RP00 18/10/00 11:14 am Page i your research project RP00 18/10/00 11:14 am Page ii RP00 18/10/00 11:14 am Page iii your research project a step-by-step guide for the first-time researcher NICHOLAS WALLIMAN with Bousmaha Baiche SAGE Publications London • Thousand Oaks • New Delhi RP00 18/10/00 11:14 am Page iv To my wife, Ursula © Nicholas Walliman 2001 Chapter © Dr Bousmaha Baiche 2001 First published 2001 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form, or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Inquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers SAGE Publications Ltd Bonhill Street London EC2A 4PU SAGE Publications Inc 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd 32, M-Block Market Greater Kailash – I New Delhi 110 048 British Library Cataloguing in Publication data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 7619 6538 ISBN 7619 6539 (pbk) Library of Congress catalog record available Typeset by Keystroke, Jacaranda Lodge, Wolverhampton Printed in Great Britain by The Cromwell Press Ltd, Trowbridge, Wiltshire RP00 18/10/00 11:14 am Page v CONTENTS Acknowledgements vi Introduction 1 Research and the Research Problem Information, and How to Deal with It 39 Types of Research 69 Nature and Use of Argument 117 More about the Nature of Research 151 Research Quality and Planning 189 Research Methods 225 Preparing the Research Proposal and Starting to Write 276 References 314 Index 318 RP00 18/10/00 11:14 am Page vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My grateful thanks go to Dr Roland Newman and Professor Mike Jenks, who gave me inspiration to write this book; to Dr Bousmaha Baiche for his help; to Mrs Margaret Ackrill, Mrs Val Bacon and the postgraduate research students of the School of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University, for their comments and suggestions; and to my wife and family for their unfailing support My thanks go to the following people and organizations for permission to reproduce material in this book: Dr Roland Newman, Margaret Ackrill, Dr Lawdy Wong, Dr Nigel Hiscock, Mark Austin, Suanne Gibson, Ruth Bartlett, Robert Illes, Alison Chisholm, R K Yin, Sage Publications Ltd and L Cohen and L Manion, ITPS Ltd, Routledge Specific acknowledgement is made where the material appears RP0i 16/10/00 3:06 pm Page INTRODUCTION There is a real problem for students and practitioners embarking on a research project of knowing how to start researching and how to develop a research proposal in their chosen subject which will satisfy the requirements of their superiors, educational organizations and funding bodies In general, supervisors and bosses have little or no time to instruct their students and employees in the theory and practice of research, so it is left to the novice researchers to wade through the bewildering variety of theoretical and technical books about research in order to try and develop a credible research proposal related to their interest This must be done when the skills of the student or practitioner are often very rudimentary, and when he/she finds it difficult to make the connection between the general theory and practice of research and his/her own research interest The main objective of this book is to guide novice researchers, who are beginning to research in any subject to with social sciences, the environment, business studies, education and the humanities, towards writing a successful research proposal – a crucial document, as its approval is the condition for continuing research and often for obtaining funding Most students beginning to study for a research degree, or attempting their first dissertation, have little knowledge or experience of research and are often not clear as to the exact subject they wish to research Practitioners are also under pressure to work efficiently and in a well focused manner The objective of this book is achieved by systematically imparting a basic understanding of the theory of and approaches to research while at the same time helping the student/practitioner to develop the subject of his/her research, encouraging the formation of a high level of trained intellectual ability, critical analysis, rigour and independence of thought, fostering individual judgement and skill in the application of research theory and methods, and developing skills required in writing research proposals, reports and theses RP0i 16/10/00 3:06 pm Page 2 YOUR RESEARCH PROJECT PARTICULAR FEATURES OF THE BOOK The particular features of this book are the way it: • combines the explanation of practical and theoretical aspects of research directly with the progressive development of the reader’s ideas about his/her individual research topic • always refers to the researcher’s subject of study, with no dry theorizing which is difficult to relate to his/her individual research interests • is divided into chapters with clearly limited objectives, requiring the researcher to apply the aspects of research he/she has learned in each chapter to the next