Heavy metals in water presenc tủ tài liệu bách khoa

11:25:17 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-FP001 Heavy Metals in Water Presence, Removal and Safety 11:25:17 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-FP001 View Online View Online Heavy Metals In Water 11:25:17 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-FP001 Presence, Removal and Safety Edited by Sanjay K Sharma Department of Chemistry, JECRC University, Jaipur, India Email: drsanjay1973@gmail.com 11:25:17 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-FP001 View Online Print ISBN: 978-1-84973-885-9 PDF eISBN: 978-1-78262-017-4 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library r The Royal Society of Chemistry 2015 All rights reserved Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of research for non-commercial purposes or for private study, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 and the Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003, this publication may not be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of The Royal Society of Chemistry or the copyright owner, or in the case of reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to The Royal Society of Chemistry at the address printed on this page The RSC is not responsible for individual opinions expressed in this work Published by The Royal Society of Chemistry, Thomas Graham House, Science Park, Milton Road, Cambridge CB4 0WF, UK Registered Charity Number 207890 Visit our website at www.rsc.org/books 11:25:20 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-FP005 Preface Agriculture and industrial developments are not possible without the indispensable element water All living and non-living things require water for their existence in one way or another So, if somebody says that ‘water is the liquid of life’, it is absolutely correct Nobody can live without water The population explosion, increasing urbanization and industrialization are the major reasons for the depletion of water availability worldwide and that’s why the water crisis has become a global challenge today Scientists, policy makers and academicians are continuously trying hard to address this problem to the best of their knowledge and abilities, but without complete success Besides the water crisis, the availability of ‘safe water’ is another associated challenge Because of various types of pollutants and impurities present in water, whatever water is available is not always ‘safe’ Unfortunately drinking such ‘unsafe’ water is the fate of billions of people around the world and pure water is always a ‘dream’ for them Dissolved solids, synthetic dyes, agriculture runoffs, industrial effluents and microorganisms are a few of the things responsible for making water unsafe The presence of heavy metals is an add-on to this list, and these are so dangerous that they may actually lead to death Metals such as arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel and zinc are commonly found at contaminated sites and in aqueous systems For example, arsenic poisoning claims thousands of deaths every year in Bangladesh and West Bengal in India, while lead is very toxic to living organisms, accumulating in the bones, brain, kidney and muscles, and may be the cause of many serious disorders such as anaemia, kidney diseases, nervous disorders, sickness and even death The presence of heavy metals in water is due to both natural and anthropogenic sources Natural sources may include parent rocks and metallic Heavy Metals in Water: Presence, Removal and Safety Edited by Sanjay K Sharma r The Royal Society of Chemistry 2015 Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org v View Online 11:25:20 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-FP005 vi Preface ores and, on the other hand, agriculture (fertilizers, animal manures, pesticides), metallurgy (mining, smelting, metal finishing), energy production (leaded gasoline, battery manufacture, power plants), microelectronics, sewage sludge and scrap disposal can be included in the anthropogenic sources Removal of these heavy metals is a big problem for everyone Examples of the many techniques being tried to achieve this include