ground water tủ tài liệu bách khoa

WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA GROUND WATER WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA Editor-in-Chief Jay Lehr, Ph.D Senior Editor Jack Keeley Associate Editor Janet Lehr Information Technology Director Thomas B Kingery III Editorial Staff Vice President, STM Books: Janet Bailey Editorial Director, STM Encyclopedias: Sean Pidgeon Executive Editor: Bob Esposito Director, Book Production and Manufacturing: Camille P Carter Production Manager: Shirley Thomas Senior Production Editor: Kellsee Chu Illustration Manager: Dean Gonzalez Editorial Program Coordinator: Jonathan Rose WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA GROUND WATER Jay Lehr, Ph.D Editor-in-Chief Jack Keeley Senior Editor Janet Lehr Associate Editor Thomas B Kingery III Information Technology Director The Water Encyclopedia is available online at http://www.mrw.interscience.wiley.com/eow/ A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication Copyright  2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc All rights reserved Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400, fax 978-646-8600, or on the web at www.copyright.com Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008 Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation You should consult with a professional where appropriate Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages For general information on our other products and services please contact our Customer Care Department within the U.S at 877-762-2974, outside the U.S at 317-572-3993 or fax 317-572-4002 Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print, however, may not be available in electronic format Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available Lehr, Jay Water Encyclopedia: Ground Water ISBN 0-471-73683-X ISBN 0-471-44164-3 (Set) Printed in the United States of America 10 CONTENTS Preface Contributors ix xi Geothermal Water Ghijben–Herzberg Equilibrium Groundwater Balance Hydraulic Head The Role of Heat in Groundwater Systems Groundwater Flow in Heterogenetic Sediments and Fractured Rock Systems Horizontal Wells Horizontal Wells in Groundwater Remediation Head Well Hydraulics and Aquifer Tests Hydraulic Properties Characterization Mobility of Humic Substances in Groundwater Assessment of Groundwater Quality in District Hardwar, Uttaranchal, India Irrigation Water Quality in District Hardwar, Uttaranchal, India Infiltration and Soil Water Processes Infiltration/Capacity/Rates Infiltrometers Summary of Isotopes in Contaminant Hydrogeology Environmental Isotopes in Hydrogeology Water-Jetting Drilling Technologies for Well Installation And In Situ Remediation of Hydrocarbons, Solvents, and Metals Karst Hydrology Karst Topography Detecting Modern Groundwaters with 85 Kr Land Use Impacts on Groundwater Quality Groundwater Contamination From Municipal Landfills in the USA Metal Organic Interactions in Subtitle D Landfill Leachates and Associated Ground Waters Leaching Well Maintenance Megawatersheds Mass Transport in Saturated Media Soil and Water Contamination by Heavy Metals Source, Mobility, and Remediation of Metals Genetics of Metal Tolerance and Accumulation in Higher Plants In Situ Groundwater Remediation for Heavy Metal Contamination Methane in Groundwater Fossil Aquifers What is a Hydrochemical Model? Modeling Non-Point Source Pollutants in the Vadose Zone Using GIS Modeling Techniques for Solute Transport in Groundwater Ambient Groundwater Monitoring Network Strategies and Design MTBE Ground Water Acid Mine Drainage: Sources and Treatment in the United States Aquifers Artificial Recharge of Unconfined Aquifer Groundwater and Arsenic: Chemical Behavior and Treatment Treatment of Arsenic, Chromium, and Biofouling in Water Supply Wells Artesian Water Modeling Contaminant Transport and Biodegradation in Groundwater Biofouling in Water Wells In Situ Bioremediation of Contaminated Groundwater Process Limitations of In Situ Bioremediation of Groundwater Black Mesa Monitoring Program Brine Deposits Connate Water Consolidated Water Bearing Rocks Sensitivity of Groundwater to Contamination Water Contamination by Low Level Organic Waste Compounds in the Hydrologic System Darcy’s Law Groundwater Dating with Radiocarbon Groundwater Dating with H–He Dating Groundwaters with Tritium Recharge in Desert Regions Around The World Hydrologic Feasibility Assessment and Design in Phytoremediation Well Design and Construction Physical Properties of DNAPLs and Groundwater Contamination Water Dowsing (Witching) Subsurface Drainage Drawdown Water Level Drawdown Water Well Drilling Techniques Groundwater Dye Tracing in Karst Earthquakes—Rattling the Earth’s Plumbing System In Situ Electrokinetic Treatment of MtBE, Benzene, and Chlorinated Solvents Field Capacity Groundwater Flow Properties Fluoride Contamination in Ground Water Rock Fracture Geochemical Models Geochemical Modeling-Computer Codes Geochemical Modeling—Computer Code Concepts Geological Occurrence of Groundwater Geophysics and Remote Sensing 11 17 22 29 30 35 38 42 48 51 54 55 56 60 63 64 65 69 72 76 87 91 92 94 101 102 105 107 111 116 124 128 130 136 138 140 142 145 145 v 156 158 162 169 172 175 177 178 180 182 184 188 192 204 210 212 214 216 227 234 235 243 248 250 253 258 260 263 266 273 275 280 284 290 293 294 295 299 305 313 318 vi CONTENTS Limiting Geochemical Factors in Remediation Using Monitored Natural Attenuation and Enhanced Bioremediation Nitrate Contamination of Groundwater Treatment for Nitrates in Groundwater Nonpoint Sources Organic Compounds in Ground Water Overdraft Chemical Oxidation Technologies for Groundwater Remediation Particulate Transport in Groundwater—Bacteria and Colloids Perched Groundwater Permeability Groundwater Vulnerability to Pesticides: An Overview of Approaches and Methods of Evaluation High pH Groundwater—The Effect of The Dissolution of Hardened Cement Pastes Phytoextraction and Phytostabilization: Technical, Economic and Regulatory Considerations of the Soil-Lead Issue Phytoextraction of Zinc and Cadmium from Soils Using Hyperaccumulator Plants Phytoremediation Enhancement of Natural Attenuation Processes Bacteria Role in the Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals Phytoremediation of Lead-Contaminated Soils Phytoremediation of Methyl Tertiary-Butyl Ether Phytoremediation of Selenium-Laden Soils Soil Pipes and Pipe Flow Low Flow Groundwater Purging and Surging Groundwater Quality Radial Wells Recharge in Arid Regions Sub-Surface Redox Chemistry: A Comparison of Equilibrium and Reaction-Based Approaches Regional Flow Systems Groundwater Remediation by Injection and Problem Prevention Groundwater Remediation: In Situ Passive Methods Groundwater Remediation by In Situ Aeration and Volatilization Remediation of Contaminated Soils Groundwater Remediation Project Life Cycle Innovative Contaminated Groundwater Remediation Technologies Resistivity Methods Risk Analysis of Buried Wastes From Electricity Generation Groundwater Contamination from Runoff Saline Seep Groundwater Sampling Techniques for Environmental Projects Groundwater Sampling with Passive Diffusion Samplers Specific Capacity 319 322 323 331 337 340 344 349 352 355 357 362 365 369 374 376 381 385 397 401 404 406 407 408 413 417 421 423 426 432 436 438 443 448 451 453 454 456 460 Soil Water Soil and Groundwater Geochemistry and Microbiology Characterizing Soil Spatial Variability Deep Soil-Water Movement Specific Gravity Hot Springs Squeezing Water from Rock Storage Coefficient Qanats: An Ingenious Sustainable Groundwater Resource System Lysimeters Steady-State Flow Aquifer Tests Tidal Efficiency Combined Free and Porous Flow in the Subsurface Groundwater Tracing Hydraulic Conductivity/Transmissibility Groundwater Flow and Transport Process Reactive Transport in The Saturated Zone: Case Histories for Permeable Reactive Barriers Transport of Reactive Solute in Soil and Groundwater Water in The Unsaturated Zone Groundwater and Vadose Zone Hydrology Vadose Zone Monitoring Techniques Vapor Transport in the Unsaturated Zone Applications of Soil Vapor Data to Groundwater Investigations Groundwater Velocities Viscous Flow Vulnerability Mapping of Groundwater Resources Water/Rocks Interaction Ground Water: Wells Well Screens Well TEST Safe Yield of an Aquifer Specific Yield Storage Equation Microbial Processes Affecting Monitored Natural Attenuation of Contaminants in the Subsurface Groundwater Vulnerability to Pesticides: Statistical Approaches Groundwater—Nature’s Hidden Treasure Pharmaceuticals, Hormones, and Other Organic Wastewater Contaminants in U.S Streams The Environmental Impact of Iron in Groundwater Groundwater and Cobalt: Chemical Behavior and Treatment Groundwater and Cadmium: Chemical Behavior and Treatment Groundwater Modeling Groundwater and Benzene: Chemical Behavior and Treatment Groundwater and Nitrate: Chemical Behavior and Treatment Groundwater and Perchlorate: Chemical Behavior and Treatment 461 463 465 471 473 475 477 480 483 487 491 497 498 501 507 514 518 524 531 533 538 543 548 554 555 561 566 571 572 574 575 576 578 594 599 605 608 610 613 619 626 628 631 CONTENTS Groundwater and Vinyl Chloride: Chemical Behavior and Treatment Groundwater and Uranium: Chemical Behavior and Treatment Groundwater and Mercury: Chemical Behavior and Treatment Groundwater and Lead: Chemical Behavior and Treatment Laminar Flow Finite Element Modeling of Coupled Free and Porous Flow Unconfined Groundwater 634 640 642 645 649 655 662 Modeling of DNAPL Migration in Saturated Porous Media The Use of Semipermeable Membrane Devices (SPMDs) for Monitoring, Exposure, and Toxicity Assessment River-Connected Aquifers: Geophysics, Stratigraphy, Hydrogeology, and Geochemistry vii 668 672 677 Index 689 Cumulative Index 711 PREFACE from many American scholars, equally superb writings from such diverse countries as England, Nigeria, India, Iran, Thailand, and Greece are provided As the origins of the selected articles are diverse, so are the subjects of discussion Along with straightforward descriptions of basic groundwater concepts (drawdown around pumping wells, hydraulic head, field capacity, and flow), the reader is introduced to more complex subjects (isotope technologies, aquifer tests, in situ remediation, tritium dating, modeling, and geophysical properties) There are also articles for more practical applications (well maintenance, subsurface drainage, nitrate contamination, tracer tests, well yields, and drilling technologies) Of course, for the more fanciful reader, we have selected articles that remind us of the way windmills sounded at night, the ancient use of qanats in Persia to provide sustainable groundwater resources, and the development of Darcy’s Law