stage in developing the proposal • sets points for contemplation about the applicability of the learned aspects to the individual project and gives a framework for issues to be discussed with tutors and colleagues • uses a direct approach, leading the reader step-by-step through the book with interesting and amusing self-assessed exercises to test and develop his/her knowledge STRUCTURE AND OUTLINE OF THE BOOK The structure of the book is based on a combination of three sequential approaches The first is a cumulative approach which introduces, step-bystep, the features of, and debate about, the academic subject of research theory and methods This is offered in parallel with a problem-centred sequence which involves the researcher in the practical work of developing the skills needed to devise a good quality research proposal There is thirdly an element of a spiral sequence, whereby concepts and techniques are reiterated and developed during the book as the researcher’s understanding increases There are eight chapters in the book, which are designed to be worked through consecutively The main sections in each chapter are devised to explain a major aspect of research theory or approach These sections contain informative, discursive text, regularly interspersed with exercises for the researcher to consolidate and assess his/her understanding of the subjects presented There then follows a section (‘the next step’) which consists of application to the reader’s own area of research of the specific topics discussed in the earlier sections Aims are set out and tasks are defined This section is always exploratory in nature, and it is expected that the researcher will devise a range of alternative solutions to the tasks The results of this work should, ideally, then be discussed with fellow students, colleagues, a tutor or a supervisor, who will wish to see that the researcher has understood the issues in the chapter and how they can be applied in practice Decisions made at the end of each chapter consolidate progress towards writing the research proposal RP0i 16/10/00 3:06 pm Page INTRODUCTION Each chapter concludes with a summary of the chapter’s key words and answers to the assessment exercises The wide range of possible approaches to the subject of research makes writing an introduction to research rather difficult It is not possible within the scope of this book to cover every possible research strategy which might be relevant to the readers’ interests Therefore the book has been limited to explaining the characteristics of the major research approaches, and mentioning alternatives where appropriate The reader will become aware that the subject of research is widely debated, and therefore a prescriptive approach is not appropriate There is, however, a range of basic research techniques which it is essential to acquire, whatever the reader’s subject, for example: analytical reading and thinking, note-taking and referencing skills, and writing skills Depending on the student’s/practitioner’s previous research experience and language skills, particularly if English is a foreign language, he/she might need to spend 10–20 hours on each chapter It is important for the researcher to remember that he/she should continue to read widely in the chosen research subject while following this book, as specialist knowledge on the chosen subject will be required in order to fulfil the tasks set RP08 18/10/00 11:20 am Page 308 308 YOUR RESEARCH PROJECT Does the application give adequate reasons/arguments to show that the proposed specific area of research constitutes a worthwhile study as: (a) a contribution to knowledge, or (b) a contribution to development of theory in the subject, or (c) a contribution to either theoretical or practical methodology? Does the proposed plan of work: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) show how the research will be structured show how the research will be phased clearly differentiate between deskwork and fieldwork show how the research will be carried out show the techniques and methods that will be used and the reasons why these techniques and methods were chosen show that the work proposed is practicable and realistic within the time available – including the period for writing up the thesis? If the research involves gaining access to the data and facilities of government departments or other organizations or institutions, what evidence is there that such access/co-operation will be available? (a) Are the result(s) of the research expected to have any general or specific practical applications, e.g design guidance or government policy? (b) Does the research involve any problems of ethics/confidentiality and, if so, how will they be overcome? 10 If the research involves investigation overseas, does the application (a) outline the knowledge/techniques/methods that are required to be learnt/understood in the home country prior to the investigation abroad (b) illustrate an understanding of the part that different cultural etc values/factors/variables may play in the research and its findings? 