Annotated bibliography urban wet weather flow literature1996to2006

September 10, 2007 Annotated Bibliography of Urban Wet Weather Flow Literature from 1996 through 2006 Shirley Clark Environmental Engineering Program School of Science, Engineering, and Technology Pennsylvania State - Harrisburg Middleton, PA Robert Pitt Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering University of Alabama Tuscaloosa, AL Steve Burian Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of Utah Salt Lake City, UT Richard Field and Evan Fan U.S Environmental Protection Agency Wet-Weather Flow Program Urban Watershed Management Branch Water Supply & Water Resources Division National Risk Management Research Laboratory Edison, NJ James Heaney and Leonard Wright Department of Civil, Environmental, and Architectural Engineering University of Colorado Boulder, CO Abstract Introduction Characterization General Rainfall Monitoring and Urban Hydrology Urban hydrology 10 Rainfall errors and flow forecasting 12 Urban Snowmelt 13 Stormwater Quality 13 Litter 18 Nutrients 18 Microorganisms 19 Toxicity 21 Heavy metals 21 Organic toxicants 24 Particle size/settling 27 CSOs and SSOs 28 Solids transport in sewers 30 In-sewer processes 31 Pollution Sources 31 General Sources 31 Atmospheric 35 Roof Runoff 37 Highway and other Roadway Runoff 39 Deicing Discharges and other Cold Weather Sources 44 Treated Wood 44 Wastewater, Combined Sewer Overflows (CSOs), and Sanitary Sewer Overflow (SSO) Sources 45 Inappropriate Discharges 47 Industrial and Other Sources 47 Specific Pollutant Sources 49 Litter 49 Sediment 49 Nutrients 50 Bacteria 52 Toxicants 54 Heavy metals 55 Organic toxicants 58 Monitoring and Sampling 62 Rainfall and Flow Measurement 64 Toxicity Testing 70 Testing for Chemical Pollution and Pollution Tracers 73 Biological and Microbiological Testing 76 Surface-Water Impacts 78 General 78 Temperature and Dissolved Oxygen 81 Erosion, Channel Stability, and Sediment 82 Biological Impacts 84 Microbiological impacts 91 Chemical Impacts 93 Toxicity 98 Habitat Management and Restoration 100 Environmental Effects of CSO and SSO 103 Risk Assessment 105 Groundwater Impact 107 Planned groundwater recharge 108 Chemical groundwater impacts 109 Microbiological groundwater impacts 111 Decision-Support Systems 111 Numerical Models 111 Rainfall analyses 116 Rainfall – runoff modeling parameter estimation 117 Rainfall-runoff models and new programming tools 118 Water quality modeling and pollutant transport 121 Watershed model water balance 123 Model Applications 125 Rainfall variability and effects on modeling 125 Rainfall-runoff quantity models 129 Hydraulic models 142 Rainfall-runoff quality models 142 Collection system, CSO and SSO models 147 Modeling solids transport in sewers 155 Pollutant sources and transport 156 Models of controls 157 Real-time control 164 Optimization models 166 Stochastic models 168 Receiving water models 168 Watershed evaluations 171 Watershed Management and TMDLs 176 Geographic-Information Systems (GIS) 183 Regulatory Policies and Financial Aspects 191 Policy 192 Reuse and Water Resources 200 Watershed Management 202 Effluent Trading and Water-Quality Planning 208 Permitting 212 Cost Analysis and Financing 217 Control and Treatment Technologies 225 General 225 Erosion Control 227 Drainage Design and Hydraulics 227 Stormwater Treatment Practices 231 General stormwater control objectives and sustainable drainage design 245 Stormwater treatment effectiveness 247 Stormwater reuse 250 Public education 251 Public Works Practices 251 Catchbasins/grit traps 252 Litter/floatable control 253 Infiltration and Biofiltration, including Grass Swales and Grass Filter Strips 254 Low Impact Development 254 Green Roofs 255 Infiltration 256 Porous Pavement 262 Grass Swales 264 Detention/Retention Ponds 264 General 264 Multiple drainage objectives and pond design conflicts 269 Pond sizing 270 Locating detention facilities in older areas 270 Modeling pond performance 270 Observed pond performance 271 Problems observed with stormwater ponds 273 Wetlands 273 General 273 Design guidelines 280 Wetlands for CSO control 280 Observed wetland performance 280 Problems in wetlands 281 Critical Source Area Controls 282 Filtration/sorption 284 Treatment train systems 288 Airport Deicer Control 289 Combined Sewer Overflow/Sanitary Sewer Overflow Control 290 General 290 Innovative CSO controls - source controls 298 Sewerage repairs and Inflow/Infiltration (I&I ) control 301 Public education 305 Tunnels, Storage Tanks, and Interceptors 306 Litter, floatables, and settled solids 308 Real-time control (RTC) 310 CSO tunnels, storage tanks and structures 313 CSO Treatment 315 SSO Control 325 Acknowledgements 327 References 327 Abstract This paper is a compilation of urban wet weather flow (WWF) literature reviews for the