Maya forest garden eight millennia of sustainable cultivation of the tropical woodlands

The Maya Forest Garden New Frontiers in Historical Ecology Dynamic new research in the genuinely interdisciplinary field of historical ecology is flourishing in the fields of restoration and landscape ecology, geography, forestry and range management, park design, biology, cultural anthropology, and anthropological archaeology Historical ecology corrects shifts the paradigms of ecosystem designs and disequilibrium by constructing transdisciplinary histories of landscapes and regions that recognize the significance of human activity and the power of all forms of knowledge The preferred theoretical approach of younger scholars in many social and natural science disciplines, historical ecology is in active practice around the world by such organizations as UNESCO This series fosters the next generation of scholars, offering a sophisticated grasp of human-environmental interrelationships The series editors invite proposals for cutting edge books that break new ground in theory or in the practical application of the historical ecology paradigm to contemporary problems General Editors William Balée, Tulane University Carole L Crumley, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill Editorial Advisory Board Wendy Ashmore, University of California, Riverside Peter Brosius, University of Georgia Lyle Campbell, University of Utah Philippe Descola, Collège de France Dave Egan, Northern Arizona University Rebecca Hardin, University of Michigan Edvard Hviding, University of Bergen William Marquardt, University of Florida Kenneth R Olwig, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Gustavo Politis, Universidad de la Plata Nathan Sayre, University of California, Berkeley Stephan Schwartzman, Environmental Defense Fund Series Titles Vol 1: Social and Ecological History of the Pyrenees: State, Market, and Landscape, Ismael Vaccaro and Oriol Beltran, eds Vol 2: The Ten-Thousand Year Fever: Rethinking Human and Wild Primate Malarias, Loretta A Cormier Vol 3: Sacred Geographies of Ancient Amazonia: Historical Ecology of Social Complexity, Denise P Schaan Vol 4: Islands in the Rainforest: Landscape Management in Pre-Columbian Amazonia, Stéphen Rostain Vol 5: Landesque Capital: The Historical Ecology of Enduring Landscape Modifications, N Thomas Håkansson and Mats Widgren, eds Vol 6: The Maya Forest Garden: Eight Millennia of Sustainable Cultivation of the Tropical Woodlands, Anabel Ford and Ronald Nigh THE Maya Forest Garden Eight Millennia of Sustainable Cultivation of the Tropical Woodlands Anabel Ford and Ronald Nigh Left Coast Press, Inc Walnut Creek, California LEFT COAST PRESS, INC 1630 North Main Street, #400 Walnut Creek, CA  94596 www.LCoastPress.com   Copyright © 2015 by Left Coast Press, Inc   All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher ISBN 978-1-61132-997-1 hardback ISBN  978-1-61132-998-8 paperback ISBN 978-1-61132-999-5 institutional eBook ISBN 978-1-61132-745-8 consumer eBook   Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:  Ford, Anabel Maya forest garden : eight millennia of sustainable cultivation of the tropical woodlands / Anabel Ford and Ronald Nigh pages cm (New frontiers in historical ecology ; Vol 6) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-61132-997-1 (hardback) ISBN 978-1-61132-998-8 (paperback) ISBN 978-1-61132-999-5 (institutional ebook) ISBN 9781-61132-745-8 (consumer ebook) Mayas Agriculture Indians of Mexico Agriculture Indians of Central America Agriculture I Nigh, Ronald II Title F1435.3.A37F67 2015 972’.6 dc23 2015002902    Printed in the United States of America   The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48–1992 CONTENTS List of Illustrations / Acknowledgments / 11 Introduction Prosperity across Centuries / 13 Chapter The Context of the Maya Forest / 21 Chapter Dwelling in the Maya Forest: The High-Performance Milpa / 41 Chapter Environmental Change and the Historical Ecology of the Maya Forest / 77 Chapter Maya Land Use, the Milpa, and Population in the Late Classic Period / 97 Chapter The Forested Landscape of the Maya / 125 Chapter Maya