waste management, 262, 263, 272–4 hazardous waste production, 279, 286–7 water pollution clean-up costs, 497–8, 549 damages, 497–505 ecological damage, 500–3, 504, 527 fault liability, 523 lost profits, 503–4, 524 standing, 498–500, 529 NGOs, standing, 17, 528–30, 532, 634–6 Norway, 29, 43 nuclear damage Case 8, 56, 59–60, 289, 290 comparisons, 290–3, 601–4 Environmental Liability Directive and, 23, 25 international conventions, 28–31, 290–1, 637 legal channelling, 295 scope of damages, 640 sources of compensation, 297–8 legal channelling, 292 Paris Convention (1960), 29–31, 44 definition of nuclear accident, 298, 309 force majeure, 180, 302, 306 scope of liability, 297, 637, 640 Paris Convention (2004), 30–1, 640 oil pollution by ships 1969 Convention, 26 Case 17, 520 clean-up costs, 520–3 comparisons, 520–32 Environmental Liability Directive and, 13, 23 Fund Conventions, 26, 28, 534, 539, 545, 546, 557 international law, 26–8, 640 London Convention (1973), 44 lost profits, 524–5, 630–1 US legislation, 11–12 Palmer, Edith, 34 personal injuries Case 18, 57, 560 damages, 560–1, 617–18, 645 emotional distress, 561–2, 618–19 standing, 562 691 Poland, 29 polluter pays principle, 8, 127–8 Portugal actio popularis, 143, 466, 506 Case (industrial plant), 142–9 Case (sudden accident), 195–6 Case (dangerous substances), 217–18 Case (GMOs), 241 Case (micro-organisms), 258 Case (waste disposal site), 274 Case (hazardous waste production), 287 Case (nuclear damage), 311 Case (harmless substance), 325 Case 10 (historic pollution), 341 Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 364–5 Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate), 390 Case 13 (dying forest), 406–7 Case 14 (fish kill), 425–6 Case 15 (contaminated land), 466–7 Case 16 (polluted river), 505–6 Case 17 (oil spill), 551–2 Case 18 (contaminated drinking water), 573 causation, 364–5 alternative causation, 413, 426 burden of proof, 68, 147 cumulative causation, 425 easing burden of proof, 350–1 free evaluation of evidence, 365 intervening causation, 426 civil liability rules, 147–8 collective actions, 78, 149 Constitution, 143 contaminated land damages, 466–7 ecological damage, 506 emergency measures, 440, 467 lost profits, 441, 467 restoration costs, 466–7 standing, 435, 466–7 damages contaminated land, 466–7 ecological damage, 413 environmental harm, 143–4, 149 oil pollution by ships, 551–2 personal injuries and death, 149, 573 property damage, 148–9 secondary economic loss, 441, 467, 506, 525–30, 551–2 subrogation, 390 water pollution, 505–6 dangerous activities, 505 dangerous substances, 217–18 defences compliance with public law, 164, 195 contributory negligence, 196 force majeure, 195 692 INDEX Portugal (cont.) state-of-the-art, 315, 316, 325 third party damage, 163, 195 ecological damage, 425, 505 environmental liability, 142–7 fault liability, 467 burden of proof, 68, 147 civil liability rules, 147–8 environmental harm, 143 GMOs, 224, 241 historic pollution, 341 immissions, 79 joint and several liability, 396, 406–7, 413, 425–6 Lugano Convention and, negotiorum gestio, 551 neighbourhood law, 69, 70 damages, 71 dangerous substances, 218 importance, 71 liability, 147–8 preventative restrictions, 148 NGOs, standing, 528 nuclear damage, 311 conventions, 29, 311 legal channelling, 30, 291 nuclear pollution, 146 oil pollution by ships clean-up measures, 551 damages, 551–2 liability, 551 lost profits, 551–2 standing, 551 precautionary principle, 466–7 ship oil pollution conventions, 26 social insurance, subrogation, 390 standing contaminated land, 435, 466–7 NGOs, 528, 551 social insurance, 390 strict liability, 72, 76, 143 dangerous activities, 505 electricity and gas, 147 water pollution, 520–1 sudden accidents, 161, 195 waste management, 261, 274 hazardous waste production, 279, 287 water pollution clean-up costs, 505, 520–1 damages, 505–6 ecological damage, 526 fault-liability, 145, 523 lost profits, 506, 525–30 standing, 528 strict liability, 520–1 preventive measures contaminated land, 438–40, 623–5 Environmental Liability Directive, 17 Lugano Convention, recovery of local authority costs, 439, 624 prima facie evidence, 348, 610 private international law See conflict of laws product liability archetype of bilocal tort, 43–4 European Union GMOs, 222, 595–6 state-of-the-art defence, 315–16, 605 public