eleven years from 1996 through 2006 This subject, urban wet-weather flows, is comprised of three basic subareas – combined-sewer overflows (CSOs), sanitary-sewer overflows (SSOs), and stormwater discharges The following therefore includes literature citations and reviews for each of these main subareas These reviews were originally published in the annual literature review issues of Water Environment Research Many of these citations have been expanded since the initial publications Over this eleven year period of time, many people were involved in preparing these urban wet weather flow reviews, associated with several universities and with the EPA’s WetWeather Flow Research Program See the acknowledgements section for the complete list of contributors This paper reorganizes and combines these individual reviews into a single document for easier use Over this eleven year period, the field of urban wet weather flow research has expanded dramatically, mostly due to increased interest in the US because of the NPDES stormwater permit program, plus increased awareness of the seriousness of urban WWFs throughout the world More than 6,000 references are included in this compiled review, indicating the magnitude of interest in this topic In addition, the number of references for any year generally greatly increased compared to the previous year Another indication of the increasing interest in urban WWFs is the large number of specialized stormwater conferences that are now scheduled each year, plus the increasing number of wet weather flow sessions at large international conferences The major proceedings related to wet-weather flow (WWF) published during 2006 are included in this literature review are the following: (1) WEFTEC 2006, 79th Annual Conference and Exposition (WEF, 2006); (2) Intelligent Modeling of Urban Water Systems, Monograph 14 (CHI, 2006); and (3) World Environmental and Water Resources Congress of ASCE/EWRI (EWRI, 2006) The proceedings from these conferences are not indexed in the databases used to compile this literature review The reader is directed to the respective organizations that sponsored the conference to locate additional papers related to this topic In addition to the conferences listed above, the 2006 Annual Conference of the American Water Resources Association had several sessions that contained presentations concerning wet-weather flows However, no paper proceedings were published and these presentations are therefore not included in this literature review Major conference proceedings related to wet-weather flows (WWF) published during 2005 included: (1) WEFTEC 2005, 78th Annual Conference and Exposition (WEF, 2005); (2) Effective Modeling of Urban Stormwater Systems, Monograph 13 (CHI, 2005); and (3) 2005 Watershed Management Conference - Managing Watersheds for Human and Natural Impacts (EWRI, 2005) In addition to the conferences listed above, the 2005 Annual Conference of the American Water Resources Association, EWRI’s World Environment and Water Resources Congress the 10th International Conference on Urban Drainage had significant sessions on wet-weather flows In addition, many regional conferences also had significant sessions on wet-weather flow issues, such as the 2005 Pennsylvania Stormwater Management Symposium Major proceedings related to WWFs published during 2004 were: (1) WEFTEC 2004, 77th Annual Conference and Exposition (WEF, 2004); (2) Innovative Modeling of Urban Stormwater Systems, Monograph 12 (CHI 2004); (3) Watersheds 2004 Conference (WEF 2004); and (4) World Water and Environment Congress of ASCE/EWRI (EWRI 2004) In addition to the conferences listed above, the 2004 Annual Conference of the American Water Resources Association and the Low-Impact Development Conference had significant sessions on wet-weather flows Major proceedings related to WWF published during 2003 included: (1) WEFTEC, 2003, 76th Annual Conference and Exposition (WEF 2003); (2) Best Modeling Practices for Urban Water Systems, Monograph 11 (CHI, 2003); (3) WEF/CWEA Collection Systems, 2003 Conference (WEF, 2003); (4) 9th Annual Industrial Wastes Technical and Regulatory Conference (WEF, 2003); and (5), 2003 National TMDL Science and Policy Conference (WEF, 2003) In addition to the conferences listed above, the 2003 Annual Conference of the American Water Resources Association and the Stormwater Management in Cold Climates had significant sessions on wet-weather flows However, no paper proceedings were published by AWRA Viklander et al (2003) presented an overview of the conference on urban drainage and highway runoff in cold climates Other papers at the conference addressed the implementation of stormwater treatment practices for urban snowmelt and winter runoff quality Many of these conferences produced summary papers of what is known and where the knowledge