biosorption, bioremediation, phytoremediation, photocatalytic processes, use of functionalized magnetic nanoparticles and use of industrial and agricultural waste This book is a sincere effort to showcase the latest research in the field of heavy metals removal, written by leading scientists and researchers At this point in time I express my gratitude to all contributors who made this volume possible I hope that the chapters presented will be a good source of reference material for scientists in their further research and development Also, I hope that this book provides an insightful text on the theme of ‘heavy metals removal’ and processes that are being studied, optimized and developed to sustain both mankind and nature I sincerely welcome feedback from all my valuable readers and critics Happy reading! Sanjay K Sharma Jaipur, India 11:25:24 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-FP007 Acknowledgments This is the opportunity to express my thanks and gratitude to my friends, colleagues, supporters and well wishers and to let them know that I am so grateful to have had them, and their valuable cooperation, along with me during the journey of this book—Heavy Metals in Water: Presence, Removal and Safety First of all I express my special thanks to all the esteemed contributors, who deserve special mention for providing their writings, without which this book could not be possible I sincerely acknowledge my parents Dr M.P Sharma and Mrs Parmeshwari Devi, my wife Dr Pratima Sharma and all other family members for their never-ending encouragement, moral support and patience during the course of this book I acknowledge the active interest and useful suggestions from Ackmez Mudhoo, University of Mauritius, Mauritius Thanks Ackmez! I also thank Mr Amit Agarwal and Mr Arpit Agarwal (Vice Chairpersons, JECRC University, Jaipur) and Professor S.S Pabla (Vice Chancellor, JECRC University, Jaipur) for their appreciation and encouragement My children Kunal and Kritika always deserve special mention as they are my best companions, who energize me to work with refreshed mood and motivation Special thanks go to the team at the Royal Society of Chemistry behind this publication, without whose painstaking efforts this work could not have been completed in a timely manner Thanks RSC! I am also grateful to many others whose name I have not been able to mention but whose association and support has in no way been any less Sanjay K Sharma Jaipur, India Heavy Metals in Water: Presence, Removal and Safety Edited by Sanjay K Sharma r The Royal Society of Chemistry 2015 Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org vii 11:25:24 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-FP007 View Online 11:25:25 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-FP009 This book is for Pratima, my wife, without whose love, support and cooperation I could not achieve anything in my life 11:25:25 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-FP009 View Online View Online 11:26:49 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-00315 344 Chapter 16 85 M Liu, Y Sanchuan, J Tao and C Gao, J Membr Sci., 2008, 325(December), 947–956 86 L K Wang, E M Fahey and Z C Wu, Dissolved air flotation, in Physicochemical Treatment Processes, ed L K Wang, Y T Hung, N K Shammas, Humana Press, Clifton, New Jersey, 2004, vol 3, pp 431–500 87 T Zabel Flotation in water treatment, in The Scientific Basis of Flotation, ed K J Ives, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The Hague, 1984, pp 349 378 ănsson and J Dahlquist, Water Res, 2000, 34, 21–30 88 M Lundh, L Jo 89 K A Matis, A I Zouboulis, N K Lazaridis and I C Hancock, Int J Miner Process., 2003, 70, 99108 ăcher, Chemo90 K A Matis, Zouboulis, G P Gallios, T Erwe and C Blo sphere, 2004, 55, 65–72 91 M Cooper, M Guterrez and N Marcı´lio, J Soc Leather Technol Chem., 2011, 95, 243–249 92 F R Souza and M Gutterres, Brazil J Chem Eng., 2012, 29, (03 July– September), 473–481 93 A Dettmer, E Cavalli, M A Z Ayub and M Gutterres, J Cleaner Prod, 2013, 47, 11–18 94 A Dettmer, P A Schacker and M Gutterres, J Am Leather Chem Assoc., 2013, v 108, 146–158 95 P Aquim, M Gutterres, J PASSOS and J Trierweiler, J Cleaner Prod., 2010, 18, 1545–1552 11:26:52 