Restoration Agriculture as Conservation for the Twenty-first Century / 155 Appendix A Basket of Mesoamerican Cultivated Plants / 179 Appendix B Favored Trees / 187 Notes / 209 References / 211 Index / 251 About the Authors / 260 illustrations figures Figure 0.1 Maya Lowlands with major sites indicated • 14 Figure 0.2 Imagining the Maya landscape with Eurocentric and Maya eyes • 16 Figure 1.1 Rainfall distribution in the Maya area • 25 Figure 1.2 General resource zones of the Maya area • 27 Figure 1.3 Peopling of the New World with an inset of population distribution after 2000 years • 28 Figure 1.4 Precipitation record for Cariaco Basin with Holocene Thermal Maximum indicated • 29 Figure 2.1 Diego Jiménez Chi with his grandson Roque Calderon, in his full grown milpa, Quintana Roo, Mexico • 42-43 Figure 2.2 Lakantun Maya farmer Chan K’in in his milpa, showing the three stages of the cycle, Chiapas, Mexico • 44 Figure 2.3 The milpa cycle from forest to field and back • 46 Figure 2.4 Lakantun Maya polyculture milpa featuring macal, banana, tobacco, sugarcane, and maize in the background, Chiapas, Mexico • 48 Figure 2.5 Milpa polyculture in the Petén, Guatemala • 48 Figure 2.6 Lakantun farmer José Valensuela in his recently burned milpa, Chiapas, Mexico • 49 Figure 2.7 One burn establishes the open field gap and initiates the milpa cycle, Yucatan, Mexico • 50-51 Figure 2.8 Establishing perennial shrubs and trees in the milpa directs forest succession, Petén, Guatemala • 54-55 Figure 2.9 Tobacco was produced for trade by the Lakantun, Chiapas, Mexico • 58 Figure 2.10 Dario Tuz Caamal, a Yukatek Maya “wind-tender,” spreads fire to obtain a controlled burn, Yucatan, Mexico • 58 Figure 2.11 In Chan K’in’s Lakantun milpa, frequent small-scale fires create ash and charcoal without damaging soil life, Chiapas, Mexico • 59 Figure 2.12 Labor, skill, and scheduling are critical to the succession process in which Zacarias Quixchan trims lower ciricote branches, Petén, Guatemala • 61 Figure 2.13 This outfield orchard includes traditional Maya forest and introduced trees; note the profusion of annuals during this stage of succession Petén, Guatemala • 62-63 8  The Maya Forest Garden Figure 2.14 Infield Maya house and forest garden, the primary residential unit • 70 Figure 2.15 The ceremonial ch’a chaak, performed by hmen Agapito May, forges the connection of the farmer to his land in San Ramón, Yucatan, Mexico • 75 Figure 3.1 Stable high precipitation of the Holocene Thermal Maximum from 8,000 to 4,000 years ago • 81 Figure 3.2: 8,000 years of precipitation featuring the period of climate chaos and the overall-best-fit drying trend • 82 Figure 3.3 Climate chaos between 4,000 and 2,000 years ago • 83 Figure 3.4 Precipitation change indicated by titanium percent over time showing Maya clay and climate chaos • 83 Figure 3.5 Precipitation and select pollen over time in the Maya forest • 84 Figure 3.6 Precipitation and select pollen for the last millennia in the Maya forest • 92 Figure 3.7 1,000 years of stability showing the best-fit drying trends for two periods: the Archaic and the Classic • 94 Figure 4.1 Maya infield house and forest garden with verdant orchard in background and drying chiles in foreground, Yucatan • 102-103 Figure 4.2 Lakantun infield house and forest garden of José Camino Viejo in 1976, Chiapas, Mexico • 104 Figure 4.3 Lakantun second-year outfield milpa of José Lopez in 1976, Chiapas, Mexico • 104 Figure 4.4 El Pilar study area boundaries north of the Belize River • 106 Figure 4.5 Maya settlement probability map for the El Pilar study area • 107 Figure 4.6 Low settlement probability areas for the El Pilar surveys • 108 Figure 4.7 High settlement probability areas for the El Pilar surveys • 109 Figure 4.8 Distribution of primary residential units of the El Pilar study area • 111 Figure 4.9 Maya farmer Marcelino Chi Pech views his maize harvest, in Monte Cristo, Yucatan, Mexico • 117 Figure 4.10 Zacarias Quixchan in front of his stored maize, Petén, Guatemala • 119 Figure 5.1 Distribution of mahogany and chicozapote trees by forest types • 131 Figure 5.2 Distribution of guano and escoba palms by forest types • 131 