gaps still exist Moeller (2003) reviewed the “frontiers of research” in stormwater as seen by the Water Environment Research Foundation based on their survey of stormwater program managers, consultants and others The paper also addressed WERF’s efforts to advance stormwater research based on the identified needs Delleur (2003) summarized the evolution of urban hydrology from 6000 B.C to modern times and advocated the industry moving away from compartmentalized views of the environment (especially as it related to computerized models) and toward an integrated approach based on sustainability of water resources Major proceedings related to wet-weather flow (WWF) published during 2002 were the following: (1) Engineering Foundation Conference “Linking Stormwater BMP Designs and Performance to Receiving Water Impact Mitigation” (ASCE, 2002); (2) “Global Solutions for Urban Drainage,” Ninth International Conference on Urban Drainage (ASCE, 2002); (3) WEFTEC, 2002, 75th Annual Conference and Exposition (WEF, 2002); (4) Best Modeling Practices for Urban Water Systems, Monograph 10 (CHI, 2002); (5) Watershed, 2002 Conference (WEF, 2002); (6) WEF/CWEA Collection Systems, 2002 Conference (WEF, 2002); (7) 8th Annual Industrial Wastes Technical and Regulatory Conference (WEF, 2001); and (8), 2002 National TMDL Science and Policy Conference (WEF, 2002) Many of these conferences produced summary papers of what is known and where the knowledge gaps still exist Heaney (2002b) reported on research needs to quantify the impacts of urbanization on streams Keyes (2002) presented the EWRI/ASCE perspective on urban watershed needs in the 21st century Swetnam et al (2002) reviewed the collation, management and dissemination of urban environmental research in the UK Urbonas and Jones (2002) summarized the emergent urban stormwater themes that were highlighted at the Engineering Foundation Conference on “Linking Stormwater BMP Designs and Performance to Receiving Water Impact Mitigation.” Walesh (2002) described the threats and opportunities facing the urban water field The paper urged more diligence in applying the state-of-the-art, guarding against software misuse, adopting a holistic approach to watershed development, and rejecting price-based selection for clients needing consulting services Schiff and Bernstein (2002) reported on the stormwater monitoring coalition in Southern California and the stormwater research needs identified by the coalition The projects identified by the research panel fell into one of three broad categories including developing a stormwater-monitoring infrastructure, understanding fundamental stormwater mechanisms and processes, and assessing receiving water impacts A further refinement identified seven projects that relate to identifying receiving water impacts These projects included identifying the causes of impacts in receiving waters, developing bioassessment indicators and protocols, developing improved toxicity testing procedures, developing rapid response indicators for microbial contamination, developing microbial source tracking protocols, evaluating BMP effects on receiving waters, and developing improved indicators of peak flow impacts Major proceedings related to WWFs published during 2001 were: (1) ASCE EWRI Conference – Bridging the Gap: Meeting the World’s Water and Environmental Resources Challenges (ASCE, 2001); (2) WEFTEC 2001, 74th Annual Conference and Exposition (WEF, 2001); (3) 5th International Conference: Diffuse/Nonpoint Pollution and Watershed Management (IWA, 2001); (4) Models and Applications to Urban Water Systems, Monograph (CHI, 2001); (5) 2001 A Collection Systems Odyssey: Integrating O&M and Wet Weather Solutions (WEF, 2001); (6) 7th Annual Industrial Wastes Technical and Regulatory Conference (WEF, 2001); and (7) Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Watershed Management (ASCE, 2001) Major proceedings related to WWFs published during 2000 included: (1) 2000 Joint Conference on Water Resources Engineering and Water Resources Planning & Management (ASCE, 2000); (2) WEFTEC 2000, 73rd Annual Conference and Exposition (WEF, 2000); (3) Collection Systems Wet Weather Pollution Control: Looking into Public, Private and Industrial Issues (WEF, 2000); (4) Watershed Management 2000 (WEF, 2000); (5)Applied Modeling of Urban Water Systems, Proceedings of the Conference on Stormwater and Urban Water Systems Modeling (CHI, 2000); and (6) 2000 Annual Meeting and International Conference of the American Institute of Hydrology (AIH, 2000) During 1999, the major published WWF related conference included: (1) National Conference on Retrofit Opportunities for Water Resource Protection in Urban Environments; (2) Comprehensive Stormwater & Aquatic Ecosystem Management, Auckland, New Zealand; (3) the Eighth International Conference on Urban Storm