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-00345 Subject Index acid washing, in leather processing, 323 activated carbons, and iron removal, 16–17 acute toxicity, 265, 267 adsorption See also biosorption; metal biosorption and arsenic contamination, 110–113 and batch equilibrium studies, 207–208 equilibrium isotherm modeling, 75–77 Freundlich isotherm, 75–77 Langmuir isotherm, 77 other two-parameter isotherms, 77 as fluoride removal technique, 276 and heavy metal removal, 198–207, 284 biosorption, 202–205 on industrial by-products, 200–202 on modified agriculture and biological wastes, 202–205 on modified biopolymers and hydrogels, 205–207 on modified natural materials, 198–200 kinetic studies for, 73–75 pseudo-first order, 74 pseudo-second order, 74 Weber–Morris, 74–75 and metal biosorption, 304–306 complexation, 304 co-ordination, 305 ion exchange, 306 physical, 304 precipitation, 304–305 reduction, 305–306 and physico-chemical treatments of heavy metals, 48 and sorption effect of pH on, 291–292 temperature effect on, 293 and tannery effluents treatment, 338 advanced oxidation processes, for heavy metal removal, 27–29 advanced treatment, and tannery effluents, 330 agriculture waste (modified), and adsorption, 202–205 air, arsenic contamination in, 96–98 algae, and fluorides, 268 aluminium oxides, nanosized, 183–184 animals health effects, and fluorides, 267–269 anthropogenic sources, of arsenic, 94–95 aquatic invertebrates, and fluorides, 268–269 View Online 11:26:52 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-00345 346 arsenic, 297–298 and fluorides, 272–274 and photocatalytic process, 39–40 in Taihu Lake surface water, 173 arsenic contamination chemical characteristics, 87–90 description, 86–87 distribution in environment, 90–105 anthropogenic sources, 94–95 in foods and drugs, 100–102 metabolisms and toxicity of, 102–105 natural groundwater, 105 natural sources, 90–94 in plants and biota, 98–100 in water, air and soil, 96–98 removal from water and wastewater, 105–117 adsorption, 110–113 advanced and integrated technologies, 116–117 coagulation and flocculation, 107–110 combined processes, 117 constructed wetlands, 114–116 electrocoagulation, 116–117 membrane filtration, 113–114 photochemical and photocatalytic oxidation, 117 bating, in leather processing, 322 bio-based separation, for heavy metal removal, 49–50 biologically active carbon (BAC), 136 biological waste (modified), and adsorption, 202–205 Subject Index biomass of metal ions, and heavy metals, 13–15 biomass sorbents, and heavy metal removal, 283 biopolymers (modified), and adsorption, 205–207 biosorption and adsorption, 202–205 metal (See metal biosorption) of metal ions, and heavy metals, 13–15 biota, arsenic contamination in, 98–100 cadmium, 298–299 and photocatalytic process, 37–39 in Taihu Lake surface water, 171 carbon nanotubes, 184–185 charge separation, 29 chemical activation/conditioning, and clays/clay minerals, 227–230 chemical modification methods, and heavy metal removal, 286 chemical precipitation and physico-chemical treatments, of heavy metals, 46–47 and tannery effluents treatment, 332–335 chemistry, of iron and manganese oxidation and removal, 124–129 Chinese water resources, heavy metals in See also Taihu Lake surface water, and heavy metals current discharge standards, 152 current quality standards and recent trends, 148–152 recent industrial developments, 148 recent pollutions in, 155–161 contamination in sediments of rivers and lakes, 161 View Online 11:26:52 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-00345 Subject Index human health risk assessment of, 159–160 mining, smelting and other industrial wastewaters, 155–158 rivers and drinking water sources in Beijing, 159 wastewater irrigation, 158 sources of, 152–155 chromium, 299 forms in nature, 316–320 in environment, 318–319 in water, 319–320 and photocatalytic process, 35–37 salts, tanning with, 323–327 in Taihu Lake surface water, 170 tannery effluents treatment and adsorption, 338 by chemical precipitation, 332–335 electrocoagulation of, 335–338 and flotation, 339 and ion exchange, 338 and membrane filtration, 338–339 and reverse osmosis, 338–339 clays/clay minerals as heavy metals sorbent, 218–222 and