Figure 5.3 Clay and rock indices with soil depth by forest types • 132 Figure 5.4 Select economic trees by forest types • 133 Figure 5.5 Residential land use for maize production models per four house lots by probability class • 141 Figure 5.6 Residential house lot density per square kilometer for maize production models by probability class • 142 Figure 5.7 Low yield maize model • 147 Figure 5.8 Average yield maize model • 147 Figure 5.9 High yield maize model • 147 Figure 5.10 The Maya forest garden cycle creates valuable woodlands with managed succession, Petén, Guatemala • 148-149 Figure 5.11 Zacarias Quixchan in his reserve with his mahogany, Petén, Guatemala • 152-153 Illustrations and Tables  Figure 6.1 Crowded ciudades rurales vs traditional house and forest garden • 163 Figure 6.2 The El Pilar Archaeological Reserve for Maya Flora and Fauna bridges the international border of Belize and Guatemala • 169 Figure 6.3 The contiguous park embraces 2,000 hectares of upland and lowland habitats reflected topographically with LiDAR (10-meter contours) • 170 Figure 6.4 LiDAR topographic relief with a traditional map overlay of the Maya city of El Pilar • 171 Figure 6.5 1994 Landsat view of the El Pilar Archaeological Reserve before establishment of the protected area boundaries • 172 Figure 6.6 2003 Landsat view of the El Pilar Archaeological Reserve after the 1998 protected area declaration in Belize and Guatemala • 172 Figure 6.7 2014 Landsat view of the El Pilar Archaeological Reserve showing forest integrity inside and increased forest fragmentation outside the reserve • 173 Figure 6.8 1994 Landsat view surrounding El Pilar, with forest to the west in the Maya Biosphere Reserve, Petén Guatemala, and cleared areas of pasture and plowed fields to the east in Spanish Lookout, Cayo Belize • 175 Figure 6.9 2003 Landsat view surrounding El Pilar, with forest to the west and north of Melchor, Petén Guatemala, and expanded pasture and plowed fields to the east in Spanish Lookout, Cayo Belize • 176 Figure 6.10 2014 Landsat view surrounding El Pilar, with forest and new agricultural expansion to the west in Melchor, Petén Guatemala, and further expansion of pasture and plowed fields to the east in Spanish Lookout, Cayo Belize • 177 Tables Table 1.1 Occupation Chronology: Eight Thousand Years in the Maya Forest • 23 Table 2.1 Dominant Plants of the Milpa Forest Garden Cycle from the Greater Petén • 45 Table 2.2 Sample Protected Trees of the Milpa • 53 Table 2.3 Dominant Plants of the Maya Forest • 57 Table 2.4 Plants Used by Lakantun Maya for Soil Restoration • 62 Table 3.1 Paleoenvironmental and Cultural Chronology of the Maya Lowlands • 79 Table 4.1 Probability Class, Late Classic Residential Units, and Population Distributions for the Study Area • 113 Table 4.2 Maize Requirement for the El Pilar Study Area • 116 Table 4.3 Infield Home Garden Maize Production in the Maya Lowlands • 121 Table 4.4 Maize Yields for the El Pilar Population under Different Production Regimes • 122 Table 5.1 Characterization of Ancient Settlement and Environment of Upland Forests for the El Pilar Study Area (62% of area) • 129 Table 5.2 Characterization of Uninhabited Lowland Forest Environments of the El Pilar Study Area (38% of area) • 130 Table 5.3 Maize Yields and Land-Use Models for El Pilar • 146 246  The Maya Forest Garden TNC, 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Estudios de Cultura Maya XXXVIII:97-120 index Page numbers in italics refer to tables or illustrations Italicized n refers to a note number A abandonment (of fields), 64, 66, 120 abandonment (of sites), 22, 34–35, 38, 89, 136, 159 achiote, 61 achotillo, 61 Acrocomia aculeata (cocoyol; coyol), 52, 135 agriculture, 15, 22, 68 colonial impact on, 70–71 cosmology and, 72–74, 76 destructive, 38, 52 erosion and, 166 forest and, 34, 38, 52 industrialized, 17, 166–167, 168 intensification of, 17–18, 122 restoration, 57, 156, 174 settlement and, 30 sustainable, 168 See also maize (Zea mays) allspice (Pimenta dioica), 45, 52, 61, 135, 143, 152 amaranth (Amaranthaceae), 45, 135, 137, 209n1 animals, 60, 136 ancient Maya and, 139, 150, 151 attraction of, 60, 167 habitats