Drainage, Sydney, Australia; (4) Water Environment Federation 72nd Annual Conference and Exposition, New Orleans, LA; (5) American Society of Civil Engineers 26th Annual Conference, Water Resources Planning and Management, Tempe, Arizona; (6) American Water Resources Association 1999 Annual Water Resources Conference – Watershed Management to Protect Declining Species, Seattle, WA; and (7) New Applications in Modeling Urban Water Systems, Guelph, Canada For 1996, much of the literature cited came from documents covering noteworthy global conferences (Bathala, 1996; Eng Foundation, 1996; EPA 1996a; Hallam et al., 1996; Int Water Res Assoc., 1996; Maxwell et al., 1996; Sieker and Verworn 1996; Soc Environ Toxicol and Chem., 1996; Water Environ Fed., 1996a, 1996b, and 1996c.) In addition, the U.S Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (EPA, 1996b, 1996c, 1996d, and 1996e) published guidance documents which are discussed in more detail in the subsection entitled “Regulatory Policies and Financial Aspects” The proceedings of several global conferences on urban stormwater management were also published in 1996 James (1996) edited a book overviewing 18 papers dealing with the modeling aspects of urban stormwater These papers address a variety of topics including the use of the models themselves, data management including GIS, and the interrelationships between stormwater treatment practices and water quality The two-volume proceedings of RIVERTECH96 (Maxwell et al., 1996) provided many papers related to urban-stormwater management The proceedings from a national conference on SSOs provide an excellent information source on SSO problems generally and infiltration/inflow (I/I) problems in particular (EPA, 1996a) The three-volume proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Urban Storm Drainage, held in Hannover, Germany, provide an excellent source of information regarding new developments throughout the world (Sieker and Verworn, 1996) Introduction There has been a dramatic shift in the objectives associated with drainage design over the past decades Burian, et al (1999) presented a historical development of WWF management as part of the EPA-sponsored research effort on developing designs for the future (Pitt, et al 1998a) An extensive annotated bioliography was prepared containing several thousand references tracing the history of drainage design and associated hydraulic and water quality issues This biobiography (in both text from and in searchable ProCite formats) is available from the student organization AWRA web page at the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Alabama An overview of the evolution of urban drainage, illustrating where the concept of a single design objective was replaced by the sustainability concept, was provided by Marsalek (2000a) The advances highlighted by Marsalek included improved (dynamic) control of urban drainage, source controls, integrated modeling, public and political support, innovative university training, sustainable funding, adaptive water management, and investment in research and development (Marsalek 2000b) The paper also highlighted the future challenge of involving the public in the planning of drainage systems and protection of urban waters (Marsalek 2000c) Cigana and Couture (2000) advanced a list of key steps required to achieve a global approach to wet weather issues The overall challenges of urban drainage design and monitoring were discussed by both Marsalek and Kok (2000) and by Cigana (2000a) Cigana provided a discussion of the pollution resulting from stormwater runoff and combined sewer overflows (CSOs) The paper also reviewed the technologies available to control this pollution Marsalek and Kok noted that the effectiveness of stormwater stormwater treatment practices is not fully understood, and advocated future research into the design, operation and maintenance of these pollution control practices Field (2000) presented an overview of the U.S Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) urban watershed wet-weather flow (WWF) research program U.S EPA divided its 1996 research plan into five major areas: characterization and problem assessment, watershed management, toxic substances characterization and control, control technologies, and infrastructure improvement Since that time, other organizations, notably the Water Environment Research Foundation (WERF), have reviewed WWF research programs and developed associated research needs reports, an effort that EPA endorses Sullivan and Field (1999) presented an overview of the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA’s) WWF research program, which was expanded in October 1995 with the establishment of the Urban Watershed Management Branch at Edison, New Jersey Research priorities for 1999 were presented as well as efforts