isotherms, kinetics and thermodynamics evaluation, 237–242 overview, 213–217 as remediation technology, 12–13 structural features of, 218–222 surface modification techniques of, 222–236 chemical activation/ conditioning, 227–230 description, 222–225 347 pillaring, grafting and intercalation, 230–236 thermal activation, 225–227 coagulation See also electrocoagulation and arsenic contamination, 107–110 as physico-chemical treatment, 47 cobalt, in Taihu Lake surface water, 173 combined processes, and arsenic contamination removal, 117 constructed wetlands, and arsenic contamination, 114–116 contamination of arsenic (See arsenic contamination) in sediments of Chinese rivers and lakes, 161 copper, 299–300 in Taihu Lake surface water, 172 coprecipitation, and magnetic nanoparticles, 65–68 dehairing, in leather processing, 322 deliming, in leather processing, 322 differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), 227 drugs, arsenic contamination in, 100–102 drying operations, in leather processing, 323 DSC (differential scanning calorimetry), 227 dyeing, in leather processing, 323 ecosystems See environment effluents treatment, tannery See tannery effluents treatment electrochemical precipitation, of heavy metals, 47 View Online 11:26:52 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-00345 348 electrocoagulation See also coagulation and arsenic contamination, 116–117 and heavy metals, 11–12 remediation technologies, heavy metals, 11–12 and tannery effluents treatment, 335–338 electron–hole scavenger effect, and photocatalytic process, 33 engineering considerations, oxidation and removal for iron and manganese, 129–138 source water quality analysis, 130–133 treatment process considerations, 133–138 groundwater treatment, 133–135 surface water treatment, 136–138 environment and arsenic contamination, 90–105 anthropogenic sources, 94–95 in foods and drugs, 100–102 metabolisms and toxicity of, 102–105 natural groundwater, 105 natural sources, 90–94 in plants and biota, 98–100 in water, air and soil, 96–98 and chromium forms in nature, 318–319 fluorides in, 261–269 nanotechnology impact on, 187–188 Subject Index risks, and heavy metals, 4–7 sources of heavy metals in, 58–62 toxicity on, 62–64 environmental concern metals, 297–302 arsenic, 297–298 cadmium, 298–299 chromium, 299 copper, 299–300 lead, 301 mercury, 300–301 nickel, 301–302 zinc, 302 equilibrium isotherm modeling, 75–77 Freundlich isotherm, 75–77 Langmuir isotherm, 77 other two-parameter isotherms, 77 fatliquouring, in leather processing, 323 ferric oxides, nanosized, 181–183 filtration techniques See membrane filtration fish, and fluorides, 268–269 fleshing, in leather processing, 322 flocculation and arsenic contamination, 107–110 as physico-chemical treatment, 47 flotation, and tannery effluents treatment, 339 fluorides in environment, 261–269 anthropogenic sources, 263–265 content in environmental samples, 265 natural sources, 262–263 health effects of, 265–269 acute toxicity, 265, 267 algae and aquatic plants, 268 View Online 11:26:52 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-00345 Subject Index on animals and plants, 267–269 aquatic invertebrates and fish, 268–269 fluorosis, 267 to humans, 265–267 microorganisms, 267–268 terrestrial invertebrates and animals, 269 terrestrial plants, 268 and metals/metalloids, 269–274 and arsenic, 272–274 physico-chemical parameters and ions, 269–272 removal techniques, 274–276 adsorption, 276 membrane methods, 274 fluorosis, and fluorides, 267 foods, arsenic contamination in, 100–102 Freundlich equation, 75–77, 238, 284 genetically modified microorganisms, and heavy metal removal, 52 grafting, and clays/clay minerals, 230–236 graphene, 185–187 groundwater arsenic contamination, 105 treatment, for iron and manganese removal, 133–135 group metal (chromium), and photocatalytic process, 35–37 group 15 metalloid (arsenic), and photocatalytic process, 39–40 group 10 metals (nickel and platinum), and photocatalytic process, 37 group 12 metals (zinc, cadmium and mercury), and photocatalytic process, 37–39 349 health effects of fluorides, 265–269 acute toxicity, 265, 267 algae and aquatic plants, 268 on animals and plants, 267–269 aquatic invertebrates and fish, 268–269 