for, 76, 139, 144, 145, 150 animism, 73 annona (Annona spp.), 45, 52, 61 anticommodity, 164, 166 Archaic, 20, 23, 32, 67, 78, 79 climate and, 80, 93, 94, 158 landscape change and, 77, 80, 93, 159 architecture monumental, 33, 34–35, 136 residential, 56, 99–100 See also household; Primary Residential Unit (PRU) Asidosperma cruentum (malerio), 57, 61, 143 Attalea cohune See corozo (Attalea cohune) avocado (Persea americana), 45, 52, 61, 93, 135 in Maya art, 52, 150 B babassu, 129 See also corozo (Attalea cohune) bajos, 36, 80 See also wetlands (ecoysystem) balsa (Ochroma pyramidale), 61, 63, 66–67 bats (as pollinators), 19, 53, 57, 61, 125, 134 bayal (Desmoncus orthacanthos), 61, 138 beans (Phaseolus spp.), 71, 72, 93 bees, 19, 53, 57, 125, 134, 209n1 keeping, 52, 60 biochar, 66 biodiversity, 38, 52, 76, 168 indices, 59 Lakantun Maya and, 64 milpa and, 47, 137, 138, 156, 167 pollen evidence for, 36 birds, 137 as pollinators, 19, 53, 61, 125, 134 bobtob (Sapium lateriflorum), 61, 63 251 252  The Maya Forest Garden Boserup, Ester, 112–113, 139 bracken (Pteridium aquilinum), 67 Brosimum alicastrum (ramon), 52, 57, 61, 87, 134–135 density of, 129, 130, 132 expansion of, 37–38, 80, 134–135 during Holocene Thermal Maxi mum, 26, 80, 87–90, 134 as indicator species, 37–38, 90–91 for livestock, 209n1, 209n2 at Maya sites, 90, 128, 129 as pioneer species, 37–38, 80, 89, 136, 151 in pollen record, 79, 87–88, 89–90, 96, 151 as upland species, 128, 129, 132, 142 Bucida buceras (pukte), 45, 62, 134, 143 burning, 18, 52, 66 of milpa, 49, 50–51, 56, 58, 64 See also fire Bursera simarouba (chaca), 57, 68, 88 Byrsonima crassifolia (nance), 52, 88, 135 in Maya art, 52, 150 C cacao (Theobroma cacao), 52, 61, 68, 135, 137, 173 in Maya art, 52, 150 caimito (Chrysophyllum spp.), 52 calabash (Crescentia spp.), 61 Calderon, Roque, 42 Calophyllum brasiliense (Santa Maria), 45, 62, 133 Capsicum spp (chile), 93, 135 Caracol (site), 33, 34 carbon, 56–57, 167 Cariaco basin, 80–82 climate data from, 27, 35, 36, 37, 78 Cecropia spp., 45, 88, 129, 133, 136 as pioneer, 130, 133 reforestation and, 61, 136 cedar (cedro; Cedrela odorata), 52, 61, 62, 135, 143 Cedrela odorata (cedar, cedro) 52, 61, 62, 135, 143 ceiba (Ceiba petandra), 42, 52, 61, 135, 152 cenotes, 26, 32, 68 centers (urban), 22, 31, 32–33, 158–159 centralization, 162 ceramics, 33 Cerros (site), 159 chaca (Bursera simarouba), 57, 68, 88 Chan (site), 139 chaya (Cnidoscolus spp.), 61, 135 chayote (Sechium edule), 52 cherimoya, 61 See also annona (Annona spp.) Chiapas See Maya (Lakantun) chicozapote (Manilkara zapota), 52, 57, 135, 152 at El Pilar, 128 as food, 24 forest type and, 130, 131, 132, 133, 143 chile (Capsicum spp.), 93, 135 Chi Pech, Marcelino, 117 Christianity, 74–75 chronology, 23, 31–35, 79 Petén lakes and, 85–86 Cladium sp., 134 Classic period, 33, 95, 151 chronology, 23, 79 climate, 95, 96 milpa and, 157, 162 population, 68–69 precipitation, 94, 95 See also collapse (Maya); Late Classic period clay (Maya), 35, 36, 37, 82, 83, 85 climate, 26–27, 30, 78–84 Cariaco basin cores and, 80–82 during Classic period, 95, 96 early Holocene, 78, 93 instability, 27, 79, 80, 81–82, 83, 87, 95, 158 Petén lakes cores and, 35, 37, 80 Pleistocene–Holocene, 26, 32, 77, 93, 158 vegetation change and, 78, 80, 87–91, 158 Climatic Optimum See Holocene Thermal Maximum Cnidoscolus spp (chaya), 61, 135 cocoyol (Acrocomia aculeata), 52, 135 coffee, 173 cohune palm See corozo (Attalea cohune) index  253 collapse (Maya), 19–20, 34, 38, 96, 157 deforestation and, 21, 30–31, 34 settlement patterns and, 22 colonialism, 69–70, 162 colonization, 26, 28, 77, 78 commodity, 164–165 complexity (social), 33 conservation, 76 farmers and, 15, 20, 174 forest, 156, 168 soil, 56 water, 57, 98, 120, 173 copal, 61, 143 coppicing, 18, 64, 123, 156 Cordia dodecandra (siricote), 52, 135 cordoncillo (Piper aduncum), 63, 128 corn See maize (Zea mays) corozo (Attalea cohune), 45, 52, 57, 60, 61, 135, 143 forest type and, 128–129 Cortés, Hernán, 21, 22–24, 38 cosmology, 72–76 cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), 52 coyol (Acrocomia aculeata), 52, 135 crop rotation See milpa cycle Cryosophila stauracantha (escoba palm), 57, 128, 130, 131, 143 Cucurbita spp (squash), 71, 72, 93, 135 curing, 74 D dating See chronology deer, 60, 87 Deevey, Edward S., 85–86 deforestation, 125, 159 collapse and, 19–20, 21, 30–31, 37, 38 erosion and, 34, 36 indicators of, 133, 136 milpa and, 44, 52 pollen record and, 89, 91, 93, 136, 159 population and, 17, 34, 38 during Terminal Classic, 34, 37 Desmoncus orthacanthos (bayal), 61, 138 determinism, 157 diet (ancient Maya), 100, 115, 150 See also maize (Zea mays) Diospyros digyna (zapote negro), 52 diversity See biodiversity division of labor, 65 domesticates, 32 drainage, 25–26, 128, 129, 144 milpa and, 137 settlement patterns and, 105, 114 drought, 34, 59, 96 ancient Maya and, 34, 95 tolerant plants, 128, 142 See also precipitation Dry Uplands (forest type), 127–128, 129 dye, 143 E ecological imperialism, 16–17, 156, 173, 209n1 ecology See historical ecology ecosystems, 26, 27, 76 See also lowlands (ecosystem); uplands (ecosystem) El Mirador, 159 El Niño, 81, 158 El Pilar, 26, 33, 98, 143, 171 collapse of, 34 cultivable land, 116, 117, 140 forest cover at, 144–146 households, 99–100, 110 landscape of, 99, 114, 123, 128– 129, 149–150 maize production and, 115–118, 120–122, 144, 146 occupation of, 35, 99 population of, 34, 99–100, 105, 111–113, 114, 116 research at, 98 settlement at, 99, 105–109 El Pilar Archaeological Reserve, 168, 169, 170, 172, 173 epiphytes, 143 erosion, 35, 36 milpa and, 20, 72, 174 escoba palm (Cryosophila stauracantha), 57, 128, 130, 131, 143 ethnic groups See Maya (Lakantun); Maya (Yukatek) ethnobotany See knowledge (ecological) 254  The Maya Forest Garden F famine, 159 farming See agriculture; milpa fertility (soil), 52, 67 milpa cycle and, 60, 98, 120, 151, 174 settlement and, 105, 114 fertilizer, 161, 166, 167 fields, 99, 120, 137, 145, 150 at El Pilar, 117–118, 145–146 infield, 52, 69, 70, 102, 104, 145,146 infield-outfield strategy, 69, 71, 119–120, 122, 140, 141 maize production and, 47, 116, 117–118, 120, 121, 122, 41, 146, 147 milpa cycle and, 64, 65–67, 165 organization of, 69–71, 118, 145, 146 outfield, 69, 71, 104, 146 field-to-forest cycle See milpa cycle fiddlewood (Vitex gaumeri), 45, 57, 61 fire, 18, 56, 58, 59, 60 suppression, 161 weeding and, 65 See also burning food systems See agriculture; milpa; subsistence forbs, 91, 136, milpa and, 60, 123, 137, 138 paleoenvironment and, 36–37, 79, 82 in pollen record, 96, 135, 136, 137, 139, 151 forest, 15, 24–26, 51, 90, 96, 127, 132–133 biodiversity of, 59–60 climate and, 80 conservation, 156, 168, 174 at El Pilar, 145–146 feral, 18, 59, 136, 159 history of study, 15, 38 Lacandon, 64, 65, 71, 90 managed, 20, 51, 56, 60, 64, 144–145 resources, 123, 126, 132, 138 types, 127–133 See also specific taxa Formative See Preclassic period fruit in Maya art, 52, 150 orchards, 62, 69, 102, 161 G geography See landscape Geographic Information System (GIS), 105, 126 globalization, 160, 164 grasses (Poaceae) invasive, 156 milpa and, 60, 123, 138 paleoenvironment and, 36–37, 78, 79, 82, 91, 96 in pollen record, 84, 92, 135, 136, 137, 139, 151 guano palm See Sabal spp (palms) guapuruvú (Schizolobium parahyba), 61 guaya (Talisia oliviformis), 45, 57, 61, 128, 135 guayaba (Psidium guajava), 52, 135, 150 gumbolimbo, 61 H hardwoods, 64, 118, 125, 133 at El Pilar, 123 See also Swietenia macrophylla (mahogany) Hillbase (forest type), 128–129 historical ecology, 76, 148–150 forest and, 132–133 of Maya Lowlands, 26–27, 30–31 Holocene Thermal Maximum, 26, 80, 87, 93, 127, 158 rainfall and, 27, 36, 81 household, 100–103, 102, 103 organization of, 69–70, 71 secondary, 103 See also Primary Residential Unit (PRU) hunters and gatherers, 31–32, 78 hunting, 52, 150–151 hydrology See water I, J, K imperialism (ecological), 16–17, 156, 173, 209n1 insects, 72, 137 as pollinators, 53, 57, 61, 137 index  255 intensification (labor), 19, 68–69, 76, 119, 123 intensification (land), 17–18, 30–31, 33, 158 Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), 81 irrigation, 123, 167 jabin (Piscidia piscipula), 57, 61 Jiménez Chi, Diego, 42 jobo See jocote (Spondias spp.) jocote (Spondias spp.), 57, 68, 143 k’ax (forest, grove), 51, 209n2 K’in, Chan, 