to collaborate with other government organizations and professional societies Watershed management research at ORD’s National Risk Management Research Laboratory (NRMRL) addressed the following question: what effective watershed management strategies were available and how communities select the most appropriate subset from these to match specific watershed needs? (Borst and O’Shea, 1999) Heaney et al (1999) presented the results of a national assessment of research needs in urban WWF management Three interrelated categories of urban WWF management were discussed: CSO, SSO, and urban stormwater discharges Based on the past 30 years of research on urban WWF water quality, impact, modeling, control, and treatment demonstrated results, Field et al (1997a) delineated a framework of future research directions for risk management of urban WWF Characterization General Sources of urban runoff pollutants in China were researched by Li et al (2006a), as part of an effort to develop universal regression equations These equations would then be used to predict quality of runoff in areas where no on-ground investigations had been performed Wang et al (2006b) investigated the presence of first flushes in urban runoff They proposed a new definition of first flush based on cumulative volume Sosiak and Dixon (2006) investigated the factors impacting water quality in the upper Elbow River in Alberta, Canada Urban runoff was one potential source for both nutrients and fecal coliforms Salmore et al (2006) delineated the chemical and biological signature of stormwater runoff in an urban river The study demonstrated that there is a considerable E coli load to receiving waters from stormwater and that sanitary sewage inputs may not be limited to recognized sewer overflows Angelakis et al (2005) reviewed urban wastewater and stormwater drainage technologies in ancient Greece The authors noted that the efforts and technologies of the ancient Greeks were comparable to that of modern Europe when evaluating the systems for hygienic and functional requirements Alternative unit hydrographs have been proposed for the coastal plains region of the United States because traditional methods typically overpredict the storm flow by an order of magnitude or more (Huynh-Ba et al 2005) This paper evaluates those alternative hydrographs in the development of regional stormwater management plans of southern New Jersey Connor and Hiroko (2005) promoted the use of a Flood Vulnerability Index (FVI) to compare the vulnerability between basins, as well as identify those factors most responsible for a basin’s vulnerability The paper by Bicknell (2002) reviewed the discussion at the Engineering Foundation Conference on linking stormwater BMP design and performance to receiving water impacts mitigation The paper described the roles, types and considerations for use of environmental indicators in characterizing receiving water conditions and monitoring stormwater program effectiveness It also addressed data needs for future application of indicators, incorporating the comments made during the discussion Brandt et al (2002) described two case studies of the development of two systems that will be monitored for land use and ecological change The purpose of this project will be to collect reliable, quantifiable and independent data for monitoring these effects The two case studies were the Small Biotype project of Denmark and the Countryside Survey project of Great Britain These systems illustrated the problems involved in studies at the landscape level and the way satisfactory results can be achieved Monitoring is considered to be effectively repeated surveillance and needs especially strict protocols to separate real change from the artifacts of sampling Morrisey et al (2002) investigated the factors that affect the distribution of benthic macrofauna in estuaries that have been contaminated by urban runoff Distributions of benthic invertebrates were significantly related to those of environmental variables, and were ordinated along axes that correlated with both natural environmental variables (nature of the sediment, position in estuary) and contaminants Differences in faunas between the urban and non-urban estuaries were not, however, clear-cut and nor were relationships between faunal assemblages and environmental variables (including contaminants) consistent between two times of sampling Papanicolaou et al (2002) investigated the impacts of watershed changes on the fish population in the Clearwater River, Idaho The study was a statistical analysis performed at the macroscale (watershed-wide) level Factor analysis, along with linear regression, was used to develop relationships between fish indicators and fifty man-made disturbances, watershed landscape, water discharge and geometry, channel morphology, river water depth, and