participation, EU, 24 public service undertakings, 251–2, 604–5 public trust doctrine, 9, 12 pure economic loss contaminated land, 440–2, 625–6 oil pollution by ships, 27 water pollution, 524–5, 531, 630–1 questionnaire methodology, 56–7 text, 57–63 remedial actions Environmental Liability Directive, 17–19 Annex II, 18–19 biodiversity damage, 18–19 compensatory remediation, 18 complementary remediation, 18 land damage, 19 primary remediation, 18 water damage, 18–19 Lugano Convention, res ipsa loquitur, 69, 348, 610 Romania, 29, 44, 46 Rome Convention, 38 Russia, 29 Schweizerhalle incident, 44, 45–6, 47 Scotland Case (industrial plant), 150–1 Case (sudden accident), 196–8 Case (dangerous substances), 218–19 Case (GMOs), 241–2 Case (micro-organisms), 258–9 Case (waste disposal site), 274–5 Case (hazardous waste production), 287–8 Case (nuclear damage), 311–12 Case (harmless substance), 325 Case 10 (historic pollution), 341–2 Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 365–6 Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate), 390–1 Case 13 (dying forest), 407–8 Case 14 (fish kill), 426–8 Case 15 (contaminated land), 468–70 INDEX Case 16 (polluted river), 506–9 Case 17 (oil spill), 552–3 Case 18 (contaminated drinking water), 574 causation, 365–6 alternative causation, 413, 427 cumulative causation, 427 intervening causation, 428 novus actus interveniens, 198 standard of proof, 348, 366, 390 statistical evidence, 374 common law liability, 69, 151 acts of God and, 196–7 contaminated land, 218–19 GMOs, 223, 241–2 historic pollution, 341 nuclear damage, 311, 312 contaminated land damages, 219, 468–70 emergency measures, 439, 469 historic pollution, 341–2 liability, 218–19, 468 local government obligations, 342, 507 lost profits, 440, 469 standing, 218, 435, 468 damages contaminated land, 219, 468–70 death, 391 emergency measures, 468–9 emotional distress, 574 GMOs, 242 oil pollution by ships, 552–3 personal injuries, 390–1, 508, 574 preventive measures, 439 pure economic loss, 218, 440, 469, 508–9, 552 road traffic accidents, 521 solatium, 391 subrogation, 375, 391 water pollution, 506–9 dangerous substances, 218–19, 521 property damage, 218 transport, 506 defences acts of God, 196–7 compliance with public law, 164, 198 contributory negligence, 165–6, 198 third party damage, 164, 197–8 volenti non fit injuria, 166, 198 fishing rights, 426 GMOs common law, 241–2 damages, 242 statutory duty of care, 242 historic pollution, 341–2 common law, 341 statutory liability, 342 693 immissions, 79 interdicts, 150 joint and several liability, 396, 407–8, 426–8 limitation periods, 329, 342 nature reserves, designation, 507 negligence GMOs, 241 hazardous waste production, 287–8 nuclear damage, 311 negotiorum gestio, 508 nuclear damage common law liability, 311, 312 statutory liability, 311–12 oil pollution by ships clean-up measures, 552 damages, 552–3 ecological damage, 553 liability, 552 lost profits, 552 standing, 552 private nuisance, 70, 71, 150 GMOs, 242–2 on-going nuisances, 150 water pollution, 427 property rights, 426–7 fish, 426 water, 426–7 public authorities breach of statutory duty, 259 recovery of emergency costs, 469 recovery of prevention costs, 439 remediation notices, 468–9 riparian rights, 508–9 Rylands v Fletcher, 150 social insurance, subrogation, 375, 391 standing contaminated land, 218, 435, 468 oil pollution by ships, 552 SEPA, 508 social insurance, 375, 391 state-of-the-art defence, 316, 325 statutory nuisances, 150–1 strict liability, 73, 75, 150 sudden accidents, 161, 196 waste management, 262, 263, 274–5 common law, 287–8 hazardous waste production, 278, 287–8 statutory liabilities, 288 water pollution clean-up costs, 506–8, 522 damages, 506–9 lost profits, 508–9 nuisance, 427 wild animals, 426 694 INDEX Serbia, 29, 38, 43 Slovakia, 29 Slovenia, 29, 34, 36–8, 43 social insurance, standing, 57, 374, 619–20 Spain actio popularis, 247 animals, 243 Aznalco´llar accident, 555 Case (industrial plant), 151–8 Case (sudden accident), 198–202 Case (dangerous substances), 219–20 Case (GMOs), 242–8 Case (micro-organisms), 259–60 Case (waste disposal site), 275–7 Case (hazardous waste production), 288–9 Case (nuclear damage), 312–14 Case (harmless substance), 325–7 Case 10 (historic pollution), 342–3 Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 366–71 Case 12 (increase in leukemia), 391–3 Case 13 (dying forest), 408–10 Case 14 (fish kill), 428–31 Case 15 (contaminated land), 470–5 Case 16 (polluted river), 509–17 Case 17 (oil spill), 553–8 Case 18 (contaminated drinking water), 574–5 causation alternative causation, 428–30 burden of proof, 67, 152, 366 construction law, 429 cumulative causation, 409, 428 easing burden of proof, 351, 368–71 free evaluation of evidence, 367 multiple tortfeasors, 413, 428–31 presumption of causation, 367–8, 370 proportional liability, 392–3 road traffic accidents, 510 standard of proof, 348, 366–7, 391 statistical evidence, 373 collective actions, 77–8, 158 Constitutional rights, 153 environment, 513 territorial waters, 553 contaminated land clean-up costs, 509–10, 523 damages, 470–5 ecological damage, 513–15, 526–7 emergency measures, 439, 471–3 lost profits, 441, 474–5 public authority liabilities, 438 restoration in kind, 470–1 standing, 219–20, 223, 436, 470–1 damages contaminated land, 437, 470–5 death, 575 emotional distress, 575 GMOs, 243–4, 245–8 nuclear accidents, 313 oil pollution by ships, 553–8 personal injuries, 154–5, 156, 246, 574–5 restitutio in integrum, 470 road traffic accidents, 509–10 secondary economic loss, 441, 474–5, 515–16, 524, 556–7 subrogation, 248, 374, 393 thresholds, 156–8 water pollution, 509–17 dangerous substances, 219–20 transport, 289 defences compliance with public law, 200–1 contributory negligence, 165, 201–2 force majeure, 199–200, 202, 509 state-of-the-art, 244, 316, 325–7 third party malfeasance, 200 ecological damage, 246–8 fault liability, 151–4, 475 burden of proof, 67, 152 foreseeability, 326 objectivisation, 152 standard of care, 152 GMOs, 226 damages, 243–4, 245–8 fault liability, 225, 242 specific regime, 243–4 strict liability, 224, 243 vicarious liability, 244–5 historic pollution, 342–3 immissions, 79 injunctions, Catalonia, 155 joint and several liability, 396, 408–10 causation, 413, 428–31 construction law, 429 hunting regulation, 429–30 improper liability, 409, 410, 411, 428 judicial role, 79 jurisdiction, administrative courts, 516–17 limitation periods, 328 neighbourhood law, 70 Catalonia, 155–6, 157 noise, right to privacy, 152–4, 220 nuclear damage, 312–14 conventions, 29, 313 damages, 313 legal channelling, 313 operators’ liability, 313 third party actions, 313 oil pollution by ships clean-up measures, 553–4 damages, 553–8 INDEX ecological damage, 557–8 international obligations, 26, 557 liability, 554–5 lost profits, 556–7 Prestige accident, 246, 515, 553–4, 556–7 standing, 555 polluter pays principle, 154 privacy rights, 150, 220 product liability 1973 Convention, 43 contributory negligence, 201 GMOs, 243 state-of-the-art defence, 316, 326 public authorities liabilities, 473 recovery of emergency costs, 439, 471–3 strict liability, 251, 259–60, 263 waste, 276 social insurance, 248, 374, 393 standing, 158 Catalonia, 219 contaminated land, 219–20, 223, 436, 470–1 Navarra, 219 NGOs, 511–13, 530, 555 social insurance, 374, 393 strict liability, 73–4 GMOs, 224 toxic fumes, 151 sudden accidents, 161, 198–9 waste management, 262–3 hazardous waste production, 279, 288–9 specific regime, 275–7 water pollution clean-up costs, 523 damages, 509–17 lost profits, 515–16, 524 standing, 511–13, 530 standing Case 12 (b), social insurance, 374–5 Case 15, 62, 435–6 comparisons, 619–20 contaminated land, 435–6, 620–1 neighbourhood laws, 71, 583 NGOs, 528–30, 532, 634–6 personal injuries and death, 562 state-of-the-art defence Case 9, 56, 315 comparisons, 315–17, 605–7 statistical evidence Case 12(a), 57, 61, 372 comparisons, 372, 374–6, 613–15 strict liability comparisons, 72–6, 583–8, 642 dangerous activities, 584–7 695 defences, 166, 643–4 European Union, product liability, 222 GMOs, 223–5 specific regimes, 587–8 state-of-the-art defence and, 315–17, 605–7 water pollution, 520–2, 626–9 sudden accidents See Case (sudden accident) sustainable development, Sweden Case (industrial plant), 159–60 Case (sudden accident), 202–3 Case (dangerous substances), 220–1 Case (GMOs), 249 Case (micro-organisms), 260 Case (waste disposal site), 277 Case (hazardous waste production), 289, 290 Case 10 (historic pollution), 343 Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 371 Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate), 394 Case 13 (dying forest), 410, 411 