11 If the application includes the possibility of transfer subsequently to a PhD, is the potential extension of the MPhil part of the research into the original research work required of a PhD both recognizably logically structured and connected? 12 Are the facilities detailed in the investigation adequate and they include: (a) computing (b) libraries – both general and specialist? 13 (a) Does the application involve collaborating with another establishment and, if not, does the experience, expertise and background of the supervisor(s) as well as the type of research involved render the use of a collaborating institution unnecessary? (b) Where a collaborating institution is proposed, is there attached a letter of acceptance from the institution concerned? RP08 18/10/00 11:20 am Page 309 PREPARING THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND STARTING TO WRITE 309 14 Does the programme of related activities include reference to: (a) (b) (c) (d) completion of the research methods course courses/lectures that are being attended or will be attended computer course(s) completed any other relevant courses/studies? 15 Are adequate details of the second supervisor(s) and adviser(s) listed in the application? Where the Second Supervisor(s) has not previously supervised a university student, is a CV (clearly illustrating the expertise etc necessary to the subject area) attached to the application? Correct any shortcomings perceived from the above checks CONSOLIDATION AND ASSESSMENT You will need to arrange a whole series of tutorials with your allotted tutor or supervisor and also other members of staff and/or colleagues as you work from one draft of the proposal to the next Ten to twenty drafts are not unusual for an extended project, so make sure that the correction and development of each draft is quick (if possible on daily basis) so that the issues remain fresh in your mind, and you not get bogged down in minutiae When you have completed the proposal to an acceptable standard, pencil in all the information required on a copy of the application form for typing by yourself or a secretary The actual proposal text can be printed, rather than typed, on the form from your floppy disk In some cases it is possible to obtain an electronic copy of the form which is easy to complete using a word processor After having submitted your proposal, and while waiting for the result, you can take comfort in the fact that the skills you have learned whilst reading this book will be a good preparation for your research project which, because of your lucid and thorough proposal, is about to be approved! RP08 18/10/00 11:20 am Page 310 310 YOUR RESEARCH PROJECT ANSWERS TO EXERCISES EXERCISE 8.1 Have you got key words referring to the following aspects? If yes, are they really needed? If no, have you missed something important? • specific place, e.g specific country or city • general place or situation, e.g rural, urban, building/social context (school, home, factory), the natural environment, local government • context, e.g social, political, economic • time, e.g dates, past, contemporary • measures, e.g effectiveness, impact, performance, values, relationships between, appraisal, influences, implications • concrete concepts, e.g steel, interior planting, local regulations, houses, professional practices, environmental legislation, crime figures • theoretical concepts, e.g wealth, leisure, disability, heritage, conservation, ecology, education, access, housing, the environment EXERCISE 8.2 This list, together with your answers to the questions, is good material for discussion with your tutor Why not make an appointment to see him/her? Bring along the list of key words which you have selected in Exercise 8.1 together with the title which you have composed EXERCISE 8.3 The result of this exercise will be the first draft of your proposal (without the description of methods, which you can write only after you know exactly what the research problem is!) Show this to your tutor, and discuss and revise it several times before you go on to the methods section The process of regular consultation with various members of tutorial staff is essential at this stage, so that your thinking about your intended research develops rapidly and along the right lines EXERCISE 8.4 This is a preparation for the plan of work in your proposal that describes the methods you will use You will need to discuss this with your tutor or supervisor The main aspects to check are the appropriateness of the methods in relation to what you want to find out, and the practical issues involved (access to sources of information, necessary equipment, time requirements, costs, travel, etc.) It is best to set out this section broadly following the sequence in which the work will be carried out You must show that you have a good understanding of what is involved in carrying out the methods you propose and the reasons why you are going to use them In an extended