temperature The statistical analysis indicated that some macroscale parameters such as, landscape and water discharge could be strong predictors of Fish Indicators and should be considered in restoration plans in the region Patwardhan and Kreutzberger (2002) linked sediment loads to biotic integrity for developing clean sediment TMDLs The WISE (Watershed Improvements through Statistical Evaluations) Model was designed to link the watershed pollutant loads to narrative standards, i.e., biological indices Specific biological standards, based on biological indices such as Index of Biological Integrity (IBI), Fish Score, and Invertebrate Community Index (ICI), were used as measurement tools and were linked to various pollutant loads from the watershed Fan et al (2001b) reviewed the transport of toxic pollutants through multiple media and drainage systems in the urban watershed during wet-weather periods Field studies have identified that a major portion of hazardous waste priority pollutants including benzene, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), pesticides, and heavy metals (e.g., arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, and zinc) contained in urban stormwater runoff are in particulate form or sorbed onto particles Fatoki and Mathabatha (2001) investigated the distribution of heavy metals (zinc, cadmium, copper, iron, manganese and lead) in seawater and in sediment samples from the East London and Port Elizabeth harbors The results indicate the contribution of heavy metal pollution from storm drains Ship repair activities were also suspected to a source of elevated concentrations in the upper reaches of the harbor Kayhanian et al (2001b) analyzed the impact of ‘non-detects’ or ‘NDs’ on stormwater data because dissolved fractions of stormwater constituents often are not detected above laboratory reporting limits Analysts and stormwater modelers have represented these NDs in stormwater data sets using a variety of methods In the paper, different methods of data analysis were used to determine constituent mass concentrations from water quality datasets that include ND values Depending on the number of NDs and the method of data analysis, differences ranging from to 70 percent were in mean values, which would have significant impacts on estimations of constituent mass loading For California’s implementation of industrial stormwater discharge control, Shaver and Duke (2000) characterized Los Angeles industrial facilities as to the types of operations and exposures to rainfall that occur on a site The results of the survey showed that the majority of sites were impervious, conducted more than one regulated activity, and had a wide range of housekeeping practices and intensities of activity that were exposed to rainfall The authors questioned whether the general permit should be applied equally to all industrials sites or whether resource allocation should be based on sites where pollutant load reduction potential would be greatest The known thermal pollution of Oregon’s streams and rivers was reviewed by Bullock and Eimstad (2000), and included a review of sensitive habitats for salmonid species They presented information on the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality temperature standards for receiving waters, as well as guidance for developing a Temperature Management Plan Ball (2000b) reported on the quantities of pollutants that entered the stormwater treatment facility at Centennial Park in Sydney, Australia, and showed that the gross pollutant trap when combined with a wetland or detention pond removed 87% of suspended solids and 50% of the entering phosphorus Lieb and Carline (2000) investigated the effects of detention pond effluent on a headwater in central Pennsylvania and showed that the macroinvertebrate community immediately downstream of the pond was highly degraded, although recovery was seen farther downstream Stormwater sediments in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, were analyzed for their ecotoxic risk by vanLoon et al (2000) The results indicated that the sediments present significant potential risks to the ecosystems that develop around passive stormwater treatment sites Jones (2000a) reported on the results of using the US EPA’s Rapid Bioassessment Protocol (RBP) in streams affected by stormwater runoff in Fulton County, Georgia The results of their assessments from 30 stations showed that changes in habitat had a greater effect on the biological communities than did water quality and that control of total suspended solids entering the stream was necessary for habitat protection Smullen et al (1999) compiled stormwater quality data collected from several large sampling programs that have been conducted over the past 20 years They concluded that it was possible to differentiate stormwater