fluorosis, 267 to humans, 265–267 microorganisms, 267–268 terrestrial invertebrates and animals, 269 terrestrial plants, 268 and heavy metals, 4–7 toxicity to human, 62–64 tannery wastewater and sludge treatment, 256–257 heavy metal removal adsorption models, 198–207, 284 biosorption, 202–205 on industrial by-products, 200–202 on modified agriculture and biological wastes, 202–205 on modified biopolymers and hydrogels, 205–207 on modified natural materials, 198–200 advanced oxidation processes for, 27–29 application of photocatalytic process for, 35–40 group metal (chromium), 35–37 group 15 metalloid (arsenic), 39–40 group 10 metals (nickel and platinum), 37 group 12 metals (zinc, cadmium and mercury), 37–39 and batch equilibrium studies, 207–208 View Online 11:26:52 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-00345 350 heavy metal removal (continued) bio-based separation for, 49–50 and genetically modified microorganisms, 52 isolated strains and efficiency, 50–52 modification methods, 284–286 chemical, 286 physical, 285–286 sorption mechanisms, 283 biomass sorbents, 283 inorganic sorbents, 283 sorption studies, 286–293 differences between materials, 287–291 effect of pH on adsorption, 291–292 raw vs modified materials, 292–293 temperature effect on adsorption, 293 treatment processes for, 196–198 heavy metals See also specific types adsorptive removal, 198–207, 284 biosorption, 202–205 on industrial by-products, 200–202 on modified agriculture and biological wastes, 202–205 on modified biopolymers and hydrogels, 205–207 on modified natural materials, 198–200 environmental and health risks, 4–7 industrial sources of, 26t in industrial wastewater and toxicity, 194–196 kinetic modeling for adsorption of, 73–75 pseudo-first order, 74 pseudo-second order, 74 Weber–Morris, 74–75 Subject Index and nanotechnology (See nanotechnology, and heavy metals) physico-chemical treatments of, 46–48 adsorption, 48 chemical precipitation, 46–47 coagulation–flocculation, 47 electrochemical precipitation, 47 ion exchange, 46 membrane filtration, 47–48 regulatory limits of, 45 remediation technologies, 7–17 biomass and biosorption of metal ions, 13–15 clays/layered double hydroxides, 12–13 electrocoagulation, 11–12 heterogeneous catalysts and catalysis, 10 and magnetic nanoparticles as nanosorbents, 15 membrane filtration, 7–8 and photocatalysts, 10–11 phytoremediation, 8–10 removal of iron and manganese from water, 15–17 activated carbons, 16–17 ion exchange, 16 sorbent, clays/clay minerals as, 218–222 sources of, 2–4 in environment, 58–62 toxicity of acute, 265, 267 of arsenic, 102–105 and industrial wastewater, 194–196 toxicological properties of, 143–147 arsenic, 145 cadmium, 145–146 chromium, 144–145 View Online 11:26:52 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-00345 Subject Index lead, 146–147 mercury, 147 in wastewater, 44–45 in water, 142–143 heterogeneous catalysts and catalysis, and heavy metals, 10 heterogeneous photocatalytic process, 29 humans health effects, and fluorides, 265–267 hydrogels (modified), and adsorption, 205–207 hydrothermal syntheses, and magnetic nanoparticles, 68 industrial by-products, and adsorption, 200–202 industrial wastewater, and toxicity, heavy metals in, 194–196 initial metal ion concentration effect, and photocatalytic process, 31–32 inorganic sorbents, and heavy metal removal, 283 intercalation, and clays/clay minerals, 230–236 invertebrates, and fluorides, 268–269 ion exchange and iron removal, 16 and tannery effluents treatment, 338 iron oxidation and removal chemistry of, 124–129 in natural waters, 124–125 engineering considerations for, 129–138 source water quality analysis, 130–133 treatment process considerations, 133–138 groundwater treatment, 133–135 surface water treatment, 136–138 351 iron removal, from water, 15–17 activated carbons, 16–17 ion exchange, 16 isolated strains and efficiency, and heavy metal removal, 50–52 isotherms evaluation, and clays/clay minerals, 237–242 kaolinite, 179 kinetic modeling, for adsorption of heavy metals, 73–75 pseudo-first order, 74 pseudo-second order, 74 Weber–Morris, 74–75 kinetics evaluation, and clays/clay minerals, 237–242 Langmuir isotherm model, 15–17, 75, 77, 208, 237, 238 layered