44, 59 knowledge (ecological), 18, 27, 39, 155, 167 of milpa, 56, 68, 136, 159–160, 173–174 intensification and, 17, 69, 122 Lakantun, 116 of plants, 60 L labor, 17, 18, 35, 61, 65, 67, 97 intensification, 19, 68–69, 76, 119, 123 investment in maize, 118, 122, 139 scheduling, 69, 117, 122, 136, 139 See also under milpa; and skill Lakantun Maya See Maya (Lakantun) landscape, 16, 24, 138, 159, 174 ancient Maya, 18, 21, 93, 139–140 anthropogenic, 18, 52, 59, 68, 76, 93, 155–156, 159 of El Pilar, 99, 114, 123, 128–129, 146, 149–150 European view of, 16–17, 70, 97 forest as, 54, 126–127, 132–133, 156 maize and, 118–120 management, 16, 98, 99, 120–123 modeling of, 98 as mosaic, 60, 91, 126, 133, 138, 144, 150, 159 pollen record and, 86–88, 159 See also Maya Lowlands (region); settlement patterns Late Classic period, 33–34 chronology, 23, 79 landscape, 59, 126, 149 population, 112–113, 113, 144, 151 See also El Pilar (site) Licania platypus (succotz), 57, 61 limestone, 24–26, 32, 89, 134, 137, 143 Lonchocarpus castilloi (manchiche), 57, 61, 133, 143 lowlands (ecosystem), 129–132 dominant plants of, 130, 131, 143 occupation of, 32 pollen record and, 91, 134 See also Maya Lowlands (region) M mahogany See Swietenia macrophylla maize (Zea mays), 47, 100, 160–161, 162 as animate, 73, 75 during Archaic, 93 as commodity, 164 El Pilar and, 116, 119–122, 144–146 in pollen record, 95, 135, 151 yields, 71, 115–118, 119, 122, 140–141, 144, 146, 147 malanga (Xanthosoma spp.), 135 malerio (Asidosperma cruentum), 57, 61, 143 mamey (Pouteria sapota), 52, 61, 128, 142, 150 in Maya art, 52, 150 mamey (wild; Alseis yucatanensis), 57 manax, 143 manchiche (Lonchocarpus castilloi), 57, 61, 133, 143 Manilkara zapota See chicozapote May, Agapito, 75 Maya (ancient), 68–69, 95, 162 chronology, 23, 79 diet, 100, 115, 150 subsistence, 123–124, 139 See also Classic period; collapse (Maya); El Pilar (site); Late Classic period Maya (Lakantun), 64–65, 67, 116–118 maize yields of, 116–117, 119, 122 milpa and, 64, 65–67, 104 plant use by, 60, 62, 63 soil restoration by, 62, 63, 67 256  The Maya Forest Garden Maya (Yukatek), 67–68, 116 maize yields of, 116, 118, 119 specialists, 56, 58, 74 terms used by, 41, 51, 74, 209n2 Maya clay, 35, 36, 37, 82, 83, 85 Maya Lowlands (region), 14, 15, 22, 25–26, 80 drainage of, 27 earliest occupation of, 26, 78, 93 historical ecology of, 26–27, 30–31 maize production in, 121 paleoenvironment of, 78, 79 precipitation in, 25 settlement of, 99 Mesic Bajo (forest type), 129, 130 Mesic Uplands (forest type), 127, 128, 129 milpa 13, 24, 41, 42–43, 47, 54–55, 104 as adaptive, 97–98, 136–138 as agroecosystem, 19, 47, 49, 161 as anthropogenic, 52, 56 antiquity of, 13, 23, 54, 95–96 benefits of, 52, 139–140, 174 as biodiverse, 47, 137, 138, 156, 167 challenges to, 160–162, 164–165, 167–168 conventional, 65–66, 161, 165 dominant plants of, 45 as dynamic, 144, 159 globalization and, 160–161, 165, 167–168 as high performance, 31, 41, 56, 57, 65, 66, 68–69, 71, 159 knowledge of, 159–160, 174 as labor intensive, 65, 68–69, 123 Lakantun Maya and, 44, 49, 59, 64, 65–67 misunderstanding of, 18, 38, 44, 54–55, 149, 165 pollen record and, 91, 135–136, 138 polyculture and, 47, 48, 141, 161 as resilient, 96, 97, 100, 136, 152, 156, 165 skill and, 123, 139, 150 as sustainable, 13, 121–124, 157, 167 weed management and, 65–66 yield, 71–72, 118 See also forest; maize (Zea mays); milpa cycle milpa cycle, 17, 43, 44, 46, 54–56, 60–61, 64, 126, 137–138 benefits of, 150–151 burning and, 50–51 complexity and, 78, 89, 91, 145 length of, 140–141, 145 perennial phase, 45, 61, 64, 138, 139 reforestation phase, 45, 55, 61, 64, 120–122, 141 ritual and, 74 See also maize (Zea mays); milpa modeling (settlement patterns), 105– 109, 110 Moraceae See Brosimum alicastrum (ramon) mulch, 136 N, O nance (Byrsonima crassifolia), 52, 88, 135 in Maya art, 52, 150 Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco), 52, 58 Nohmul (site), 30 Obando, Leonardo, 209n1 Ochroma pyramidale (balsa), 61, 63, 66–67 orchards, 69, 102, 161 outfield, 52, 62 in Maya art, 150 P pacaya, 143 Pakal (Maya king), 52, 150 paleoenvironment, 35–38, 78–85 chronology, 79, 93, 94, 