quality based on land use, region of the country, and season Duke et al (1999) examined water quality data for separate storm sewer systems during storm event discharges and during dry weather conditions in the San Francisco Bay Area, California Long-term mean concentrations for many parameters in most streams were higher during storm discharges than during dry-weather flows A three-year study on the distributions of concentrations of 14 contaminants in five sources of urban-stormwater-runoff was performed The log-normal-probability distribution was more accurate in the calculation of pollutant loads than normal-probability distributions (Van Buren et al., 1997) The runoff on a 95 urban catchment in Aalborg, Den was found to show significant first-flush effects and a strong correlation in concentration between COD and SS and biochemical oxyegen demand (BOD) and SS The study further discussed the most appropriate way to characterize the quality of the outflow comparing average concentration and accumulated event mass methods (Larsen et al., 1997a) Numerous papers at the 7th International Conference on Urban Storm Drainage held in Hannover, Germany (Sieker and Verworn 1996), presented broad-based stormwater data from throughout the world, including data from Denmark and the Netherlands (Grum et al., 1996), from Poland (Bartkowska and Królikowski, 1996), and from Japan (Uchimura et al., 1996) Bannerman et al (1996) conducted a study for the USGS in conjunction with the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources in which water-quality data from four urban stormwater-monitoring projects conducted between 1989 and 1994 were compiled Concentrations of many of the constituents including Pb; Zn; Cu; Ag (silver); Cd; nine PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons); bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate; DDT; atrazine; alachlor, 2,4-D; SS; chlorides; total phosphorus (P); BOD5; and bacteria were high enough to say that stormwater runoff may be contributing to the degradation of the streams Rainfall Monitoring and Urban Hydrology Raimer et al (2006) studied the water budget of streets both experimentally and through modeling over three years The results showed that runoff losses may be important and not constant, resulting in highly variable runoff coefficients Infiltration and evaporation caused losses between 20% and 30% of the rain Burns et al (2005) investigated the effects of suburban development on runoff generation and groundwater supply Impacts were seen on runoff generation but these effects were mitigated by the remaining wetlands and human effects on groundwater and septic discharge Ho and Valeo (2005) studied urban snow and snowmelt properties in Calgary, Canada Their results showed that the energy balance for urban snow was significantly different than for rural snow Urban snow could be classified into four categories, all of which had separate behavior patterns: snow piles, snow on road shoulders, snow on sidewalk edges and snow in open areas The effect of urbanization on the diurnal rainfall pattern was evaluated for the City of Houston by Burian and Shepherd (2005) Compared to pre-development conditions in reference watersheds and in the City prior to substantial development, urbanization affected rainfall patterns in the afternoon time periods with an increase seen post-urbanization Wilson and Boehland (2005) advocated smaller housing as a way to promote resource conservation, including the reduction in the increase in stormwater runoff due to increasing impervious surface coverage Li et al (2004) investigated the recovery of water (rainwater harvesting) in China as a function of the surface type Recovery was highest on the asphalt fiberglass, followed by the plastic film, gravel-covered plastic film, concrete, cleared loess slope and natural loess slope The changes in the arterial drainage schemes (ADS) in River Brosna (Ireland) due to the implementation of the ADS were summarized by Bhattarai and O’Connor (2004) In addition to the expected pre/post-drainage change, the results show that the catchment response to rainfall reverted to virtually pre-drainage-like conditions after just one-and-a-half decades but surprisingly changed back again, over the last decade, to early post-drainage-like conditions Dahl (2004) presented an overview of hydrology on the volume of urban stormwater runoff and reviewed the impacts of these changes on a roadway widening/reconstruction project in Salt Lake City, Utah Cape Town (South Africa) also performed a hydrologic study to investigate the impacts of urbanization and increased stormwater runoff on flooding potential in the city (Whittemore et al 2004) The modeling was performed using Visual SWMM Dakin et al (2004) reviewed the use of volunteer monitors in the Huron River to provide an