double hydroxides, 12–13, 180 lead, 301 in Taihu Lake surface water, 170–171 leather finishing, in leather processing, 323 leather processing, 320–327 See also tanning flow chart of, 321f steps of, 322–323 tanning with chromium salts, 323–327 light intensity effect, and photocatalytic process, 33 liming, in leather processing, 322 magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs), 64 and equilibrium isotherm modeling, 75–77 Freundlich isotherm, 75–77 Langmuir isotherm, 77 other two-parameter isotherms, 77 View Online 11:26:52 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-00345 352 magnetic nanoparticles (continued) kinetic studies for adsorption, 73–75 pseudo-first order, 74 pseudo-second order, 74 Weber–Morris, 74–75 metal recovery and regeneration of, 78 synthesis of, 64–69 coprecipitation, 65–68 hydrothermal syntheses, 68 microemulsions, 69 thermal decomposition, 69 thermodynamic analysis, 77–78 in wastewater treatment, 69–73 as nanosorbents, 15, 70–73 manganese removal from water, 15–17 in Taihu Lake surface water, 175 manganese oxidation and removal chemistry of, 124–129 in natural waters, 124–125 engineering considerations for, 129–138 source water quality analysis, 130–133 treatment process considerations, 133–138 groundwater treatment, 133–135 surface water treatment, 136–138 marine aerosols, 263 mechanical operations, in leather processing, 323 membrane filtration and arsenic contamination, 113–114 Subject Index as fluoride removal technique, 274 and heavy metals, 7–8 remediation technologies, heavy metals, 7–8 and tannery effluents treatment, 338–339 mercury, 300–301 and photocatalytic process, 37–39 metabolism, of arsenic, 102–105 metal biosorption, 303–307 and adsorption, 304–306 complexation, 304 co-ordination, 305 ion exchange, 306 physical, 304 precipitation, 304–305 reduction, 305–306 and assimilation, 303–304 and biodegradation, 306–307 factors affecting, 307–309 bulk temperature, 308 cell age, 309 competing ions, 308 contact time, 308 initial concentration of metal ions and of biomass, 308–309 solution pH, 307 metals/metalloids See also specific types biosorption of, 303–307 (See also metal biosorption) adsorption, 304–306 assimilation, 303–304 biodegradation, 306–307 factors affecting, 307–309 of environmental concern, 297–302 arsenic, 297–298 cadmium, 298–299 chromium, 299 copper, 299–300 lead, 301 mercury, 300–301 View Online 11:26:52 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-00345 Subject Index nickel, 301–302 zinc, 302 and fluorides, 269–274 and arsenic, 272–274 physico-chemical parameters and ions, 269–272 group 15 (arsenic), and photocatalytic process, 39–40 group (chromium), and photocatalytic process, 35–37 group 10 (nickel and platinum), and photocatalytic process, 37 group 12 (zinc, cadmium and mercury), and photocatalytic process, 37–39 microemulsions, and magnetic nanoparticles, 69 microorganisms and fluorides, 267–268 genetically modified, and heavy metal removal, 52 minerals, clays/clay See clays/clay minerals MNPs See magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) modification methods, and heavy metal removal, 284–286 chemical, 286 physical, 285–286 modified agriculture waste, and adsorption, 202–205 modified biological waste, and adsorption, 202–205 modified biopolymers, and adsorption, 205–207 modified hydrogels, and adsorption, 205–207 modified natural materials, and adsorption, 198–200 modified vs raw materials, and heavy metal removal, 292–293 montmorillonite, 179–180 353 nanoclays, and heavy metals, 178–180 kaolinite, 179 layered double hydroxides, 180 montmorillonite, 179–180 nanoparticles, magnetic See magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) nanosized aluminium oxides, 183–184 nanosized ferric oxides, 181–183 nanosized metal oxides, and heavy metals, 180–184 aluminium oxides, 183–184 ferric oxides, 181–183 titanium oxides, 181 nanosized titanium oxides, 181 nanosorbents, magnetic nanoparticles as, 15, 70–73 nanostructured carbon materials, 184–187 nanotechnology, and heavy metals environmental impact of, 187–188 nanoclays, 178–180 kaolinite, 179 layered double hydroxides, 180 montmorillonite, 179–180 nanosized metal oxides, 180–184 aluminium oxides, 183–184 ferric oxides, 181–183 