95, 96 study of, 85–86 tropical, 78, 80 palms, 61, 130, 142, 143 African, 173 at El Pilar, 123, 128 production, 126, 150 uses of, 90, 138 See also Sabal spp (palms); and other taxa index  257 palynology See pollen record papaya (Carica papaya), 52 pasture, 15, 38, 174 expansion of, 175, 176, 177 perennials, 54–55, 55, 137 See also under milpa cycle Persea americana See avocado (Persea americana) Petén, 30, 45, 56, 98, 127, 158 maize yields in, 71, 115–116, 122 paleoenvironmental research in, 78, 85–86 satellite images of, 175, 176, 177 Petén lakes See under climate pet kot (forest modification), 67–68 Phaseolus spp (beans), 71, 72, 93 Pimenta dioica (allspice), 45, 52, 61, 135, 143, 152 pimienta gorda See Pimenta dioica (allspice) Piper aduncum (cordoncillo), 63, 128 Piscidia piscipula (jabin), 57, 61 plants, 45, 52, 57, 88 invasive, 67, 156, 209n3 lowland, 130, 131, 143 medicinal, 52, 137 selection of, 60, 123 for soil restoration, 62–63 as trade items, 56, 60 upland, 128–129, 142–143 See also forest; and specific taxa Pleistocene–Holocene transition, 26, 32, 77, 93, 158 plows and plowing, 16, 38 plum, 61 See also Spondias spp Poaceae See grasses (Poaceae) poison, 57, 139 poisonwood, 61, 200, 203 pollarding, 18, 64, 156 pollen record, 19, 89, 134 Classic period, 151 early Holocene, 79, 134 forest taxa and, 134–136 interpretation of, 86–93 milpa and, 91, 135–136, 138 Petén lakes, 85–86 regional chronology and, 35–38, 84, 92 See also Brosimum alicastrum (ramon); climate pollination, 19, 53, 57, 60, 86, 151 palynology and, 86, 134–135, 137, 138 See also bats; insects pollution, 166 population (ancient), 33–34, 68–69, 112–113, 118 Archaic, 80 Classic, 68 density, 30, 112–114, 140 distribution, 28, 113 at El Pilar, 34, 99–100, 105, 111-113, 114, 116 estimates, 99–100, 102, 105 Late Classic, 112–113, 113, 144, 151 See also settlement patterns; Primary Residential Unit (PRU) Postclassic period, 23, 34–35, 79 pottery, 33 Pouteria campechiana (zapotillo rojo), 45, 57 Pouteria reticulata (zapotillo), 45, 57, 128 Pouteria sapota (mamey), 52, 61, 128, 142, 150 in Maya art, 52, 150 precipitation See rainfall Preclassic period, 32–33 chronology, 23, 79 climate instability during, 93, 95, 158 Primary Residential Unit (PRU), 70, 100, 101 defining, 99, 110, 210n1 density of, 113–114 at El Pilar, 111 population and, 111–112 See also household; population (ancient) probability class, 106, 110, 111, 112, 113 Psidium guajava (guayaba), 52, 135, 150 Pteridium aquilinum (bracken), 67 pukte (Bucida buceras), 45, 62, 134, 143 purification, 73, 74 Q Quixhan, Zacarias, 61, 119, 153 258  The Maya Forest Garden R rainfall, 24, 25, 71 during Classic, 94, 95 climate change and, 26, 27 paleoenvironment and, 80–85 proxies, 35, 81 record, 29, 35–37, 79, 81, 82 rainforest See forest ramon See Brosimum alicastrum (ramon) reciprocity, 73 reforestation See under milpa cycle religion (Maya), 72–76 residence See household residential unit See Primary Residential Unit (PRU) resiliency (of milpa system), 96, 97, 100, 136, 156, 165 ritual, 73–75 S Sabal (forest type), 129, 130, 143 Sabal spp (palms), 45, 57, 68, 135, 143 forest type and, 131, 143 in milpa, 52, 61 in pollen record, 90 use of, 90, 130, 132 salinization, 167 Santa Maria (Calophyllum brasiliense), 45, 62, 133 Sapium lateriflorum (bobtob), 61, 63 scrub, 78, 129, 130 sedentism, 32 sediments, 85–86 Petén lakes, 35, 82, 85 See also Maya clay seed bank, 66 selection (plant), 60, 123 settlement patterns, 30–31, 99, 105, 114, 124 centralization and, 162 Classic, 33, 95 early sedentism and, 22, 32–33, 158 at El Pilar, 99, 105 Late Classic, 33–34 modeling of, 105–109, 110 population and, 99, 110 soil and, 105, 114, 127, 130 uplands and, 30, 32 water and, 22, 95, 158 See also abandonment (of sites) shamans and shamanism, 74, 75 shifting cultivation, 18 See also milpa cycle Simira salvadorensis (palo colorado), 45, 57, 63 siricote (Cordia dodecandra), 52, 135 skill, 18, 67, 118, 150 conservation and, 159–160 intensification and, 17, 69, 119, 122 milpa and, 123, 136, 139 slash-and-burn cultivation, 18, 44, 156, 165 See also milpa slope, 105, 114, 137 Smith, Margaret E., 210n2 soil burning and, 52, 66 