In the end, we feel that the information provided will afford an educational home for readers approaching the Water Encyclopedia from a variety of needs as well as different levels of scientific acumen We are also confident that many readers will simply be expanding their knowledge base by these sets of enjoyable reading Throughout history, groundwater has played a major role in providing the resource needs of the world It accounts for 97% of the world’s freshwater and serves as the base flow for all streams, springs, and rivers In the United States, one half of the population relies on groundwater for its drinking water and is the sole source of supply for 20 of the 100 largest cities Well over 90% of rural America is totally dependent on groundwater An inventory of the total groundwater resources in the United States can be visualized as being equal to the flow of the Mississippi River at Vicksburg for a period of 250 years One of the first groundwater scientists was a French engineer who was in charge of public drinking water in Dijon In 1856, Henri Darcy conducted experiments and published mathematical expressions describing the flow of water through sand filters His work remains one of the cornerstones of today’s groundwater hydrologists At about the same time, a Connecticut court ruled that the influences of groundwater movement are so secret, changeable, and uncontrollable that they could not be subject to regulations of law, nor to a system of rules, as had been done with surface streams In this volume of the Water Encyclopedia, we have attempted to erase the ignorance that existed in the early years of groundwater science by presenting the most current knowledge on the subject as provided by authors from around the globe In addition to excellent articles Jay Lehr Jack Keeley ix CONTRIBUTORS Flow, Combined Free and Porous Flow in the Subsurface, Modeling Techniques for Solute Transport in Groundwater Rupali Datta, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, Remediation of Contaminated Soils, Genetics of Metal Tolerance and Accumulation in Higher Plants, Phytoextraction of Zinc and Cadmium from Soils Using Hyperaccumulator Plants, Phytoremediation of Selenium-Laden Soils, Phytoextraction and Phytostabilization: Technical, Economic and Regulatory Considerations of the Soil-Lead Issue Ali H Davani, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, Remediation of Contaminated Soils L.C Davis, (from Phytoremediation: Transformation and Control of Contaminants, Wiley 2003), Phytoremediation of Methyl Tertiary-Butyl Ether Melissa R Dawe, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada, River-Connected Aquifers: Geophysics, Stratigraphy, Hydrogeology, and Geochemistry Steven A Dielman, ENVIRON International Corporation, Arlington, Virginia, Hydraulic Conductivity/Transmissibility Craig E Divine, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado, Groundwater Sampling with Passive Diffusion Samplers, Detecting Modern Groundwaters with 85 Kr, Groundwater Dating with H–He Shonel Dwyer, Environmental Bio-Systems, Inc., Mill Valley, California, Groundwater and Perchlorate: Chemical Behavior and Treatment Aly I El-Kadi, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, Unconfined Groundwater Environment Canada, Groundwater—Nature’s Hidden Treasure L.E Erickson, (from Phytoremediation: Transformation and Control of Contaminants, Wiley 2003), Phytoremediation of Methyl Tertiary-Butyl Ether Thomas R Fisher, Horn Point Laboratory—UMCES, Solomons, Maryland, What is a Hydrochemical Model? Craig Foreman, Environmental Bio-Systems, Inc., Mill Valley, California, Groundwater and Cadmium: Chemical Behavior and Treatment Devin L Galloway, U.S Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado, Earthquakes—Rattling the Earth’s Plumbing System Lorraine Geddes-McDonald, Environmental Bio-Systems, Inc., Mill Valley, California, Groundwater and Nitrate: Chemical Behavior and Treatment ´ Mario Abel Goncalves, ¸ Faculdade de Ciˆencias da Universidade de Lisoba, Lisoba, Portugal, Metal Organic Interactions in Subtitle D Landfill Leachates and Associated Ground Waters, Geochemical ModelingComputer Codes, Geochemical Models Jason J Gurdak, U.S Geological Survey, Lakewood, Colorado and Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado, Groundwater Vulnerability to Pesticides: Statistical Approaches Navraj S Hanspal, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom, Modeling Techniques for Solute Transport in Groundwater, Viscous Flow, Laminar Flow, Finite Element Modeling of Coupled Free and Porous Flow Thomas Harter, University of California, Davis, California, Specific Yield Storage Equation, Vulnerability Mapping of Groundwater Resources, Aquifers Blayne Hartman, H&P Mobile Geochemistry, Solana Beach, California, Applications of Soil Vapor Data to Groundwater Investigations Joseph Holden, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom, Infiltrometers, Soil Pipes and Pipe Flow, Infiltration and Soil Water Processes, Darcy’s Law, Infiltration/Capacity/Rates Ekkehard Holzbecher, Humboldt Universitat ¨ Berlin, Berlin, Germany, Groundwater Modeling, Ghijben–Herzberg Equilibrium Paul F Hudak, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, Mass Transport in Saturated Media John D Humphrey, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado, Groundwater Dating with H–He S.L Hutchinson, (from Phytoremediation: Transformation and Control of Contaminants, Wiley 2003), Hydrologic Feasibility Assessment and Design in Phytoremediation Th.A Ioannidis, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece, Phytoremediation of Lead-Contaminated Soils Segun Adelana, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria, Summary of Isotopes in Contaminant Hydrogeology, Environmental Isotopes in Hydrogeology Mohammad N Almasri, An-Najah National University, Nablus, Palestine, Groundwater Flow and Transport Process Tom A Al, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada, River-Connected Aquifers: Geophysics, Stratigraphy, Hydrogeology, and Geochemistry Larry Amskold, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada, River-Connected Aquifers: Geophysics, Stratigraphy, Hydrogeology, and Geochemistry Ann Azadpour-Keeley, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, ORD, U.S EPA, Ada, Oklahoma, Microbial Processes Affecting Monitored Natural Attenuation of Contaminants in the Subsurface, Nitrate Contamination of Groundwater Mukand Singh Babel, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathumthani, Thailand, Groundwater Velocities, Groundwater Flow Properties, Water in The Unsaturated Zone Philip B Bedient, Rice University, Houston, Texas, Transport of Reactive Solute in Soil and Groundwater David M Bednar, Jr., Michael Baker, Jr Inc., Shreveport, Louisiana, Karst Hydrology, Karst Topography, Groundwater Dye Tracing in Karst Milovan Beljin, Cincinnati, Ohio, Horizontal Wells Craig H Benson, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, Reactive Transport in The Saturated Zone: Case Histories for Permeable Reactive Barriers Robert A Bisson, Alexandria, Virginia, Megawatersheds William J Blanford, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, Vadose Zone Monitoring Techniques Thomas B Boving, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, Organic Compounds in Ground Water, Innovative Contaminated Groundwater Remediation Technologies Richard C Brody, UC Berkeley, Berkeley, California, Connate Water Kristofor R Brye, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, Lysimeters, Soil and Water Contamination by Heavy Metals Gunnar Buckau, Institut fur ă Nukleare Entsorgung, Karlsruhe, Germany, Mobility of Humic Substances in Groundwater Bureau of Indian Affairs and Arizona Department of Water Resources—U.S Geological Survey, Black Mesa Monitoring Program Karl E Butler, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada, River-Connected Aquifers: Geophysics, Stratigraphy, Hydrogeology, and Geochemistry Herbert T Buxton, United States Geological Survey, Pharmaceuticals, Hormones, and Other Organic Wastewater Contaminants in U.S Streams Natalie L Capiro, Rice University, Houston, Texas, Transport of Reactive Solute in Soil and Groundwater Harendra S Chauhan, G.B Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Uttar Pradesh, India, Steady-State Flow Aquifer Tests, Subsurface Drainage Bernard L Cohen, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Risk Analysis of Buried Wastes From Electricity Generation David P Commander, Water and Rivers Commission, East Perth, Australia, Water Dowsing (Witching), Artesian Water Dennis L Corwin, USDA-ARS George E Brown, Jr., Salinity Laboratory, Riverside, California, Characterizing Soil Spatial Variability, Modeling Non-Point Source Pollutants in the Vadose Zone Using GIS, Groundwater Vulnerability to Pesticides: An Overview of Approaches and Methods of Evaluation Colin C Cunningham, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom, In Situ Bioremediation of Contaminated Groundwater William L Cunningham, U.S Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado, Earthquakes—Rattling the Earth’s Plumbing System Uwe Dannwolf, URS Australia Pty Ltd., Turner, Australia, Groundwater and Vadose Zone Hydrology Diganta Bhusan Das, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom, Viscous Flow, Finite Element Modeling of Coupled Free and Porous xi 832 CUMULATIVE INDEX Ultraviolet irradiation, 1:469–470 See also Ultraviolet (UV) radiation Unaccounted-for water (UFW), calculating, 1:318 Unaccounted for water indicator, 2:492, 496 Uncertainty, 2:599 in hydrologic data, 2:621 participatory multicriteria decision-making under, 2:681 in pesticide assessments, 5:358–359 in pesticide vulnerability assessment, 5:598 in rainfall–runoff modeling, 4:297–303 sources of, 2:674–675; 3:325–326 types of, 2:680 Uncertainty analysis, 3:117 approaches to, 3:326 in watershed modeling, 3:325–327 Unconfined aquifer flows, 5:492–493 Unconfined aquifers, 5:11, 88, 145, 483, 497 artificial recharge of, 5:11–17 barometric efficiency of, 4:168 drawdown in, 5:103–104 storage in, 5:515–516 storativity in, 5:129–130 water flow in, 5:662–663 Unconfined groundwater, 5:662–667 case study of, 5:665 Underground injection control (UIC), 4:679–680 Underground pipeline, 1:883–891 assessment of, 1:884–887 repair and renewal of, 1:887–891 Underground water storage, 3:164 Undersea ‘‘windmills,’’ 4:24 Underwater acoustical monitoring, 4:91–92 See also Underwater sound detection Underwater light, availability of, 3:276 Underwater sound detection, 4:570–571 See also Underwater acoustical monitoring Underwater volcanoes, 4:90 Underwater weapon tests, as water pollution, 4:102–103 Undeveloped areas, impact on groundwater quality, 5:250 Ungauged