study, e.g a PhD thesis, it is likely that part of your plan will be to find out more about appropriate methods and to refine or adapt them for application to your particular subject The last part of this exercise will help you to focus on the essential aspects of your project RP08 18/10/00 11:20 am Page 311 PREPARING THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND STARTING TO WRITE 311 and the reasons why you are undertaking such a major task Do not hesitate to discuss these with your colleagues and supervisors It is also particularly useful to get the reactions from people who are not familiar with your field of study in order to test the clarity of the contents and the language EXERCISE 8.5 The following is the correct text, which I have marked with the places where the mistakes occurred USA and the British colonies: simplified building techniques The simplification of building techniques has a long history Efforts were continually being made through using industrialised techniques, to reduce costs and to minimise the skills required to construct permanent buildings, particularly in situations where building materials and skills were scarce (Blomeyer and Tietze, 1978, pp 7–10) From the latter part of the 18th century, the need for permanent, quickly built houses in the new settlements of the British colonies gave rise to a continuous development of prefabricated building systems which could be easily exported from Britain and erected in a short time by inexperienced labour The design of these houses developed quickly from a rudimentary example of a framed canvas four-roomed structure brought to Australia from Britain in 1788 by Captain Arthur Phillip, which unfortunately proved ‘not perfectly impervious to either wind or weather (Freeland et al., 1969, p 16)’, to the widely advertised, fully prefabricated and packed timber ‘Manning Portable Cottage’, which was exported in large numbers in the early 1840s (Herbert, 1978, pp 14–15) The Manning Cottage was: long quotation designed for ease of erection It was completely fabricated in the carpenter’s shop and required little or no site work other than the building of foundations and the assembly of components The structure required no fashioning of joints, no cutting of timber, no nailing – ‘whoever can use a common bed-wrench can put this cottage up.’ The design was tailored to the limited resources of skill and tools available to the emigrant (Herbert, 1978, pp 10–11) The advent of widely available machined timber sections and the mass production of nails in the middle of the 19th century led to the pioneering ‘balloon frame’ timber construction RP08 18/10/00 11:20 am Page 312 312 YOUR RESEARCH PROJECT system in America, which enabled the rapid building of settlements using standardised timber sections and frame configurations with simple weatherboard cladding (Giedion, 1962, pp 345–350) short quotation ‘A man and a boy can now (1865) attain the same results, with ease, that twenty men could on an old-fashioned frame (Woodward, 1896, pp 152–164)’ Giedion suggested that 60–80% of all houses in the United States used balloon frame construction (Giedion, 1962, p 344), while a contemporary commentator observed: If it had not been for the knowledge of the balloon frame, Chicago and San Francisco could never have arisen, as they did, from little villages to great cities in a single year (Robinson, 1855) Iron was also used to simplify the building of houses, especially after the development of economic methods of manufacturing corrugated iron (Herbert, 1978, pp 33–39) indent quotation In 1849 the Californian gold rush and the sudden increase of emigration to Australia provided markets for pre-fabricated structures and the iron houses of E T Bellhouse of Manchester could be seen in profusion in San Francisco (White, 1965, p 13) The use of timber and iron in combination was developed further to provide easily erected, prefabricated and sometimes relocatable buildings, such as housing, hospitals and stables for the army in the Crimea during 1849–56 The High Orchard Saw Mills at Gloucester produced prefabricated huts by the hundred, for use in Britain and for shipping out to the Crimea space The efficiency of production and dispatch was impressive A thousand men operated the factory by day and night, in shifts As the barracks were completed they were packed into portable packages, each numbered in accordance with the code contained in the instruction sheet In one month, from mid-December 1854 to mid-January 1855, 1,500 huts for enlisted men and 350 for officers were thus completed and dispatched, via France, to the battlefront From the initial order in mid-November, until mid-January, a total of 3,250 units were constructed, crated, and shipped out to the British and French armies (Herbert, 1978, p 78) RP08 18/10/00 11:20 am Page 313 PREPARING THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND STARTING TO WRITE 313 A report to the War Department in 1856 confirmed that the Gloucester huts answered the