titanium oxides, 181 nanostructured carbon materials, 184–187 carbon nanotubes, 184–185 graphene, 185–187 nanotubes, carbon, 184–185 natural groundwater, arsenic contamination, 105 natural materials (modified), and adsorption, 198–200 natural sources, of arsenic, 90–94 View Online 11:26:52 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-00345 354 nickel, 301–302 and photocatalytic process, 37 in Taihu Lake surface water, 174 oxidation and removal See iron oxidation and removal; manganese oxidation and removal pH effect, on adsorption, 291–292 photocatalysis application for removal of heavy metals, 35–40 group metal (chromium), 35–37 group 15 metalloid (arsenic), 39–40 group 10 metals (nickel and platinum), 37 group 12 metals (zinc, cadmium and mercury), 37–39 basic principle of heterogeneous, 29 dependence of photoreduction kinetics, 31–33 effect of electron–hole scavenger, 33 effect of initial metal ion concentration, 31–32 effect of light intensity, 33 effect of photocatalyst mass, 32–33 and photcatalyst development, 35 and photoreactor development, 34 reaction mechanisms of, 29–30 thermodynamics of photoreduction, 30–31 photocatalysts development, and photocatalytic process, 35 and heavy metals, 10–11 mass effect, and photocatalytic process, 32–33 Subject Index photocatalytic oxidation, and arsenic contamination, 117 photochemical oxidation, and arsenic contamination, 117 photoreactor development, and photocatalytic process, 34 photoreduction thermodynamics, 30–31 physical modification methods, and heavy metal removal, 285–286 physico-chemical treatments and fluorides, 269–272 of heavy metals, 46–48 adsorption, 48 chemical precipitation, 46–47 coagulation–flocculation, 47 electrochemical precipitation, 47 ion exchange, 46 membrane filtration, 47–48 phytoremediation technology, for heavy metals, 8–10 phytotoxicity, tannery wastewater and sludge treatment, 257–258 pickling, in leather processing, 322 pillaring, and clays/clay minerals, 230–236 plants arsenic contamination in, 98–100 health effects, and fluorides, 267–269 platinum, and photocatalytic process, 37 prefinishing, in leather processing, 323 pre-fleshing, in leather processing, 322 preliminary treatment, and tannery effluents, 327, 339 presoaking, in leather processing, 322 primary treatment, and tannery effluents, 339 View Online 11:26:52 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-00345 Subject Index pseudo-first order kinetic modeling, 74 pseudo-second order kinetic modeling, 74 quality control, in leather processing, 323 raw vs modified materials, and heavy metal removal, 292–293 regulatory limits, of heavy metals, 45 remediation technologies, heavy metals biomass and biosorption of metal ions, 13–15 clays/layered double hydroxides, 12–13 electrocoagulation, 11–12 heterogeneous catalysts and catalysis, 10 and magnetic nanoparticles as nanosorbents, 15 membrane filtration, 7–8 and photocatalysts, 10–11 phytoremediation, 8–10 removal techniques, fluorides, 274–276 adsorption, 276 membrane methods, 274 retanning, in leather processing, 323 reverse osmosis (RO) See membrane filtration salt shake-off, in leather processing, 322 samming, in leather processing, 322 secondary treatment, and tannery effluents, 329–330 shaving, in leather processing, 322 sludge treatment, tannery characteristics, 250–253 description, 249–250 effluents, 330 future challenges of, 258 and health effects, 256–257 355 and phytotoxicity, 257–258 removal and recovery, 253–256 soaking, in leather processing, 322 softening, in leather processing, 323 soil, arsenic contamination in, 96–98 sorption, and heavy metal removal, 283, 286–293 biomass sorbents, 283 differences between materials, 287–291 effect of pH on adsorption, 291–292 inorganic sorbents, 283 raw vs modified materials, 292–293 temperature effect on adsorption, 293 splitting, in leather processing, 322 structural features, of clays/clay minerals, 218–222 surface modification techniques, of clays/clay minerals, 222–236 chemical activation/ conditioning, 227–230 description, 222–225 pillaring, grafting and intercalation, 230–236 thermal activation, 225–227 surface water treatment, for iron and manganese removal, 136–138 synthesis, of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs), 