watersheds, modeling, 3:342–345 Uniform fluid flows, 3:194 ‘‘Uniform numeric limitations,’’ 1:755–756 Unilateralism, in water management, 3:19 Un-ionized ammonia concentrations, 3:131 United Nations, public trust guidelines of, 2:609 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 3:208 United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), planning analysis objectives, 2:683 United Nations World Water Development Report, 2:548, 549 United Soil Classification System (USCS), 3:689–690 calculation, 3:61t United States See also Federal entries; U.S entries; Western United States acid mine drainage in, 3:10–11; 5:1–9 ambient standards for waters of, 1:755 aquatic environment clean up by, 2:184 classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats in, 3:496–498 disinfectant use in, 1:195 distribution of pharmaceuticals in, 1:373 drinking water quality in, 2:373 evolution of water use in, 2:646t flood damages in, 3:146 groundwater contamination from municipal landfills in, 5:253–258 history of Water Pollution Control Act in, 4:651–655 irrigation in, 3:586–594 Lake Baikal studies by, 3:21 new water sources in, 2:649–650 1990 industrial water use in, 1:620–622 nitrate concentrations in, 1:31–32 nitrate data for, 1:32t percentage of precipitation in, 4:226 pesticide use in, 3:655 selenium containment strategy in, 2:358 source-water protection in, 2:312–313 total water withdrawals in, 2:646t water consumption patterns in, 2:651 water markets in, 2:500 water quality management in, 2:193–198 water quality policy in, 2:127–128 water quality standards in, 1:476–481; 2:268 water saving measures in, 2:649 water use in, 1:805; 2:645–650, 650–653 wetlands in, 3:493; 4:690–694 United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 1:33, 145, 287, 531–533 See also Environmental Protection Agency (EPA); USEPA entries drinking water standards, 1:183–184 fish advisories, 3:119 maximum contaminant levels, 2:233 water quality standards, 2:373 water reuse guidelines, 2:611 United States–Mexico border waters, 4:636–641 binational agreements related to, 4:645–646 current developments regarding, 4:646 treaties and conventions regarding, 4:643–645 United States Weather Bureau, 4:347–348 Unit flood response approach, 3:156–157 Unit hydrograph (UH), 3:221–222 dimensions of, 4:356 Unit hydrograph models, 4:357–359 Unit hydrograph theory, 4:355–360 limitations of, 4:356 mathematical representation in, 4:356–357 Univariate spectral analysis, 4:339 Universal metering, 1:494 Universal soil loss equation (USLE), 2:535 Universities, land-grant, 3:597–598 Unloading fractures, 5:177 Water Encyclopedia: Domestic, Municipal, and Industrial Water Supply and Waste Disposal (Vol 1) Water Encyclopedia: Water Quality and Resource Development (Vol 2) Water Encyclopedia: Surface and Agricultural Water (Vol 3) Water Encyclopedia: Oceanography; Meteorology; Physics and Chemistry; Water Law; and Water History, Art, and Culture (Vol 4) Water Encyclopedia: Ground Water (Vol 5) CUMULATIVE INDEX Unplanned water recycling, 2:610 Unrecognized organic chemicals, in urban stormwater runoff, 3:435 Unrecognized pollutants, 3:371–373 Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule/ Regulations (UCMR), 2:345; 4:678 Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity, 5:126, 471–472 Unsaturated soil properties, modeling, 5:538 Unsaturated zone, 2:548; 5:600 vapor transport in, 5:543–548 water in, 5:531–533 Unsteady-state flows, 5:491 Unsteady-state software tools, 2:327–328 Unsteady-state subsurface drainage theory, 5:96 Unsteady-state uniform flow, 3:251 Unsustainable water supply systems, 1:505 Upflow anaerobic sludge bed (UASB), 1:906 Upflow anaerobic sludge bed reactor, 1:518, 519, 618f Upflow filtration, 2:366 Upflow roughing filters, 1:237, 239, 240–241 Upland-‘‘confined’’ dredged sediment disposal, 2:124–125 Upper Mississippi River Source Water Protection Initiative, 2:312 Upward contaminant vapor flux, 5:553 Upward vapor migration, from groundwater devolatilization, 5:553 Upwelling, 4:24–25 Uranine, 3:96 in groundwater tracing, 5:505–506 Uranium (U), 4:542 fate and transport of, 5:640 in groundwater, 5:640–642 health risks of, 1:395–396; 5:641 processing of, 5:640–641 remediation of, 5:641–642 uses of, 5:641 Uranium series isotopes, 5:232 Urban creeks, 3:432 water quality in, 3:433 Urban Drainage and Sewer Master Plan, Ho Chi Minh City, 2:553 Urban drainage models, 3:337–338 calibration and verification of, 3:338 future of, 3:341 real-time hydrologic information and, 1:125 Urban drainage systems, modeling real-time control and active real-time control of, 3:340–341 Urban flooding, 3:159–163 causes of, 3:160 cities that experience, 3:339–340 extent of, 3:160–161 future perspectives and challenges related to, 3:162 impact on society, 3:161 modeling, 3:161–162, 339–340 understanding and reducing, 3:161–162 Urbanization effects of, 3:430 influence on the hydrologic cycle, 4:281–282 pollution due to, 2:181 Urban landscape, water quality management in, 2:189–193 Urban land use, impact on groundwater quality, 5:250–251 Urban river sites case study, 2:172 Urban runoff, 2:190, 192; 3:498–501 See also Urban stormwater runoff causes of, 5:451 groundwater contamination, 5:452–453 gully pot effluent treatment and, 3:499 indicator parameters of, 2:192t managing, 2:187 nonpoint source pollution from, 2:186–187 as a source of cultural eutrophication, 3:115 into urban watercourses, 3:499–500 Urban services, efficiency of, 2:491–492 Urban stormwater runoff evaluating impacts of, 3:433–436 regulating, 3:432–433 water quality issues in, 3:432–437 Urban wastewater reuse, 1:817 Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive, 2:45 833 Urban water demand, 2:490–491 Urban water distribution systems, modeling chlorine residuals in, 1:131–137 Urban water resource management, in Asia, 2:552–554 Urban watershed protection approach, 2:191 Urban water studies, 3:501–503 Urban water supply, in developing countries, 2:632 Urinals, water-free, 1:678–679 Urine separation, 1:843 U.S Agency for International Development, 2:489 U.S Army Corps of Engineers See Army Corps of Engineers U.S./Canadian Boundary Waters Treaty, 4:620–621 U.S coastal waters, oil spills in, 2:291t U.S Constitution, water planning and, 4:604–605 U.S Department of Agriculture (USDA), 2:186 See also United States agricultural land use planning program, 3:596 U.S Department of Agriculture Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA NRCS), agricultural drainage ditch research, 3:88–90 U.S Department of the Interior (DOI), 2:186 U.S Department of Transportation (DOT), 2:186 USEPA codes, 5:141 See also Arsenic standard (USEPA); EPA Regional Ground Water Forum USEPA ‘‘priority elements,’’ effect on fish, 3:131t U.S EPA Subtitle D dry tomb landfilling, 2:163–164 USEPA Test and Evaluation (T&E) Facility, 2:509–510 U.S Geological Survey (USGS), 2:311, 312; 3:349 codes, 5:140–141 contaminant study, 5:60–62 U.S Geological Survey National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program, 3:608–609 U.S National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 2:624 Water Encyclopedia: Domestic, Municipal, and Industrial Water Supply and Waste Disposal (Vol 1) Water Encyclopedia: Water Quality and Resource Development (Vol 2) Water Encyclopedia: Surface and Agricultural Water (Vol 3) Water Encyclopedia: Oceanography; Meteorology; Physics and Chemistry; Water Law; and Water History, Art, and Culture (Vol 4) Water Encyclopedia: Ground Water (Vol 5) 834 CUMULATIVE INDEX U.S Public Health Service (USPHS), 1:287 1962 standards of, 1:288, 292–297 U.S Salinity Laboratory Classification, 2:159–160, 161t; 5:208–210 USS Monitor, discovery of, 4:62–63 U.S streams, organic wastewater contaminants in, 5:605–608 U.S waterways, contamination of, 2:122 UV dosage, 1:469 See also Ultraviolet (UV) radiation UV light components, 1:467–468 U-V-P finite element scheme, 5:658 UV sources, 1:470 UV treatment system, 1:470 Vacuoles, sequestration of metals in, 5:287–288 Vadose models, 5:77 Vacuum breakers, 1:156–157 Vacuum compression, 1:171 Vacuum filters, 1:176 Vacuum flotation, 3:407 Vacuum gauge tensiometers, 3:724–729 handling of, 3:728 response time of, 3:725 Vacuum toilet systems, 1:679 Vadose zone, 5:105 averaged transport through, 5:77–80 capillary flow in, 5:73 contaminant vapor transport through, 5:551 flow processes in, 5:537–538 hydrology, 5:533–538 macropore flow in, 5:73 materials, 5:535–537 modeling non-point source pollutants in, 5:299–305 processes in, 5:534–535 soil samples from, 3:688 Vadose zone gas monitoring, direct, 5:542 Vadose zone monitoring techniques, 5:538–543 direct, 5:541–542 indirect, 5:539–541 Vadose zone tracers, dyes as, 3:96–98 Vaiont Dam collapse, 3:147 Valley-floor gullies, 3:183 Valley-floor slope, 3:187 VALIMAR monitoring project, 2:31, 32 Valtin, Heinz, 4:789–791 Valuation approaches, direct, 4:607–608 ‘‘Value-added’’ ocean observations, 4:23 Value estimation methodologies, 4:607 ‘‘Valvecard’’ software, 1:484 Valve-exercising program, 1:401 Valves, 1:482–485 common problems with, 1:483–484 control of, 1:483 double check, 1:156 high velocities through, 1:484 insertion, 1:890 operation and maintenance of, 1:484 safety of, 1:484–485 types of, 1:482–483 water distribution system, 1:208 water hammer and, 1:262, 263f, 484 Van der Meer expressions, 4:16 van der Waals forces, 1:99; 4:387, 469 Vaporization, heat of, 4:263–265 Vapor migration, from groundwater devolatilization, 5:553 Vapor pressure, 4:271–272, 366, 522, 528–529 determining, 4:272–273 Vapors, leaking, 5:552 Vapor sampling, 5:545 Vapor transport, in the unsaturated zone, 5:543–548 Variability indexes, streamflow, 3:104 Variable uncertainty, 3:325–326 Variance technologies, 1:457 Vegetable crops, microirrigation of, 3:625 Vegetables nitrate and nitrite levels in, 3:639 organochlorine pesticides in, 3:643–647 Vegetated riparian buffers, 3:391 Vegetated submerged bed (VSB) systems, 1:787 Vegetated systems, for storm water treatment, 1:868 Vegetation See also Plant entries acid deposition and, 4:378 concentration of MtBE released through, 5:394 submerged, 3:275–281 use in water erosion control, 3:551 water stored in, 3:475 Vegetation index (VI), 3:722 Vegetation Index/Temperature (VIT) trapezoid, 3:721 Vegetation survey, 5:78 Vegetative filter strips (VFS), 3:391 Veliger settling, industrial field studies on, 1:513 Velocities, vector plots of, 5:624 Velocity approach, to incipient motion, 3:418 Velocity constraints, in water distribution systems, 1:209 Velocity meters, 1:338, 340 Vendor-supplied systems, for storm water treatment, 1:868 Venezuela, flooding in, 3:142 Ventilation, sewer system, 1:912 Vents, underwater, 4:90 Venturi meters, 1:338 Vertical auger mixing, 1:837 Vertical breakwaters, 4:17–20 Vertical drainage, 