Case 14 (fish kill), 431 Case 15 (contaminated land), 476–7 Case 16 (polluted river), 517–19 Case 17 (oil spill), 559 Case 18 (contaminated drinking water), 576 causation, 431 burden of proof, 371 standard of proof, 348, 371 statistical evidence, 374 Chernobyl accident and, 45 collective actions, 78, 160, 518 comprehensive environmental liability, 79, 159–60 contaminated land damages, 542–3 emergency costs, 476 lost profits, 476–7 restoration costs, 476 standing, 220, 436, 476 contributory negligence, 203 damages, 71, 159 contaminated land, 542–3 oil pollution by ships, 559 personal injuries and death, 394, 576 pure economic loss, 519, 524–3, 559 road traffic accidents, 517, 521–2 subrogation, 375 water pollution, 517–19 dangerous micro-organisms, 250 defences compliance with public law, 203 force majeure, 162, 166 696 INDEX Sweden (cont.) state-of-the-art, 316 fault liability, 160 GMOs neighbourhood law, 249 strict liability, 249 international law obligations, 518 joint and several liability, 410, 411, 431 limitation periods, 330, 343 negligence, 159 negotiorum gestio, 440 neighbourhood law GMOs, 249 strict liability, 221 nuclear damage, 314 conventions, 29 legal channelling, 30 nuisance law, 71 oil pollution by ships clean-up measures, 559 damages, 559 ecological damage, 559 international obligations, 26, 559 liability, 559 lost profits, 559 public authorities recovery of emergency costs, 439, 476 standing, 476, 517, 518 social insurance, 375 standing, 71 contaminated land, 220, 436, 476 NGOs, 518, 528 personal injuries and death, 394 public authorities, 476, 517, 518 social insurance, 375 strict liability, 67, 72, 75, 159 GMOs, 224 neighbourhood law, 221 road traffic accidents, 517, 521–2 thresholds, 159–60 sudden accidents, 161, 202–3 waste management, 261, 277 water pollution clean-up costs, 517–18, 521–2 damages, 517–19 ecological damage, 518, 526 lost profits, 519, 524–3 secondary economic loss, 524–3 standing, 518, 528 Switzerland Chernobyl accident and, 45 conflict of laws, 43, 46–7 nuclear conventions, 29 Schweizerhalle incident, 44, 45–6, 47 Tampere Conclusions, 39 torts bilocal torts archetypes, 43–4 EU rules, 43 product liability, 43–4 specific domestic statutes, 46–8 comparisons, 642–4, 648 conflict of laws domestic laws, 33–8 proposed EU rules, 38–43 transboundary damage statutes, 46–8 national laws, 642–4, 648 ownership of natural resources and, 12 transboundary environmental damage Basel Protocol (1993), 31 Environmental Liability Directive, cooperation, 23 Hague Conference, 48–9, 50 increasing number of accidents, 44–6 torts bilocal torts, 44 national conflict of laws rules, 33–8 proposed EU rules, 38–43, 48–51 specific domestic solutions, 46–8 transport conventions, 31–2 Turkey, 29 Ukraine, 29 UNCLOS, 540 United Kingdom conflict of laws, 35–6, 37 nuclear conventions, 29, 30, 290 nuclear damage, limitation periods, 290, 299 ship oil pollution conventions, 26 United States CERCLA, 9–11 citizens suits, 459 class actions, 158 defences, 10 environmental damages, 10–11 environmental legislation, 9–12 international torts, theories, 33–4 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 12 Oil Pollution Act (OPA), 11–12 public trust doctrine, 9, 12 unjust enrichment, 439–40, 528, 624, 634 volenti non fit injuria, 592 war damage, 21–2, 27 waste management Case 6, 56, 59, 261 comparisons, 261–3, 599–601 Environmental Liability Directive, 20 INDEX hazardous waste Basel Protocol (1993), 31 Case 7, 56, 59, 278 comparisons, 278–9, 601 illegal dumping, 263, 600 Lugano Convention, water pollution Case 16, 57, 62 Case 17, 57, 520 697 clean-up costs, 531 comparisons, 520–32, 626–36, 647 Environmental Liability Directive, 16, 18–19 lost profits, 524–5, 531, 630–1 specific liability regimes, 522–3, 628–9 strict liability, 520–2 wild animals, 413, 617–18 ... Liability and Ecological Damage in European Law Edited by Monika Hinteregger CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press. ..This page intentionally left blank Environmental Liability and Ecological Damage in European Law Providing a comprehensive analysis of environmental liability law in Europe, this book... between lawyers of different traditions are employed to draw at least the main lines of a reliable map of the law of Europe Books in the series Environmental Liability and Ecological Damage in European