requirements that they should be easy to transport on ship, easy to erect on land (that is, within the capability of the regiment’s own skills), and easy to repair, using improvised parts (Report of a Board of Officers 1856) The military continued to be interested in developing prefabricated, quickly erectable and relocatable buildings, and one result of investigations by a First World War Canadian engineer officer called Captain Nissen into simplifying and speeding up the construction of simple shelters led to the ubiquitous Nissen Hut This type of corrugated iron barrel-vaulted hut could be erected, after a short introductory training session, by four men in four hours on any foundation, and was big enough to provide sleeping space for 24 people Widely used for temporary housing after the Second World War, these shelters were often still in use after more than ten years (Blomeyer and Tietze, pp 17–18) Bibliography BLOMEYER, G.R., and TIETZE, B (1984) Die andere Bauarbeit: zur Praxis von Selbsthilfe und kooperativem Bauen Stuttgart, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt italics FREELAND, J M., COX, P S and STACEY, W (1969) Rude timber buildings in Australia London, Thames and Hudson GIEDION, S (1962) Space, time and architecture Oxford, Oxford University Press HERBERT, G (1978) Pioneers of prefabrication: the British contribution in the nineteenth century Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press ROBINSON, S (1855) New York Tribune 18 Nov Quoted in Woodward (1896), p 151 WHITE, R B (1965) Prefabrication: a history of its development in Great Britain London, HMSO WOODWARD, G E (1896) Woodward’s country homes New York, Harding RP09 16/10/00 3:13 pm Page 314 REFERENCES Ackrill, M (1994) ‘A few notes to assist you with the presentation of your report/thesis’ Unpublished Barr Greenfield, T (1975) ‘Theory about organisations: a new perspective and its implications for schools’, in M G Hughes (ed.), Administering Education: International Challenge London: Athlone Press Beardsley, M C (1975) Thinking Straight: Principles of Reasoning for Readers and Writers Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Beck, R N (1979) Handbook to Social Philosophy New York: Macmillan Bhaskar, R (1989) Reclaiming Reality: a Critical Introduction to Contemporary Philosophy London: Verso Booth, W C., Colomb, G G and William, J M (1995) The Craft of Research Chicago: University of Chicago Press Borg, W R (1963) Educational Research: an Introduction London: Longman Broadbent, G (1988) Design in Architecture: Architecture and the Human Sciences London: David Fulton Brown, J and Sime, D J (1981) ‘A methodology of accounts’, in M Brenner (ed.), Social Method and Social Life London: Academic Press Bryman, A (1988) Quantity and Quality in Social Research Aldershot: Avebury Bryman, A and Burgess, R G (eds) (1994) Analysing Qualitative Data London: Routledge Burnett, A., Sheehy, J and Digby, A (1994) Theory, Methodology and Techniques of Research in the Humanities: Research Design Oxford: EMU Oxford Brookes University Campbell, D T and Stanley, J C (1963) ‘Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research on teaching’, in N L Gage (ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching Chicago: Rand McNally Campbell, D T and Stanley, J C (1966) Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research Boston: Houghton Miffen Chalmers, A F (1982) What Is This Thing Called Science?, 2nd edn Milton Keynes: Open University Press Chicago University Press (1969) Manual of Style for Authors, Editors and Copy-Writers, 12th edn Chicago: Chicago University Press Cohen, L and Manion, L (1994) Research Methods in Education London: Routledge Collier, A (1994) Critical Realism: an Introduction to Roy Bhaskar’s Philosophy London: Verso RP09 16/10/00 3:13 pm Page 315 REFERENCES 315 Copi, I M (1982) Introduction to Logic, 6th edn New York: Macmillan Dixon, B R (1987) A Handbook of Social Science Research New York: Oxford University Press Dominowski, R L (1980) Research Methods Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice-Hall Fairbairn, G J and Winch, C (1991) Reading, Writing and Reasoning: a Guide for Students Buckingham: SRHE and Open University Press Fearnside, W W and Holther, W B (1959) Fallacy Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Feyerabend, P (1981) ‘How to defend society against science’, in I Hacking (ed.), Scientific Revolutions Oxford: Oxford University Press pp 157–67 Foucault, M (1972) The Archaeology of Knowledge London: Tavistock Fox, D J (1969) The Research Process in Education New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Freeman, R and Meed, J (1993) How to Study Effectively London: Collins Educational Freese, J., Powell, B and Steelman, L C (1999) ‘Rebel without a cause or effect: birth order and social attitudes’, American Sociological Review, 64 (April): 207–31 Glaser, B G and Strauss, A L (1967) The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research Chicago: Aldine Goetz, J P and LeCompte, M D (1984) Ethnography and Qualitative Design in Educational Research London: 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(1981) Scientific Revolutions Oxford: Oxford University Press Hague, P N (1993) Questionnaire Design London: Kogan Page Harré, R (1972) The Philosophies of Science Oxford: Oxford University Press Harré, R (1977) ‘The ethnogenic approach: theory and practice’, in L Berkowitz (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology Vol 10 New York: Academic Press Hill, J E and Kerber, A (1967) Models, Methods and Analytical Procedures in Educational Research Detroit: Wayne State University Press Hodges, W (1977) Logic Harmondsworth: Penguin, Hughes, J.A (1990) The Philosophy of Social Research, 2nd edn Harlow: Longman Hughes, J A and Sharrock, W W (1997) The Philosophy of Social Research, 3rd edn Harlow: Longman Jenkins, R (1983) Lads, Citizens and Ordinary Kids: Working Class Youth Styles in Belfast London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Kerlinger, F N (1970) Foundations of Behavioral Research New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Kidder, L A and Judd, C M (1986) Research Methods in Social Relations, 5th edn New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Krantz, H and Kimmelman, J (1992) Keys to Reading and Study Skills, 4th edn Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, College Kuhn, T S (1962) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions Chicago: University of Chicago Press Kuhn, T S (1970) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd edn Chicago: University of Chicago Press Lakatos, I (1970) ‘Methodology of scientific research programmes’, in I Lakatos and A Musgrave (eds), Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge Cambridge: Cambridge University Press pp 91–196 Leedy, P D (1985) Practical Research: Planning and Design, 3rd edn London: Collier Macmillan Leedy, P D (1989) Practical Research: Planning and Design London: Collier Macmillan Llobera, J (1998) ‘Historical and comparative research’, in C Seale (ed.), Researching Society and Culture London: Sage RP09 16/10/00 3:13 pm Page 316 316 REFERENCES Locke, L C., Spirduso, W W and Silverman, S J (1993) Proposals That Work: a Guide for Planning Dissertations and Grant Proposals Newbury, CA: Sage Lofland, J (1971) Analysing Social Settings: a Guide to Qualitative Observation and Analysis Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Margolin, J B (1983) The Individual’s Guide to Grants London: Plenum Markov, A A (1954) Theory of Algorithms (trans J J Schorr-Kon 1962) Jerusalem: Israel Programme for Scientific Translation May, T (1993) Social Research: Issues, Methods and Process Buckingham: Open University Press Medawar, P B (1969) Induction and Intuition in Scientific Thought London: Methuen Medawar, P B (1984) The Limit of Science Oxford: Oxford University Press Mikellides, B (1990) ‘Colour and psychological arousal’, The Journal of Architectural Planning and Research, (1): 13–18 Miles, M B and Huberman, A M (1994) Qualitative Data Analysis: an Expanded Sourcebook London: Sage Mill, J S (1973) A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive: Books I–III and Appendices London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Morton-Williams, J (1993) Interviewer Approaches Aldershot: Dartmouth Moser, C A and Kalton, G (1971) Survey Methods in Social Investigation Aldershot: Dartmouth Mouly, G J (1978) Educational Research: the Art and Science of Investigation Boston: Allyn and Bacon Neale, J M and Liebert, R M (1986) Science and Behaviour: an Introduction to Methods of Research, 3rd edn New York: Prentice-Hall Newman, R J (1989) Study and Research: a Systematic Approach for All Students Oxford: Bookmarque Oppenheim, A N (1992) Questionnaire Design, Interviewing and Attitude Measurement London: Pinter Parsons, C J (1973) Theses and Project Work London: Unwin Phillips, E M and Pugh, D S (1994) How to Get A PhD Buckingham: Open University Press Pinter, H (1998) Various Voices: Prose, Poetry Politics 1948–1998 London: Faber and Faber Pirie, M (1985) The Book of the Fallacy: a Training Manual of Intellectual Subversives London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Preece, R (1994) Starting Research: an Introduction to Academic Research and Dissertation Writing London: Pinter Quine, W V O (1969) Ontological Relativity and Other Essays New York: Columbia University Press Reynolds, P D (1971) A Primer in Theory Construction Indianapolis: Bob Merrill Educational Reynolds, P D (1977) A Primer in Theory Construction Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Richards, L and Richards, T (1994) ‘From filing cabinet to computer’, in A Bryman and R G Burgess (eds), Analysing Qualitative Data London: Routledge pp 146–72 Robson, C (1993) Real World Research: a Resource for Social Scientists and PractitionerResearchers Oxford: Blackwell Salmon, W C (1984) Logic, 3rd edn Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Seale, C (ed.) (1998) Researching Society and Culture