3:732; 5:98 Vertical-flow constructed wetlands, 1:896 Vertical flow pond, 2:424 Vertical flow wetlands, in acid mine treatment, 5:6 Vertical hydraulic conductivity analysis, 5:186 Vertical intake wells, 5:88 Vertical mixing, 3:81 Vertical roughing filters, 1:237 Vertical slot fish passage facility, 3:530 Vertical soil vapor, 5:550 Vertical turbine pumps, 1:393 Very low frequency induction, 5:149–150 Veterinary pharmaceuticals, 1:377 Vibrio, 1:278 Vibrio fischeri luminescent bacterium, 2:453 Vietnam, water treatment in, 2:553 Vietnam War era, ecoterrorism during, 4:653 Vinasses, composition of, 1:619t Vinyl chloride (VC), 2:266–267 characteristics and production of, 5:634–635 detection of, 5:637 disposal of, 5:635 exposure to, 5:635–636 Water Encyclopedia: Domestic, Municipal, and Industrial Water Supply and Waste Disposal (Vol 1) Water Encyclopedia: Water Quality and Resource Development (Vol 2) Water Encyclopedia: Surface and Agricultural Water (Vol 3) Water Encyclopedia: Oceanography; Meteorology; Physics and Chemistry; Water Law; and Water History, Art, and Culture (Vol 4) Water Encyclopedia: Ground Water (Vol 5) CUMULATIVE INDEX fate and transport of, 5:635 in groundwater, 5:634–640 health effects of, 5:636–637 regulation of, 5:637–638 remediation of, 5:638–639 Viral agents, 1:178 Viral disease, 2:371 Viral threat agents, 1:89 Virtual Library on Environmental Health (VLEH), 2:671–674 difficulties with, 2:673–674 Virtual temperature, 4:369 Virtual water, 2:536–537; 4:787 import and export of, 2:538–540t importation in the Nile Basin, 2:593 Virtual water balance, 2:537f national, 2:540 Virtual water content, calculating, 2:537 Virtual water flows calculating, 2:537–540 global, 2:540–541 Viruses, 1:343–344, 904; 3:669 in domestic sewage, 1:831 health effects of, 1:279 movement of, 1:71–72 removal of, 1:249, 485–489 sources of, 1:71 Virus transport modeling, 1:72–73 subsurface, 1:70–73 Viscoelastic fluids, 5:557–558 Viscosity, 5:649–650 Newton’s law of, 5:555–556 Viscous floc, 1:730 Viscous flow, 5:555–561 Viscous-flow porometers, 3:717 Visibility degradation, 4:378–379 Vitamin D metabolism, effects of lead on, 2:436 Vitotox assay, 2:175, 455 Vitrification, 1:836–837; 5:434 VLEACH code, 5:564 Void volume (α), 1:103 Volatile aromatic compounds, 2:310 Volatile fatty acids (VFA), 1:701, 702 Volatile organic chemicals/compounds (VOCs), 1:105, 353, 760, 761; 2:268, 343; 4:378; 5:543 See also Odor abatement; Perchloroethylene (PCE) adsorption of, 1:117 detection of, 2:283 occurrence of, 5:250 options for treating, 1:762f removal of, 3:368 soil vapor extraction of, 5:121–122 as water quality indicators, 2:266–267 Volatile organic contaminants, technologies for, 1:464t Volatile sulphur compounds, 4:88 Volatilization, 5:528 groundwater remediation by, 5:426–432 of heavy metals, 5:378 of nitrogen, 3:696 of persistent organic pollutants, 1:768 Volcanic activity, as a source of acidity, 3:7 Volcanic emissions, 4:159 Volcanic islands, perched groundwater in, 5:353 Volcanic water, acidification of rivers and lakes by, 3:10 Volcanoes, underwater, 4:90 Vollenweider–OECD eutrophication model, 3:110, 111, 112 Voltage, 4:442 Voltage difference, 4:442 Volume Imaging Lidar, 4:296–297 Volumetric flow rate (Q), 1:103 Volumetric reliability, 3:261 Voluntary metering, 1:494 Vortex technologies, 1:784 Vortex-type CSO solids separation unit, 1:784 VS2D model, 5:663 V-shaped basin, design discharge for, 3:245–246 Vulnerability assessment (VA), 1:424; 2:347–348 groundwater, 1:527 limitations of, 5:565 verification and postaudits of, 5:566 Vulnerability Index (VI), 5:597–598 Vulnerability mapping, of groundwater resources, 5:561–566 See also Groundwater vulnerability Walawe basin development, 4:779f ‘‘Walking clocks,’’ 4:704 Walk-through, role in pipe assessment, 1:886 835 Warm cloud seeding, 4:187 Warm fronts, fog and, 4:231 Warning systems for flooding, flash floods, and landslides, 1:125–126 Washington State in-stream flow protection in, 4:661, 662 source-water protection in, 2:311, 312 Wash load, 3:397 Waste, aquaculture, 3:541 Waste activated sludge (WAS), 1:456, 862–863 Waste deposits model, 1:726 Waste disposal, from arsenic treatment, 5:25 Waste disposal sites, dye tracing at, 5:110 Waste loads allocation of, 3:81–84 transport mechanism for, 3:79 Wasteload allocations (WLA), 2:188 Waste management practices, 2:374–375 revising, 1:900 Wastes, from electricity generation, 5:448–451 Waste stabilization ponds (WSP), 1:518 Waste stream disposal, 1:336 Waste treatment, in fish farms, 1:681–684 Wastewater(s), 1:656–659 See also Complex waste waters; Wastewater management; Wastewater modeling and treatment plant design; Wastewater reclamation and reuse entries; Wastewater treatment entries aeration of, 1:623–626 analyses of, 1:657t, 658t biological characteristics of, 1:658–659 characteristics of, 1:677, 900–904 chemical characteristics of, 1:657–658 chemically enhanced primary treatment of, 1:659–660 concentration of microorganisms in, 3:670t contaminants of, 1:829t defined, 2:548 direct reuse of, 1:306–307 disposal practices for, 3:79 Water Encyclopedia: Domestic, Municipal, and Industrial Water Supply and Waste Disposal (Vol 1) Water Encyclopedia: Water Quality and Resource Development (Vol 2) Water Encyclopedia: Surface and Agricultural Water (Vol 3) Water Encyclopedia: Oceanography; Meteorology; Physics and Chemistry; Water Law; and Water History, Art, and Culture (Vol 4) Water Encyclopedia: Ground Water (Vol 5) 836 CUMULATIVE INDEX Wastewater(s), (continued) EU monitoring of, 2:267–268 land applications of, 1:632–635 occurrence of detergents in, 1:671–672 from oil production, 2:285–286 physical characteristics of, 1:657 pollution by, 3:292 pollution in, 4:507 reclamation of, 2:497 as a resource, 1:676–677 sample analyses of, 1:662–663 toxic evaluation of, 1:565–566 Wastewater-associated pathogenic microorganisms, 3:668t Wastewater bacteria, poly-P-containing, 1:788t Wastewater biofilms, 2:230 Wastewater contaminants, in U.S streams, 5:605–608 Wastewater discharge numeric limitations, industry sectors subject to, 1:758t Wastewater discharge permits, 1:755–756 Wastewater discharges See also Wastewater effluents from power plants, 1:556 regulatory controls on, 1:557 Wastewater effluents, 3:80 Wastewater management See also Ecological wastewater management centralized and decentralized, 1:720–721 for developing countries, 1:718–722 Wastewater modeling and treatment plant design, 1:730–738 applications of, 1:738–745 biological process modeling, 1:735–737 information gathering step, 1:738–739 input and output file preparation step, 1:744–745 International Water Association models, 1:732–733, 736–738 laboratory and data organization step, 1:742–744 model compilation and setup step, 1:744 model parameter initialization step, 1:745 model selection step, 1:739–740 parameter adjustment step, 1:745 reactor hydraulics step, 1:740– 742 static and dynamic models, 1:731–732, 733–735 Wastewater quality, for developing countries, 1:719–720 Wastewater reclamation and reuse, 1:825–826 treatment technology related to, 1:826–828 Wastewater reclamation and reuse research, 1:819–825 future needs for, 1:823–824 to protect public health, 1:819– 822 public perception and, 1:823 in wastewater treatment technologies, 1:822–823 Wastewater reuse, 3:667–668 See also Wastewater reclamation and reuse entries guidelines and treatment practices for, 3:670, 671t, 672t Wastewater reuse system, low-tech, 5:329 Wastewater sanitation, enhancement of, 1:498 Wastewater sludge, 1:861–864 See also Sludge Wastewater streams, pollutants in, 4:506–507 Wastewater toxicity, biotests for, 1:566 Wastewater treatment, 1:814–817 See also Advanced wastewater treatment techniques; Small-scale wastewater treatment; Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs); Wastewater treatment technologies anaerobic, 1:904–910 biofilm in, 2:230–232 centralized versus decentralized, 1:678 disinfection, 1:817 fate of persistent organic pollutants in, 1:766–771 inadequate, 1:661–667 powdered activated carbon in, 2:87–88 preliminary, 1:814–815 primary, 1:815 regulation of, 1:844 removal of microorganisms by, 3:669 secondary, 1:815–816 sugarcane industry, 1:614–620 use of redox potentials in, 1:399–400 Wastewater treatment facilities, Ho Chi Minh City, 2:553 Wastewater treatment industry, 4:654 Wastewater treatment methods, oil-field brine control by, 2:288–289 Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), 1:565, 623, 766, 767 monitoring biodiversity in, 1:642–646 odor abatement in, 1:760–764 performances of, 1:663, 664f Wastewater-treatment return flow, 2:548 Wastewater treatment technologies, 1:808–814 biological, 1:813 chemical, 1:811–812 electrical, 1:812 physical, 1:809–811 thermal, 1:812–813 Wastewater use studies, site characteristics of, 1:633t Wastewater utilities, security of, 1:870–871 WATEQ4F program, 5:140 WATEQ database, 5:144 Water See also Aquatic entries; Drinking water; Heavy water; Natural waters; Raw water; Reclaimed water; Wastewater entries; Water conservation measures; Water distribution system entries; Water industry; Waterlogging; Water quality; Water resource entries; Water supply entries; Water treatment entries; Water use absolute (dynamic) viscosity of, 4:527 algal toxins in, 2:387–392 bacteria, viruses, and pathogens in, 2:303 as a better medication, 4:724 balancing the need for, 2:574 beryllium in, 4:394–399 Water Encyclopedia: Domestic, Municipal, and Industrial Water Supply and Waste Disposal (Vol 1) Water Encyclopedia: Water Quality and Resource Development (Vol 2) Water Encyclopedia: Surface and Agricultural Water (Vol 3) Water Encyclopedia: Oceanography; Meteorology; Physics and Chemistry; Water Law; and Water History, Art, and Culture (Vol 4) Water Encyclopedia: Ground Water (Vol 5) CUMULATIVE INDEX between Arabs and Israelis, 4:699–701 biological structure and function of, 4:512 bottled, 1:3–5 cadmium in, 5:617 characteristics of, 1:900–904 chemistry of, 4:711 as a cholesterol-lowering medication, 4:701–702 clarity/turbidity of, 1:599; 3:108 classification of, 2:95; 4:449t competing uses for, 2:613 complex dynamics of, 4:512–513 cosmic, 4:189–191 crystals in, 4:712–713 density of, 4:527 discovery of, 4:711 distilled, 4:441–442 distribution and quantity of, 4:283–284 economic value of, 4:605–612 effect on cell biology, 4:456–457, 458 electric generating plant contaminants of, 1:555–556 emergence as a public health issue, 1:283–286 emergency, 2:526–529 evolution of, 4:715–718 extracellular matrix and, 4:459–461 facts related to, 3:394–397 freezing and supercooling of, 4:585–586 future of, 4:713 globalization of, 2:536–541 gross value of, 4:608 heat capacity of, 4:529 in history, 4:726–731 in the history of photography, 4:766–769 impact on health and aging, 4:455–461, 