early warning of changes in stream discharge and cross-sectional channel shape The goal is to provide early warning of erosion and habitat degradation Dutt and Nikaido (2003) developed wet-weather events for Oakland, CA from historical rainfall data collected at the airport and compared the results to other types of wet-weather design events used in analyzing a sewer system (historical rainfall events, design storms, IDF curves and long-term continuous simulation) Walter, et al (2003) demonstrated that Hortonian flow (which was assumed to occur whenever the rainfall exceeded the soil permeability) was not a dominant process for undeveloped areas in the New York City watersheds Ragab, et al (2003a) investigated the effect of slope and aspect on the proportion of the rainfall that was captured by residential roofs and that evaporated from the roof Noticeable differences in rainfall, runoff and evaporation were found for different roof slopes, aspects and heights The authors also (2003b) investigated the effect of road infiltration and evaporation on the proportion of rainfall on UK residential roads that became runoff Six to nine percent of the annual rainfall infiltrates through the road surface while evaporation removes 21-24% of annual rainfall Current forecasting systems from meteorological offices have not been well suited for accurate rainfall forecast in urban areas (Aspergren et al., 2001) This project provided a short-term small-scale prediction of rain based on radar images The extrapolation part of the methodology, based on a sophisticated cross correlation of images, was optimized by a neural network technique Three different application sites in Europe have been used to validate the system Burian et al (2001a) reported on one technique for disaggregating long-term hourly rainfall records into subhourly increments that involved the use of artificial neural networks (ANNs) The research evaluated the influence on performance of several ANN model characteristics and training issues including data standardization, geographic location of training data, quantity of training data, number of training iterations, and the number of hidden neurons in the ANN Results suggested that data from rainfall-gauging stations within several hundred kilometers of the station to be disaggregated would be adequate for training the ANN rainfall disaggregation model Schreider et al (2000) predicted the impact that global warming due to increased carbon dioxide concentrations would have on flood frequencies in the urban areas near Sydney and Canberra, Australia Their results showed that storms that currently cause the in 100-year flood become the in 44-year event for one basin, and the in 10-year event for another local basin Pitt (1999) reports that different drainage design criteria and receiving water use objectives often require the examination of different types of rains for the design of urban drainage systems These different (and often conflicting) objectives of a stormwater drainage system can be addressed by using distinct portions of the long-term rainfall record Most of the urban hydrology methods currently used have been successful for large “design” storms, but were inappropriate for use when evaluating many water quality problems Urban hydrology Doll et al (2002) investigated hydraulic geometry relationships relating bankfull stream channel dimensions to watershed drainage area for the Piedmont of North Carolina The focus of this study was on the development of an urban curve that showed the bankfull features of streams in urban and suburban watersheds throughout the North Carolina Piedmont Comparisons were made with regional curves developed previously for the rural Piedmont, and enlargement ratios were produced These enlargement ratios indicated a substantial increase in the hydraulic geometry for the urban streams in comparison to the rural streams A comparison of flood frequency indicates a slight decrease in the bankfull discharge return interval for the gaged urban streams as compared to the gaged rural streams The impact of long-term land use change on the hydrological regime of the Dyle catchment (Belgium) was reviewed by El Idrissi et al (2002) The consequences of the land use dynamics on the hydrological cycle were studied by means of a distributed hydrological model, which was coupled to a geographical information system of the land use dynamics The researchers concluded that the change in the hydrological behavior of the Dyle catchment in terms of the historical land use change was attenuated by the presence of compensating effects within the changing land use patterns However, if the Sector Development Plan is executed, urbanization will increase by up to 21% of the total area, considerably increasing thereby the 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