64–69 coprecipitation, 65–68 hydrothermal syntheses, 68 microemulsions, 69 thermal decomposition, 69 Taihu Lake surface water, and heavy metals See also Chinese water resources, heavy metals in description, 168–169 methods, 169–170 sample collection, 169–170 sample processing and analytical procedures, 170 View Online 11:26:52 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-00345 356 Taihu Lake surface water, and heavy metals (continued) results, 170–175 arsenic, 173 cadmium, 171 chromium, 170 cobalt, 173 copper, 172 lead, 170–171 manganese, 175 nickel, 174 tin, 174 zinc, 172 tannery effluents treatment, 327–339 chromium recovery and adsorption, 338 by chemical precipitation, 332–335 electrocoagulation of, 335–338 and flotation, 339 and ion exchange, 338 and membrane filtration, 338–339 and reverse osmosis, 338–339 preliminary treatment, 327, 339 primary treatment, 339 secondary treatment, 329–330 sludge treatment, 330 tertiary/advanced treatment, 330 wastewater reuse, 331–332 tannery wastewater and sludge treatment characteristics, 250–253 description, 249–250 future challenges of, 258 and health effects, 256–257 and phytotoxicity, 257–258 removal and recovery, 253–256 tanning See also leather processing and chromium in environment, 318–319 forms in nature, 316–320 Subject Index salts, 323–327 in water, 319–320 description, 315–316 temperature effect, and heavy metal removal, 293 terrestrial invertebrates and fluorides, 269 terrestrial plants, and fluorides, 268 tertiary treatment, and tannery effluents, 330 TGA (thermogravimetric analysis), 227 thermal activation, and clays/clay minerals, 225–227 thermal decomposition, and magnetic nanoparticles, 69 thermodynamic analysis, and MNPs, 77–78 thermodynamics evaluation, and clays/clay minerals, 237–242 thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), 227 tin, in Taihu Lake surface water, 174 titanium oxides, nanosized, 181 toxicity, of heavy metals acute, 265, 267 of arsenic, 102–105 to human health, 62–64 and industrial wastewater, 194–196 toxic metals See heavy metals United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 57, 123, 159 volcanic activity, 262–263 wastewater arsenic contamination removal from, 105–117 adsorption, 110–113 advanced and integrated technologies, 116–117 coagulation and flocculation, 107–110 View Online 11:26:52 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-00345 Subject Index combined processes, 117 constructed wetlands, 114–116 electrocoagulation, 116–117 membrane filtration, 113–114 photochemical and photocatalytic oxidation, 117 heavy metals in, 44–45 industrial, 194–196 and toxicity, 194–196 irrigation and Chinese water resources, 158 reuse, and tannery effluents, 331–332 treatment, tannery (See tannery wastewater and sludge treatment) water arsenic contamination in, 96–98 arsenic contamination removal from, 105–117 adsorption, 110–113 advanced and integrated technologies, 116–117 357 coagulation and flocculation, 107–110 combined processes, 117 constructed wetlands, 114–116 electrocoagulation, 116–117 membrane filtration, 113–114 photochemical and photocatalytic oxidation, 117 chromium in, 319–320 iron removal from, 15–17 activated carbons, 16–17 ion exchange, 16 manganese removal from, 15–17 Weber–Morris kinetic modeling, 74–75 wetlands, constructed, and arsenic contamination, 114–116 World Health Organization (WHO), 123 zinc, 302 and photocatalytic process, 37–39 in Taihu Lake surface water, 172 11:26:52 Published on 16 September 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782620174-00345 View Online ... Metal Pollution in Rivers and Drinking Water Sources in Beijing 7.4.4 Human Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Drinking Water Sources in China 7.4.5 Heavy Metal Contamination in the Sediments... and Heavy Metals in Water 7.3.2 Current Water Quality Standards and Recent Trends 7.3.3 Current Discharge Standards for Heavy Metals in Wastewater 7.3.4 Sources of Heavy Metals in Chinese Water. .. Jin, Nima Maleky and Aijun Lin 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Introduction Heavy Metals in Water: Definitions and Their Health Effects 7.2.1 Brief Discussion on Heavy Metal Definitions 7.2.2 Fate of Heavy Metals