729 impurities accumulated by, 1:900–901 in interstellar space, 4:189–190 as key to health and healing, 4:722–726 kinematic viscosity of, 4:527 ‘‘magical’’ properties of, 4:583–585 man’s history and, 4:745–746 market allocation of, 2:644 marketing proposals for, 2:506–508 measurement of, 2:658–660 measurement of 36 Cl in, 4:417 microbial growth in, 3:311 modulus of elasticity of, 4:529 molecular network dynamics of, 4:511–513 monitoring for threat agents, 1:89–91 nitrate in, 1:31–32 nitrogen pollution of, 3:605 oil removal from, 1:774–776f organic matter contamination of, 3:606 origin of, 4:283 osmotic movement of, 4:520–521 oxidation of, 4:535–536 passage in and out of cells, 4:458–459 prescriptive use of, 4:798 pricing, 3:585 production of hydrogen ion in, 4:481 protozoa in, 2:313–314 radon in, 4:541–548 regulatory standards for, 1:576 relationship to soil, 3:641 as a renewable resource, 2:661 role in enzyme functioning, 4:512 role in the Canadian landscape, 3:507–510 solubility of chemicals in, 4:555–559 solubility of hydrocarbons and sulfur compounds in, 4:561–564 as a solvent, 4:725 sound in, 4:569–571 as a source of wisdom, 4:793–797 on the Space Station, 4:572–574 specific gravity of, 4:527 specific weight of, 4:527 speed of sound of, 4:529 squeezing from rock, 5:477–480 storing, 2:527 strontium isotopes in, 4:574–578 surface tension of, 4:528 survival of threat agents in, 1:88 technetium in, 4:578–583 trace elements in, 3:455 in the unsaturated zone, 5:531–533 varieties of, 4:462 vinyl chloride in, 5:637 837 Water accounting, as a water conservation measure, 1:146–147 Water Act of 1974, 2:183 Water adsorption on carbons, 4:400–404 studies of, 4:400 Water allocation, 2:504–506 See also Water distribution authority over, 4:660–65 efficient, 2:6436 Water allocation law, 2:558 Water allocation system, 2:644 Water allotments, purchasing, 2:508 Water analysis, 1:86 corrosion measurement and, 1:9 tests for, 2:178, 180t trace element pollution and, 4:112 Water analysis methods, 2:304–311 gas chromatography, 2:304–308 Water assessment and criteria, 2:24–28 biotic integrity and, 2:26 current, 2:25–26 development of, 2:24–25 institutional arrangements for, 3:34 reference sites and biocriteria, 2:26 Water audits, 1:401; 2:492 Water availability, impact of biofuels on, 3:547 Water availability index, 1:404f Water balance, 1:202 global, 4:279–280 in Hawaii, 4:259–262 Water balance equation, 3:259 Water balance method/techniques, 3:572; 5:163 Water balance/modeling, recharge measurement, 5:74 Water Bank Act, 4:691 Water-bearing rocks, consolidated, 5:55–56 Water biosecurity, 1:87–92 future directions for, 1:91 Waterbodies See also Open waterbodies advancements in understanding, 4:730 anoxia and hypoxia in, 4:64–69 effluent-based, 2:475 excessive fertilization of, 3:107, 108 ‘‘impaired,’’ 2:476 Water Encyclopedia: Domestic, Municipal, and Industrial Water Supply and Waste Disposal (Vol 1) Water Encyclopedia: Water Quality and Resource Development (Vol 2) Water Encyclopedia: Surface and Agricultural Water (Vol 3) Water Encyclopedia: Oceanography; Meteorology; Physics and Chemistry; Water Law; and Water History, Art, and Culture (Vol 4) Water Encyclopedia: Ground Water (Vol 5) 838 CUMULATIVE INDEX Waterbodies (continued) impact of cadmium on, 5:615 remote sensing of, 4:324–325 Waterborne bacteria, 2:20–24 identification of, 2:21 Waterborne disease outbreaks, 2:293 Waterborne disease surveillance, 1:183–192 background of, 1:184–185 early outbreak detection, 1:186–187 endemic disease and, 1:187–189 improving, 1:190–191 of infection versus disease, 1:189–190 limitations of, 1:185–186 Waterborne infectious diseases See Emerging waterborne infectious diseases Waterborne pathogens health and, 1:521–522 persistence of, 1:521–523 Waterborne radon, 1:51–52 Waterborne transmission of Escherichia coli, 1:429–431 of Escherichia coli O157:H7, 2:138 Water budget, 2:507; 3:222–223 lake, 3:266 program, 3:554–557 Water ‘‘carriage,’’ 1:510 Water chemistry factors determining, 2:19 in regional flow systems, 5:419–420 Water cleanup, organoclay in, 1:771–781 Water clocks, 4:703–707 Water color, caused by iron bacteria, 2:151–152 Water column bacterial activity in, 3:181 heat flux into, 3:192 Water companies, financial performance of, 1:310–312 Water conditioners, magnetic, 1:144 Water conditioning magnetic, 1:534–537 physical, 1:141–145 Water conflicts See also Water disputes in the Nile Basin, 2:590–594 over scarce water, 2:502–503 Water consciousness, evolution of, 4:707–713 Water conservation, during a drought, 4:209 Water conservation ecosystems, ancient Sri Lankan, 4:772–780 Water conservation interventions, nonengineering, 2:472–473 Water conservation measures, 1:53, 146–149, 510; 2:489–494, 495–498 See also Landscape water-conservation techniques; Water saving technologies; Water use in Canada, 2:660–666 costing and pricing, 1:147–148 efficiency and, 2:492–493 in the home, community, and workplace, 2:664–666 information and education, 1:148 in integrated water resources management, 2:575 metering, 1:146 water accounting and leak repair, 1:146–147 Water Conservation Plan Guidelines (EPA), 1:146 Water-conserving toilets, 1:679 Water consumption, 2:370–371 metering coverage and, 1:494f reducing, 1:678–679; 2:664 rise in, 2:375 Water contamination by heavy metals, 5:275–280 by low level organic waste compounds, 5:60–63 sources of, 3:651 Water content measuring, 5:461–462 predicting, 5:126 Watercraft discharges, 3:281 Water crisis, global, 4:769 Water cycle, 2:548; 4:191–194, 196–197 See also Global water cycle; Hydrologic cycle climate change and, 4:193 conservation and, 4:433–434 deuterium in, 4:439 NASA Aqua mission and, 4:193–194 sun-powered, 4:584 Water debts, 2:617 Water Deficit Index (WDI), 3:719, 721 Water demand derived, 4:608 estimation of, 1:496 management of, 1:146 price elasticity of, 4:606–607 residential, 1:12–16 urban, 2:490–491 Water demand forecasting, 2:529–531 cases of, 2:530 model, 2:622–623 Water dependency, global, 2:538–540t Water discharge permits, 5:3 Water disinfection, using UV radiation, 1:471–476 Water disputes See also Water conflicts averting, 2:501–510 constitutional solutions to, 2:503–504 water allocation and, 2:504–506 Water distribution, fair, 2:491–492 See also Water allocation entries Water distribution storage tanks, hydraulic design of, 1:448–449 Water distribution system design, 1:207–213 constraints on, 1:209 iterative method for, 1:210–211 Water distribution systems (WDSs) chlorine residual modeling within, 1:132 components of, 1:208–209 corrosion control in, 1:152–154 desirable operating conditions for, 1:201 elements of, 1:201 maintenance and repair functions of, 1:203 operation, maintenance, and design of, 1:200–204 prevention and safety functions of, 1:203 principal operations of, 1:201–202 public relations and management functions of, 1:203–204 pumps in, 1:391–395 risk reduction for, 1:436–437 securing, 1:434–437 urban, 1:131–137 water delivery and monitoring by, 1:202 Water distribution system simulators (DSS), 2:509–510 Water dowsing (witching), 5:92–94 Water dwellers, exposure method using, 2:420 Water Encyclopedia: Domestic, Municipal, and Industrial Water Supply and Waste Disposal (Vol 1) Water Encyclopedia: Water Quality and Resource Development (Vol 2) Water Encyclopedia: Surface and Agricultural Water (Vol 3) Water Encyclopedia: Oceanography; Meteorology; Physics and Chemistry; Water Law; and Water History, Art, and Culture (Vol 4) Water Encyclopedia: Ground Water (Vol 5) CUMULATIVE INDEX Water economic analysis, components of, 2:128–129 Water education impacts on, 4:714–715 strategies for, 4:713–715 Water efficiency, technological options for, 2:493 Water efficient residential technology, 2:663 ‘‘Water emergency price schedule,’’ 2:583 Water engineering technology, development of, 4:728 Water environment, persistence of toxic metals in, 2:233 Water Environment Federation (WEF), 1:863 Water erosion, 1:537–538; 3:566 control of, 3:551, 568 Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP), 2:251–252 Water facilities, capital investment in, 2:594 Water filtration, 1:230–233 Water flow, in unconfined aquifers, 5:662–663 Water holding properties, field capacity and, 5:125–126 Water flow patterns, using dyes to delineate, 3:96–98 Water flow rates, biofilm growth and, 1:598 Water-flow satellite data, from NASA, 2:587–589 Water-flush toilets, 1:678–679 Waterfowl, lead toxicity to, 2:434–435 Water-free toilets, 1:678–679 Water Framework Directive (EU), 2:45; 3:292 Water/graphite model potentials, 4:401 Water habitat, eutrophication in, 3:108–109 Water hammer, 1:261–264, 401 causes and effects of, 1:261, 891–892 computation of, 1:891–892 control of, 1:892 solutions to, 1:261–263 valves and, 1:484 Water hardness, 4:413 Water harvesting choosing techniques for, 2:551 components of, 2:549–550 defined, 2:549 forms of, 2:550 need for, 2:548–549 and reuse, 3:557 structures related to, 2:550–551 Water heaters, solar, 1:63–67 Water hyacinth control of, 3:481–483 as a problematic weed, 3:479–484 Water impacts, from construction sites, 1:537–538 Water industry, 2:587 companies with interests in, 1:302t consolidation of, 1:509 future of, 1:307 key trends in, 1:508–510 market drivers of, 1:304–305 market size and growth characteristics of, 1:304 policies and approaches of, 1:510 privatization of, 1:306 state of, 1:301–307 trends in, 1:305–307 Water infrastructure, 2:567–568 planning and managing, 2:594–595 Water Infrastructure Network, 1:303 Watering equipment, outdoor, 2:666 Water-jetting drilling technologies, 5:234–235 Water Law of China, 2:486 Water laws/legislation, 2:96 Hawaiian, 4:805–806 Islamic, 4:634–635 state, 2:584–585 water transfers and, 4:686 Water-level drawdown, 5:102–105 in aquifers, 5:103–104 information related to, 5:104 Water-level oscillation, 5:112 Water levels, in wells, 5:572 Water-limited environments, ecological effects assessment for, 2:516–518 Water loads, river, 3:393t Waterlogged areas, types of, 1:404 Waterlogged lands, management and reclamation of, 3:603 Waterlogging, 3:599–604, 741 causes of, 3:599–600 effects of, 3:600 field measurement assessments for, 3:599 impacts of, 3:741–742 losses due to, 3:601t 839 problem identification observations related to, 3:599 remote sensing and GIS application in, 2:534 surface stagnation and crop yields from, 3:600–601 Water loss controlling, 1:317–320 tracing, 1:401 Water mains, 1:203 Water management, 4:433 in the Arab World, 2:472–474 British and French models of, 1:389 in China, 2:484–488 computer models for, 2:620 institutional structure of, 2:614–615 irrigation and, 4:771–772 lessons related to, 4:268 in the Mediterranean islands, 2:642 in the public trust, 2:608–610 Soviet style, 3:19 Water management agencies, federal, 4:650t