carbon cycle and, 56–57, 167 conservation, 56 degradation, 34, 44 at El Pilar, 143 erosion, 20, 35, 36, 72, 174 forest type and, 128, 129, 132 lowland, 129, 143 maize yield and, 118 restoration, 62 settlement patterns and, 105, 114, 127, 130 upland, 128, 140 See also fertility (soil) spirits, 73, 74 Spondias spp (jobo; jocote;), 57, 68, 143 squash (Cucurbita spp.), 71, 72, 93, 135 structures See architecture; Primary Residential Unit (PRU) subsistence, 18, 99, 124, 150 ancient Maya, 123–124, 139 Lakantun Maya, 64–65, 116–117 See also maize (Zea mays); milpa succession (plant/forest), 60–61, 76, 156 Lakantun and, 65, 66, 67 maize yield and, 122, 140, 141 management of, 65, 67, 69 milpa and, 43, 64, 69, 126 perennials and, 54–55, 137–138 See also milpa cycle index  259 succotz (Licania platypus), 57, 61 surplus, 98, 164, 167 survey (archaeological), 105–109, 110 sustainability of industrial agriculture, 166–167 of milpa, 13, 121–124, 157, 167 swamp See lowlands (ecosystem); wetlands (ecosystem) swidden, 18, 41, 44 See also milpa Swietenia macrophylla (mahogany), 45, 57, 61, 63, 90, 152 forest type and, 130, 131, 133 T Tabebuia rosea (macuelizo), 57 Talisia oliviformis (kinep, guaya), 45, 57, 61, 128, 135 Terminal Classic period, 22, 34, 59, 151, 157 chronology, 23, 79 terraces, 123 Theobroma cacao See cacao (Theobroma cacao) Tikal, 30, 33 159 forests, 127–128, 139–140 tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), 52, 58 tourism, 168 tragedy of the commons, 161, 174 Transitional (forest type), 129, 130 trees as ancestors, 152 in Maya art, 52, 150 See also forest; palms; and specific taxa tribute, 18, 24, 47 Tuz Caamal, Dario, 58 Tzul, Alfonso, 209n2 U uplands (ecosystem), 30–31, 134, 140 dominant plants of, 128–129, 142–143 forests of, 127–128, 132 Upland Standard (forest type), 128, 129 urbanism, 30, 31, 32–33, 158–159 See also settlement patterns Ursúa, Martín de, 24 V Valensuela, José, 49 vanilla, 173 vines, 143 Vitex gaumeri (yaxnik, fiddlewood), 45, 57, 61 W water, 25–26, 30, 80 conservation, 57, 98, 120, 173 milpa and, 60, 137, 167 settlement patterns and, 22, 95, 158 See also wetlands (ecosystem) weeds, 72, 123, 137, 209n3 management by Lakantun Maya, 65–66 wetlands (ecosystem), 26, 33, 129, 130 See also lowlands (ecosystem) wind-tenders (yum ik’ob), 56, 58 X, Y, Z Xanthosoma spp (malanga), 135 Young, Colin, 210n1 zapote, 52, 61 See also chicozapote (Manilkara zapota) zapote negro (Diospyros digyna), 52 zapotillo (Pouteria reticulata), 45, 57, 128 See also Pouteria campechiana (zapotillo rojo) Zea mays See maize (Zea mays) Zuelania guidonia (tamay), 45, 57 about the authors Anabel Ford is director of the MesoAmerican Research Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, and President of the nonprofit organization Exploring Solutions Past: The Maya Forest Alliance She has done extensive research on patterns of Maya settlement and landscape ecology, and is recognized for the archaeological discovery of the ancient Maya city center of El Pilar, on the border of Belize and Guatemala Ronald Nigh is a professor at Centro Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social (CIESAS) in Chiapas, Mexico He is the author of numerous studies and articles on agricultural, ecological, and environmental issues of concern to indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica He is also director of Dana, a non-government organization that coordinates an experimental garden in San Cristobal de Las Casas for training and support of young Maya farmers involved in agroecological transition 260 ... 6: The Maya Forest Garden: Eight Millennia of Sustainable Cultivation of the Tropical Woodlands, Anabel Ford and Ronald Nigh THE Maya Forest Garden Eight Millennia of Sustainable Cultivation of. .. created with the forest? We see that the significance of the Maya forest today depends on the milpa forest gardener The greatest threat to the conservation of the Maya forest is the loss of these knowledgeable... Centuries” in The Maya Forest Garden: Eight Millennia of Sustainable Cultivation of the Tropical Woodlands, pp 13-20 © 2015 Left Coast Press, Inc All rights reserved 13 14  The Maya Forest Garden Maya