Water-management plans, drought strategy in, 2:581 Water management problems, severity of, 4:289 Water markets, 2:499–501 See also International water market; Spot markets Chilean, 2:645 in India, 2:555–559 institutional options related to, 2:500–501 reform of, 2:508 regulation of, 2:500 transaction costs of, 2:499–500 Water meters, 1:337–341, 489–495 classes of, 1:492 compound, 1:338 densities, costs, and impacts of, 1:494 history of, 1:489–490 household, 1:490–491 installation of, 1:338–339 operating principles of, 1:493f positive displacement, 1:338 precision tests for, 1:491–492 reading, 1:339–340 selecting and sizing, 1:340, 492–493 technical aspects of, 1:493–494 Water Encyclopedia: Domestic, Municipal, and Industrial Water Supply and Waste Disposal (Vol 1) Water Encyclopedia: Water Quality and Resource Development (Vol 2) Water Encyclopedia: Surface and Agricultural Water (Vol 3) Water Encyclopedia: Oceanography; Meteorology; Physics and Chemistry; Water Law; and Water History, Art, and Culture (Vol 4) Water Encyclopedia: Ground Water (Vol 5) 840 CUMULATIVE INDEX Water meters, (continued) testing and maintenance of, 1:340–341 as tools for management and charging, 1:490 types of, 1:338 velocity, 1:338 Water molecules, 4:527 stable isotopes in, 5:229–231 Water music instrument, 4:758–762 Water needs for freshwater fisheries management, 3:133–135 tradable rights and, 2:643–645 Water networks, behavior of, 4:511 Water oxidation, supercritical, 1:874–875 Water penetration, soil texture and, 3:707 Water phase diagram, 4:344f Water philosophy, evolution of, 4:708–711 Water pipeline See Pipeline entries; Underground pipeline Water planning, U.S Constitution and, 4:604–605 Water policies, supply-oriented, 2:574 Water pollution, 1:901; 2:95–96 See also Polluted waters; Surface water pollution causes of, 4:519 from fish farms, 3:579–581 health risks of, 2:617 reducing, 4:647 tests used for measuring, 2:180t types and forms of, 4:97–105 Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, 4:652–655 history of, 4:651–655 before the mid-1960s, 4:652 Water pollution control plants (WPCPs), 1:747, 748, 750 New York City, 1:746, 748t Water Portal of the Americas, 2:669 Water portals, 2:668–674 types of, 2:669 Water Poverty Index, 1:439 Water pressure, Space Station, 4:573 Water pressure reduction, 1:157 Water prices, rise in, 1:508 Water pricing, 1:215, 216; 2:497, 603–606 See also Cost(s); Option prices assessment of, 2:605–606 in Canada, 2:663 components of, 2:603 functions of, 2:604–605 global, 2:603–604 increase in, 2:604–605 Water problems awareness of, 4:606 current, 2:574 Water productivity (WP), 3:558–560 improving, 3:585 Water project operations, 2:621 Water projects, federal, 2:522–523 Water protection laws, 4:597 Water provision, private sector participation models for, 1:50–51 Water purification, 4:441–442 adsorption capacity of activated carbon for, 4:381–384 emergency, 2:527 photocatalytic membrane reactors in, 1:791–797 Water purification machines, Space Station, 4:573 Water quality, 2:96–97, 301–304, 314–316; 5:602 See also Sewer water quality; Storage water quality; Water quality management; Water quality modeling; Water supply quality aquifer, 5:9 ash pond and FGD sludge pond, 1:850 biofouling effects on, 5:35–36 in Canada, 2:663–664 chemical parameters, 1:902–903 chronology of events related to, 2:314 complaints concerning, 1:152t of constructed wetlands, 1:892–894 costs and benefits of, 2:129 criteria for, 2:315 data on, 2:192 defined, 2:302, 548 in distribution systems, 1:204–207 in dredged sediment management, 2:122–127 early pollutant detection and, 2:440–452 economics of, 2:127–135 effect of human activities on, 2:303 effect of natural processes on, 2:302–303 effect of scale on, 2:190 electronic nose applications related to, 2:282, 283 ethic for, 2:315 evaluating, 2:368 federal regulations regarding, 2:190 in forested land, 2:199 Ganga Basin, 3:235 guidelines for, 2:337 impacts of eutrophication on, 3:107–109 impacts on, 1:496–497 impaired, 2:663; 3:111 incentive-based mechanisms for improving, 2:132–134 in India, 2:566 information about, 2:303–304 issues related to, 2:181–182 land use effects on, 2:169 microbial criteria for controlling, 2:449–451 in municipal solid waste landfills, 2:163–169 in net pen aquaculture systems, 3:543 nitrate levels and, 1:32–33 nitrogen loading and, 3:696 nutrient-related, 3:111–112 oil-field brine and, 2:287 parameters of, 1:901–902; 2:180t in ponds, 3:484–487 problems with, 1:304 protection measures for, 2:120 public awareness of, 2:194 regulation of, 4:671–672 sand abstraction and, 3:415 soil pipe erosion and, 5:403–404 in suburban watersheds, 3:441–444 in urban stormwater runoff, 3:432–437 uncertainties in analyzing, 2:369 in urban areas, 5:250 using luminescent bacteria and lux genes for determining, 2:172–176 variations in, 2:179–180 in watersheds, 3:460 wetlands and, 3:491 Water Quality Act of 1965, 2:194, 314 Water Quality Act of 1987, 4:654–655 Water Quality Analysis Simulation Program (WASP5), 2:327, 329–330 Water quality assessment, classification and mapping of agricultural land for, 3:608–609 Water Encyclopedia: Domestic, Municipal, and Industrial Water Supply and Waste Disposal (Vol 1) Water Encyclopedia: Water Quality and Resource Development (Vol 2) Water Encyclopedia: Surface and Agricultural Water (Vol 3) Water Encyclopedia: Oceanography; Meteorology; Physics and Chemistry; Water Law; and Water History, Art, and Culture (Vol 4) Water Encyclopedia: Ground Water (Vol 5) CUMULATIVE INDEX Water Quality Assessment program (USGS), 5:386 Water Quality Association (WQA), 1:381 Water quality-based effluent limitations (WQBELs), 1:557; 4:657 Water quality constraints, in water distribution systems, 1:209 Water quality criteria Great Lakes system, 4:623–624 for toilet flushing, 1:17 Water Quality Criteria and Standards Plan (EPA), 3:436 Water quality evaluation, incorporating chemical information into, 4:602 Water quality goals, for estuaries, 4:54–55 Water quality impairment, urban-landscape-related, 2:191t Water Quality Index (EPA), 2:368 Water quality indicators, 2:266–267 Water quality indices, 2:368 Water quality issues, major, 4:286t Water quality ‘‘ladder,’’ 2:655 Water quality management, 2:176–184, 188; 5:334 in an agricultural landscape, 3:604–608 approach to, 2:183–184 determinants related to, 2:178 in a forested landscape, 2:199–202 Great Lakes region, 3:179 legal considerations in, 2:183 nonpoint source control and, 2:184–189 in the United States, 2:193–198 in an urban landscape, 2:189–193 Water quality modeling, 3:338–339 See also Water quality models case studies in, 2:255–263 of Lake Tenkiller, Oklahoma, 2:260–262 software tools for, 2:325–328 future of, 3:341 Water quality models, 2:248–255 See also Water quality modeling; Water quality simulations Agricultural Nonpoint Source Pollution Model 2001, 2:251 chemical principles related to, 2:269–273 CREAMS and GLEAMS, 2:250–251 detailed, 2:249 equations for, 2:273–278 Erosion–Productivity Impact Calculator, 2:251 Generalized Watershed Loading Function, 2:252–253 hydrologic simulation program, 2:249–250 kinetic parameters used in, 2:276t mathematical framework of, 2:273–278 midrange, 2:248 Nitrate Leaching and Economic Analysis Package, 2:252 Pesticide Root Zone Model, 2:252 regression methods and spreadsheet models, 2:253 review of, 2:249–253 Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation, 2:251 Root Zone Water Quality Model, 2:252 selecting, 2:255–256 simple, 2:248 Soil and Water Assessment Tool, 2:250 Source Loading and Management Model, 2:253 variables in, 2:270–272 Water Erosion Prediction Project, 2:251–252 Watershed Modeling System, 2:250 Water quality monitoring, 2:177–180 Water quality parameters, 4:325t Water quality policy, 2:127–128 economic instruments for informing, 2:129–131 instruments of, 2:132–134 Water quality programs, 2:315 Water quality protection, integration of, 4:672–673 Water Quality Protection Center, 1:91 Water quality regulations, 2:314–315; 4:665–667 Water quality simulations, 2:261–262 Water quality standards (WQS), 2:267–268, 302; 4:657; 5:324 Clean Water Act, 4:596 violations of, 3:107–108 Water quality statutes, 4:664–671 Water quality studies, remote sensing and GIS application in, 2:534 841 Water quality trends, in New York City, 1:748–750 Water quality variables, notations and source terms for, 2:275t Water quantity allocation of, 4:671 impacts on, 1:495–496 Water quantity constraints, in water distribution systems, 1:209 Water quantity regulation, in India, 2:557–558 Water recovery/reclamation, 1:53 See also Water reuse achievable treatment levels for, 1:807t technologies for, 1:806–807 Water recycling defined, 2:610 environmental benefits of, 2:610–613 future of, 2:613 increased focus on, 1:306–307 pollution reduction and, 2:612 for sensitive ecosystems, 2:612 technologies for, 1:808–874 for wetlands and riparian habitats, 2:612 Water reduction methods, in Arab states, 2:472 Water regulation, history of, 2:193–198 Water-related diseases, 1:23–25; 2:111–112 global morbidity and mortality from, 1:24 Water requirements average, 1:506–507 for human health, 1:22–23 Water resource development, American, 2:498–499 Water resource development projects, Ganga Basin, 3:234 Water resource health, measuring, 3:37 Water resource integrity, evaluation using biotic integrity index, 3:36–41 Water resource management, 2:586–587; 4:267–268 in America, 2:608 Chinese laws related to, 2:488 decentralization of, 2:473 decision support system for, 2:622–623 for drought conditions, 2:576–586 Water Encyclopedia: Domestic, Municipal, and Industrial Water Supply and Waste Disposal (Vol 1) Water Encyclopedia: Water Quality and Resource Development (Vol 2) Water Encyclopedia: Surface and Agricultural Water (Vol 3) Water Encyclopedia: Oceanography; Meteorology; Physics and Chemistry; Water Law; and Water History, Art, and Culture (Vol 4) Water Encyclopedia: Ground Water (Vol 5) 842 CUMULATIVE INDEX Water resource management, (continued) Great Lakes area, 3:179 structures for, 2:567t Water resource organizations, 4:648–651 governmental, 4:649–650 nongovernmental, 4:651 professional, 4:651 Water resource remote sensing, 4:321 Water resource requirements, for India, 2:564–566 Water resources, 2:370; 4:288–289 See also Poor- quality water resources anthropogenic threats to, 3:37 in the Arab World, 2:470–474 best management practices for, 2:570–573 Canadian, 2:656–660 depletion of, 4:289–290 economics of allocating, 1:215–218 Geographic Information System and remote sensing in, 2:531–536 health indicators for, 3:37 in India, 2:559–567 intergenerational, 4:771 management of, 1:303 protection of, 2:374–375 satellites useful for, 4:326t stress on, 2:495 sustainable development of, 5:163 threats to, 1:438 Water Resources Development Act of 1986, 4:619 Water resources planning, integrating environmental impacts into, 2:520–522 Water resources systems, 2:586 components of, 2:619 performance evaluation of, 2:674–678 Water resources systems analysis, 2:683–687 defined, 2:684 mathematical modeling in, 2:686–687 Water resource sustainability, 2:624–630 concepts related to, 2:625–627 practices in, 2:628–629 stages of, 2:629f Water resource valuation, 2:653–656 economic perspective on, 2:653–654 empirical estimates of, 2:654–655 Water retention See also Retention of fish ponds, 1:407 maintaining and increasing, 1:406 in river valleys, 1:406–407 Water retention characteristic, 4:486 Water reuse, 1:53–54, 817–819 See also Water recovery/reclamation in agriculture, 2:496 increase in, 1:509 in industry, 2:496 international standards for, 3:670–672 technologies applicable to, 1:54 Water rights, 2:500–501; 4:769–772 declarations of, 4:770 distribution of, 2:643–644 Hawaiian, 4:805–806 issues related to, 4:770–771 reserved, 4:689–690 security of, 2:644–645 Water rituals, 4:709–710 ancient, 4:709–710 Water–rock interaction, 5:566–571 adsorption and, 5:566–568 dissolution and, 5:568–569 precipitation and, 5:569–570 Water safety, precautionary principle regarding, 2:600 Water sampling, 2:161–163 See also Water samples security and integrity of, 2:162 Water samples See also Water sampling analysis of strontium isotopes in, 4:575 analyzing for deuterium, 4:439 Water savings, using microirrigation, 3:617 Water-saving techniques, domestic, 2:497 Water-saving technologies, in the Nile Basin, 2:594 Water scarcity, 1:304; 2:181, 490 conflicts over, 2:502–503 global, 2:538–540t human behavior and, 4:733–734 in India, 3:445–447, 448f in the Nile Basin, 2:590–591 role in human health, 1:20–22 Water science See also Water studies issues and risks related to, 2:602t precautionary principle regarding, 2:595–603 terms related to, 2:541 Water security, 1:437–439 See also Water resources global water availability, 1:437–438 government actions regarding, 1:434–436 relation to food security and agriculture, 1:438–439 terrorism and, 1:158 Water self-sufficiency, global, 2:538–540t Water service(s) data and indicators related to, 1:505–507 valuation of, 4:607 Watershed(s), 2:548; 3:460–461 See also Combustible watersheds; Megawatersheds; Suburban watersheds allochthonous inputs from, 3:207 assessments of, 2:264–265 changes in, 4:280–281 flood potential of, 3:460–461 flood source mapping in, 3:155–159 municipal, 1:495–500 processes related to, 3:327–328 in stream classification, 3:66 time of concentration and travel time in, 3:469–472 water control in, 2:567 Watershed approach, 2:189; 4:115–116 Watershed ecology, hydrochemical models used in, 5:297t Watershed functions, 3:473–478 Watershed hydrogeomorphologic index, 3:63 Watershed hydrology, 3:472–479 modeling of, 3:342 role of wetlands in, 3:172–173 terminology related to, 3:472–473 units used in, 3:473 Watershed lands, conversion to agriculture, 3:36 Watershed management, 2:192, 248; 3:502–503 plan for, 2:629; 5:335 Watershed mapping/monitoring, remote sensing and GIS application in, 2:533 Watershed modeling, 3:327–331 See also Watershed models Water Encyclopedia: Domestic, Municipal, and Industrial Water Supply and Waste Disposal (Vol 1) Water Encyclopedia: Water Quality and Resource Development (Vol 2) Water Encyclopedia: Surface and Agricultural Water (Vol 3) Water Encyclopedia: Oceanography; Meteorology; Physics and Chemistry; Water Law; and Water History, Art, and Culture (Vol 4) Water Encyclopedia: Ground Water (Vol 5) CUMULATIVE INDEX procedures in, 3:328–330 uncertainty analysis in, 3:325–327 Watershed Modeling System (WMS), 2:250 Watershed models See also Watershed modeling calibration of, 3:329f classification of, 3:328 Watershed nutrient export coefficients, 3:110t Watershed outlet, travel time to, 3:63 Watershed response continuous, 3:343 event-based, 3:343 Watershed restoration plans, 4:596–597 Watershed spatial scale, 2:613 Watershed water balance, forest quality and, 3:172 Water shortage, in the human body, 4:789–791 Water shortage planning tools, Palmer Index, 2:581 Water-shortage plans, state, 2:583 Water softening, 4:454 See also Magnetic water conditioning for scale control, 1:548 Water, Soil and Hydro-Environmental Decision Support System (WATERSHEDSS), 2:328 Water solubility, correlations for, 4:382t Water solubility graphs, 4:556–558f, 559, 560–561f, 562–564f Water source emergencies, planning for, 2:401 Water sources groundwater supplies variability in, 2:400–401 little control of, 2:400–401 Waterspout, 4:347 Water spreading, 3:163, 708–712 methods of, 3:164–165 Water stocks, improving, 2:635 Water storage, technological revolution in, 4:729–730 Water stress crop adaptations to, 3:719–720 in India, 3:445–447, 448f Water-stressed countries, health in, 1:20–22 Water studies, interdisciplinary, 2:641–642 Water subsidies, 1:217 Water supplies See also Water supply improvement for agricultural production, 2:617–618 bacteriological quality of, 1:294–295 chemical characteristics of, 1:295–296 in developing countries, 2:616–617 effect of sediment on, 3:508 for energy production, 2:618 enhancement of, 1:497–498 failures in, 2:514 indicators of, 1:505–507 meeting demands for, 1:218–221 physical characteristics of, 1:295 political and legal impacts on, 2:618 privatization of, 4:770 radioactivity of, 1:296–297 source and protection of, 1:294 state and regional, 2:613–619 treatment of, 2:374 types of, 2:371 uncertainty of, 2:400–401 value of, 1:500–501 Water supply allocation, 2:569 Water supply improvement impact of, 1:25–26 metering and, 1:490 Water supply planning/management, 2:515–516, 614–615 federal, 4:612–616 Water supply protection, extraterritorial land use control for, 1:315–317 Water supply quality, 2:370–376 factors affecting, 2:373–374 Water supply subsystems, 2:515 Water-supply threat agents, 1:88 Water supply–wastewater sanitation cycle, 1:651f Water supply wells, 5:22–28 treatment of arsenic in, 5:22, 23–25 treatment of biofouling in, 5:22–23, 27–28 treatment of chromium in, 5:22, 25–27 Water surface, long-wave radiation from, 3:192 Water Survey of Canada, 2:658 Water symbolism, 4:785–788 in art and nature, 4:787 postmodern metaphors and, 4:787 843 Water system operation, decisions about, 2:595 Water systems components and evolution of, 1:501–503 iron and manganese removal from, 1:312–315 pharmaceuticals in, 1:372–378 rural, 1:213 Water table, 2:548; 5:600 See also Falling water table constant, 3:602 contribution to crop evapotranspiration, 3:570–571 data, 5:164 ‘‘perched,’’ 5:11 studies, 3:601–603 Water table levels, tile drainage and, 3:731–732 WaterTechOnline portal, 2:669 Water temperature tracer technique, 5:681–683 Water testing, frequency of, 5:325 Water towers, 1:410 Water tracing, 5:240 Water transfers, 4:685–689 disputes over, 4:687–688 impacts of, 4:686–687 motives and issues in, 4:685 return flow and, 4:685 riparian doctrine and, 4:686 Water transportation, inefficiency in, 2:492 Water transportation occupations, 4:762–766 employment in, 4:764 job outlook and earnings in, 4:765 nature of, 4:762–763 training, qualifications, and advancement in, 4:764–765 working conditions in, 4:763–764 Water travel times, in river-connected aquifers, 5:681–684 Water treatment See also Drinking water treatment; Package plants beginning of, 1:286 for cooling water systems, 1:560 filtration, 1:245–248 microbiological mechanisms and, 1:596–598 ozone in, 1:362 powdered activated carbon for, 2:86–87 rationale for, 1:599–601 Water Encyclopedia: Domestic, Municipal, and Industrial Water Supply and Waste Disposal (Vol 1) Water Encyclopedia: Water Quality and Resource Development (Vol 2) Water Encyclopedia: Surface and Agricultural Water (Vol 3) Water Encyclopedia: Oceanography; Meteorology; Physics and Chemistry; Water Law; and Water History, Art, and Culture (Vol 4) Water Encyclopedia: Ground Water (Vol 5) 844 CUMULATIVE INDEX Water treatment (continued) in recirculating aquaculture systems, 3:544 regional, 2:615–616 in spent nuclear fuel storage, 1:595–608 Water treatment methods, 1:601–607 See also Water treatment processes advantages and efficacy of, 1:194t Water treatment plant residuals aluminum recovery from, 1:140f categories of, 1:411–413 coagulant recovery from, 1:139–141 management of, 1:411–413 regulations governing, 1:413 Water treatment processes, 1:412t See also Water treatment methods selection guide for, 1:439–444 Water treatment systems mixing and agitation in, 1:76–81 stages in, 2:616 Water treatment technology, selecting, 1:242–243 Water turbine, 3:487–489 specific speed of, 3:489 Water turnover, 4:276 Water use in California, 2:478–480 categories of, 2:651–653 defined, 2:548 economic efficiency in, 2:575 efficient, 1:307, 509–510 for energy industry materials, 1:562–563 in energy production, 1:560–565 excessive, 2:492–493 in flow-through aquaculture systems, 3:542 forecasting, 1:15 global and regional, 2:489–490 Great Lakes area, 3:178–179 hydroelectricity, 1:561–562 impact of biofuels on, 3:547 indirect, 1:563 in the Middle East, 4:753–758 national trends in, 2:650–651 nuclear power, 1:561 in recirculating aquaculture systems, 3:544 regulatory mechanisms regarding, 2:490 thermoelectric, 1:560–561 in the United States, 2:645–650 Water use categories, regional, 2:615t Water use curtailment, during droughts, 2:583 Water use efficiency (WUE), agricultural, 3:558–560 Water use management, in the United States, 2:647–649 Water-use-priority system, 2:583 Water-user compliance, monitoring during droughts, 2:583 Water users, categories of, 2:587 Water-use sectors main, 2:495–497 water demand forecasting for, 2:530 Water utilities charging practices for, 1:490 initial public offerings (IPOs) of, 1:389 Water valuation application of, 4:610 estimation methodologies for, 4:607 as an intermediate good, 4:608–609 motivation for, 4:605–606 studies, 2:655 Water valuation approaches direct, 4:607–608 indirect, 4:608–610 Water vapor, 4:243, 244, 362 changes in, 4:174 condensing, 4:240 distribution of, 4:270–271 effects of, 4:170 importance of, 4:717 Water vectored disease, 2:112 ‘‘Water wars,’’ 2:649 Water washed diseases, 2:112 Water waves, 4:138–139 See also Waves characteristics of, 4:138–139 Waterways gross pollution of, 2:314 South Asian, 4:681 Water well drilling techniques, 5:105–107 cable-tool drilling, 5:105 direct push drilling, 5:106 hollow-stem auger drilling, 5:106 horizontal drilling, 5:106 rotary drilling, 5:105 wire line coring, 5:105 Water wells See also Well entries biofouling in, 5:35–38 deterioration of, 5:23 earthquake responses in, 5:111–112 for groundwater sampling, 5:455 installation of, 5:106 Water withdrawal(s), 2:478; 3:582t See also Withdrawal in Canada, 2:661 by country, 2:648t global, 2:538–540t Great Lakes, 3:179t for public supplies, 2:651–652 in the United States, 2:645–650; 3:588–591 worldwide, 3:381 Water year, 4:318–319 Wave breaking, 4:137–138 Wave celerity, 3:258 Wave energy, 4:45 Wave height, estimating, 4:2–3 Wave overtopping, 4:16, 19 Wave-powered desalination system, 4:46 Wave reflection, 4:17 shoaling and, 4:136–137 Wave theory, 4:45 Waves in coastal waters, 4:23–24 continuous, 3:248 in lakes, 3:267 shallow water, 4:135–138 Wave theory, 3:246–253 Wave transmission, 4:17, 19 Weak add respiratory uncoupler (WARU), 4:524 Weapon tests, as water pollution, 4:102–103 Weather atmosphere and, 4:360–362 energy and, 4:353–354 extremes in, 4:175–176 local and global, 4:361–362 Weather balloons, 4:164–166, 328 Weather Bureau, United States, 4:347–348 Weather forecasting advances in, 4:354 Aqua spacecraft and, 4:351 benefits to society, 4:351–352 foundations of, 4:352–353 history of, 4:348–352 modern tools of, 4:350–351 numerical prediction in, 4:350 Weather modification health concerns related to, 4:188 uses of, 4:188 Water Encyclopedia: Domestic, Municipal, and Industrial Water Supply and Waste Disposal (Vol 1) Water Encyclopedia: Water Quality and Resource Development (Vol 2) Water Encyclopedia: Surface and Agricultural Water (Vol 3) Water Encyclopedia: Oceanography; Meteorology; Physics and Chemistry; Water Law; and Water History, Art, and Culture (Vol 4) Water Encyclopedia: Ground Water (Vol 5) CUMULATIVE INDEX Weather patterns, Great Lakes region, 3:177 Weather prediction accuracy, effect of GPS-IPW data on, 4:248–249 Weather radar, for hydrologic real-time information, 1:126 See also Weather Surveillance Radar 1988 Doppler (WSR-88D) Weather Surveillance Radar 1988 Doppler (WSR-88D) observations, 4:310, 311 radar stations, 4:307 Weather systems, 4:352–355 understanding, 4:353 Wedderburn Number, 3:266 Weed control strategies, 3:742–748 alternative, 3:747 biological, 3:746–747 chemical, 3:745 environmental, 3:747 factors affecting, 3:744 mechanical, 3:744–745 Weeds, problematic, 3:479–484 Weighting factor, 3:258 Weight of evidence (WOE) approach, 2:381, 429; 4:600–601, 602–603 to sediment quality characterization, 2:350–355 Weir and orifice fish passage facility, 3:529–530 Weirs, flows through, 3:195 ‘‘Weir’’ type roof drainage, 1:56 Welland Canal, 3:177 Well-being, water and, 4:791–793 Well casing perforated in place, 5:574 Well contamination, in developing countries, 2:631 Well contamination prevention, 1:149–152 casing, 1:149–150 disinfection procedures, 1:151 filter pack, 1:151 pitless adaptors, 1:151 site selection, 1:149 well design for, 1:149 well screen, 1:151 well seals, 1:151 Well drawdown, 5:101–102 Wellhead protection (WHP), 1:524–529 See also WHP zones (WHPZs) delineation criteria and methods for, 1:525–526 management measures for, 1:527 Wellhead protection area (WHPA), 1:524 Wellhead protection plan (WHPP), 1:524 developing, 1:525 Well hydraulics, 5:101, 182–183 Well installation, water-jetting drilling technologies for, 5:234–235 Well jetting, 5:234 Well logs, studying, 5:81 Well maintenance, 5:263–266 data collection intervals related to, 5:265t methods, 5:264t predictive and preventive, 5:263–264 records and, 5:264 Wells See also Intake wells; Irrigation wells; Water supply wells; Water well entries defined, 2:548 design and construction of, 5:87–91 horizontal, 5:177–178 installation of, 5:106 monitoring, 5:586–587 performance characteristics of, 5:87 radial, 5:407–408 site selection for, 5:88 types of, 5:571–572 water levels in, 5:572 Well screens, 3:415–416; 5:88, 572–574 lateral, 5:407 Well site control zone (WSCZ), 1:526 Well-spacing norms, in India, 2:558 Well test, 5:574–575 Well water analysis of, 5:407 blue baby syndrome and, 2:219 Well yield, 5:101 Welwitschia mirabilis, 4:200–201 Wenner array, 5:445 West Antarctic ice sheet, 4:118 Western blotting, 2:109 Western United States irrigation in, 3:587 protection of in-stream values, 4:660–662 water markets in, 2:500 water rights adjudications and permit proceedings in, 4:672 water use in, 2:646–647 Wet ash discharges, 1:556 Wet covers, 5:3 Wet desulfurization processes, 1:849 845 Wetland ecosystems, 3:57–58, 59 productivity of, 3:490 Wetland hydrology, 4:577 Wetland management, politics of, 4:691–692 Wetlands, 3:489–493 See also Coastal wetlands; Constructed wetlands benefits of, 3:364 characteristics of, 4:695 classification of, 3:496–498 constructed, 5:5 EPA protection of, 3:494 federal agencies involved in protecting, 4:692t forested, 3:172 functions of, 3:490–492 Great Lakes region, 3:177 groundwater and, 5:605 N and C transformations in, 5:329 organic acidity in, 3:4 overview of, 3:496 passive treatment of, 2:423–426 physicochemical properties of, 3:367 protecting and restoring, 3:494–496 remote sensing of, 4:325 role in watershed hydrology, 3:172–173 sanitary impact of, 1:404 support of flora and fauna, 3:492 terms related to, 3:59 tidal, 3:72 values attributed to, 3:492–493 vertical flow, 5:6 water recycling for, 2:612 Wetlands loss, 3:73, 173 precautionary principle regarding, 2:600 Wetlands policy conservation- and restoration-related, 4:693 legislation and litigation related to, 4:691 in the United States, 4:690–694 Wetland treatment, 5:328–329 Wet periods, role in flooding, 3:144 Wet signal delay (ZWP), 4:245 Wet sluicing, 1:851–852 Wet soils, 5:461 Wetted steel tape method, 5:101 Wet thermometer, 4:273 Whole cell fluorescent in situ hybridization, in community analysis, 1:645 Water Encyclopedia: Domestic, Municipal, and Industrial Water Supply and Waste Disposal (Vol 1) Water Encyclopedia: Water Quality and Resource Development (Vol 2) Water Encyclopedia: Surface and Agricultural Water (Vol 3) Water Encyclopedia: Oceanography; Meteorology; Physics and Chemistry; Water Law; and Water History, Art, and Culture (Vol 4) Water Encyclopedia: Ground Water (Vol 5) 846 CUMULATIVE INDEX Whole effluent toxicity controls, 2:382–383 Whole effluent toxicity testing protocols (EPA), 2:382 Whole pipe repair and renewal, 1:887–888 Whole water exchange rates, 4:540 WHO water reuse guidelines, 3:670–672 WHP zones (WHPZs), 1:524, 526–527 Wick lysimeter, 2:340 Width function, 3:94 Wiener–Khintchine theorem, 4:339 Wildlife, vulnerability to pollutant discharge, 3:284 Wilkes, 4:John, 794–796 Willis sand zone, 3:67 Wind creation of, 4:293 as a forcing factor, 3:322 Windage, 1:559 Windermere humic aqueous model (WHAM), 2:206 version program, 5:141 Wind erosion, 3:566; 5:125 control of, 3:551, 568–569 Windmills, 1:73–75 history of, 1:74 Wind pumps, 1:74–75 advantages and disadvantages of, 1:75 Windrow piles, 1:648, 649 Wind speed, estimating, 4:2 Wind turbines, 1:75 Wind wave forecasting, 4:139 Wire line coring technique, 5:105 Wire wrap screen, 5:573 Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources wastewater model, 1:731 Wisdom, free flowing water as a source of, 4:793–797 ‘‘Wise use’’ policy, for wetlands, 3:492 Witching, 5:92–94 Withdrawal See also Water withdrawal(s) defined, 2:548 uses for, 2:661–662 Women’s water rights, 4:771 Woods Hole as base of the fisheries service, 4:143 financial disaster in, 4:141 fishing activity at, 4:142 history of, 4:139–144 as a scientific center, 4:141–142 zoological work at, 4:144 Worker safety, pretreatment programs and, 1:800 Workplace, water conservation in, 2:664–666 Works Progress Administration (WPA), 2:511, 513 World Bank Water Research Team, 1:14–15 World Health Organization (WHO), 1:20, 23, 31 See also WHO water reuse guidelines arsenic-related guidelines, 2:8 basic water requirement of, 1:497 radioactive contamination guidelines of, 1:803 water quality standards, 2:267 World Meteoric Water Line (WMWL), 4:439 World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE), 4:22 World public water supply, 1:500–507 World Water Council, 1:387 World water industry, key trends in, 1:508–510 Wortley, Stuart, 4:766 WWTP monitoring, 2:48 XANES spectroscopy method, 2:207 Xanthates, 1:686 Xenobiotic industrial compounds, 5:43 Xenobiotics, 2:42 Xeriscape design, 3:750–752 benefits of turfgrass in, 3:750–751 challenge of, 3:752 practical turf areas in, 3:750 principles of, 3:751 Xeriscape landscaping, principles of, 3:555 Xeriscaping, 2:548 Xiaolangdi Reservoir, 3:48, 49 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), 4:491 Yamuna River, 3:234 See also River Yamuna, India Yangtze River, flooding of, 3:143 Yarra River, Australia, water quality software for, 2:328–330 Yarra River Water Quality Model (YRWQM), 2:334, 335 linking with genetic algorithm software, 2:334 Yellow River current flood control in, 3:48–49 flood analysis in the lower reach of, 3:49–50 historical flood management in, 3:47–48 reducing flood risk for, 3:49 Yellow River Basin flood control in, 3:45–50 sediment in, 3:46–47 Yersinia enterocolitica, 1:278 Yield, 2:548 water productivity, 3:560 Young groundwater, dating using tritium/helium ratios, 5:71–72 Zebra mussel control, chemical-free, 1:510–514 Zenith-scaled hydrostatic delay (ZHD), 4:245 Zenith tropospheric delay (ZTD), 4:245 Zeolites, sorption by, 1:874 Zero matric potential, 5:533 Zero-order degradation, 5:32 Zero-pressure balloons, 4:165 Zero-tension lysimeters, 2:340; 5:488, 489 Zero valent metals (ZVMs), 2:300 Zero Waste America, 4:148 Zinc (Zn) bioavailability in soils, 5:370 in groundwater, 2:148 phytoextraction of, 5:369– 374 uptake of, 2:217 Zinc hyperaccumulation, molecular basis of, 5:371–372 Zinc ions, sorption of, 1:588f ZoBell solution, 2:466–467 ‘‘Zone of noncompliance,’’ 3:81 ‘‘Zone of passage,’’ 3:81 ‘‘Zone’’ settling, 3:404 Zoogloeal growth, 1:730 Zoonoses, 1:178 Zooplanktivorous fish, algal control and, 2:6 Zooplankton, 4:154–155 effect of road salt on, 2:323 trace elements in, 3:456 Zooxanthellae, 4:33 Zwitterionic surfactants, 1:670 Water Encyclopedia: Domestic, Municipal, and Industrial Water Supply and Waste Disposal (Vol 1) Water Encyclopedia: Water Quality and Resource Development (Vol 2) Water Encyclopedia: Surface and Agricultural Water (Vol 3) Water Encyclopedia: Oceanography; Meteorology; Physics and Chemistry; Water Law; and Water History, Art, and Culture (Vol 4) Water Encyclopedia: Ground Water (Vol 5) ... Environmental Impact of Iron in Groundwater Groundwater and Cobalt: Chemical Behavior and Treatment Groundwater and Cadmium: Chemical Behavior and Treatment Groundwater Modeling Groundwater and Benzene: Chemical... Nitrate Contamination of Groundwater Treatment for Nitrates in Groundwater Nonpoint Sources Organic Compounds in Ground Water Overdraft Chemical Oxidation Technologies for Groundwater Remediation Particulate... Transport in Groundwater—Bacteria and Colloids Perched Groundwater Permeability Groundwater Vulnerability to Pesticides: An Overview of Approaches and Methods of Evaluation High pH Groundwater—The