London: Sage Seidel, J V and Clark, J A (1984) ‘The Ethnograph: a computer program for the analysis of qualitative data’, Qualitative Sociology, 7: 110–25 Siegel, S and Castellan, N J (1988) Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences New York: McGraw-Hill RP09 16/10/00 3:13 pm Page 317 REFERENCES 317 Silverman, D (1998) ‘Research and social theory’, in C Seale (ed.), Researching Society and Culture London: Sage Slater, D (1995) ‘Analysing cultural objects: content analysis and semiotics’ in C Seale (ed.), Researching Society and Culture London: Sage Smith, M and Smith, G (1994) A Study Skills Handbook, 4th edn Oxford: Oxford University Press Stephens, S S (1946) ‘On the theory of scales of measurement’, Science, 677–80 Strauss, A L (1987) Qualitative Analysis for Social Scientists Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Strauss, A L and Corbin, J (1990) Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques Newbury Park, CA: Sage Turner, B A (1981) ‘Some practical aspects of qualitative data analysis: one way of organising the cognitive processes associated with the generation of grounded theory’, Quantity and Quality, 15: 225–47 Uzzell, D (1995) ‘Ethnographic and action research’, in M G Breakwell, S Hammond and C Fife-Shaw (eds), Research Methods in Psychology London: Sage van Dijk, T A (1994) ‘Discourse and cognition in society’, in C Crowly and D Michell (eds), Communication Theory Today Cambridge: Polity pp 107–26 Van Dalen, D B (1979) Understanding Educational Research: an Introduction, 4th edn New York: McGraw-Hill Walliman, N (1993) ‘A study of recent initiatives in group selfbuild housing in Britain’ PhD thesis, Oxford Brookes University Weber, M (1949) The Methodology of the Social Sciences, translated and edited by E A Shils and H A Finch Glencoe, IL: Free Press Whyte, W F (1955) Street Corner Society, 2nd edn Chicago: University of Chicago Press Wiersma, W (1986) Research Methods in Education: an Introduction, 4th edn Boston: Allyn and Bacon Williams, M and May, T (1996) Introduction to the Philosophy of Social Research London: UCL Press Winship, I and McNab, A (1998) The Student’s Guide to the Internet 1998/99 London: Library Association Yin, R K (1994) Case Study Research: Design and Methods London: Sage Zohar, D and Marshall, I (1993) The Quantum Society London: Bloomsbury RP10 16/10/00 3:14 pm Page 318 INDEX abstract, 7, 10, 12, 42, 45, 51, 70, 73–7, 80, 84, 85, 120, 122, 131, 145, 169, 175, 177, 184, 191, 192, 240, 244, 259, 261, 264, 268, 269, 282, 282 abstract concept, 73–4, 80, 240, 268 abstractness, 192 accidental sampling, 234 accounts, 96, 241 action research, 96 aims of research, 71, 204 algorithm, 249, 250 analogy, 140, 142–5 analysing problems, 24 analysis, 26–7, 31, 40, 60, 70, 78, 89, 91, 97, 109, 125, 138, 165, 166, 167, 169, 170, 172, 198, 201, 202, 204, 206, 215, 226–7, 231, 235, 243, 246, 248, 253, 271, 272, 278, 283, 284, 288 archival, 228 content, 97, 98, 231 discourse, 74, 97, 98 qualitative, 202, 229, 259–70 quantitative, 169, 229, 239, 253–59 statistical, 93, 239 systems, 95 analytical reading, 14, 117 review, 60 survey, 92 archival analysis, 228 argument, 9, 11, 16, 19, 42, 48, 50, 53, 99, 109, 117, 118, 122–38, 142–5, 152, 155, 156, 165, 166, 170, 174, 183, 265, 272, 282, 287–93, 306, 308 Aristotle, 9, 136, 155 assertive discourse, 122 assessment, 72, 76, 89, 98, 170, 181, 199, 216, 242, 296, 309 association, 81, 92, 120–1 associational statement, 120, 121 authentication, 231 axiomatic theory, 85–6 background cultural, 96 information, 31, 41 investigation, 32 literature, 30 reading, 24, 70, 174, 288 social, 16, 161, 199, 217 studies, 263 theoretical, 84, 99, 191 to research, 152 Bhaskar, 166, 171–2 bibliographic aids, 41–3 format, 59 bibliography, 40, 42, 51, 52, 61, 279, 300–2 Blake, 15 Boolean logic, 45 card index, 261 case ordered display, 269 case study, 226, 229–9, 245, 271 catalogue, 40–2, 50, 88, 230 categorization, 93, 98, 190–1, 228 category, 140–2, 191, 262 causal process, 85, 86 statement, 121 cause, 10, 11, 15, 90–4, 121, 156, 159, 161, 170, 172, 173, 191, 244, 266, 269 and effect, 15, 92–4, 170, 121, 268 CD-ROM, 40, 42 chaos, 251 citation, 305 class, 90, 122, 133–5, 138–42, 180 classification, 71, 83, 120, 138–9, 142 cluster sampling, 233 coding, 98, 262–5 coefficient of correlation, 22, 256 cognitive mapping, 248 common mistakes, 5, 22 comparative entity, 78 measurement, 78 research, 88, 90–1 comparison, 98, 142 dimensions of, 169 of differences, 90 of sets of data, 22 static group, 245 computer, 40, 53, 59, 61, 249, 250, 261, 285, 288, 294 -based catalogue, 40, 42 database, 52, 59, 61, 292 course, 309 network, 181, 182, 230 package, 254, 258, 261 program, 59, 263, 265, 268, 286, 300 system, 52, 182 technique, 244 terminal, 41 concept, 5, 45, 53, 69, 70–3, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87, 109, 110, 119, 120, 121, 131, 132, 145, 152, 154, 162, 170, 174, 177, 184, 190, 191, 192, 193, 203, 204, 214, 220, 241, 248, 253, 268, 287 abstract, 73–4, 80, 240, 268 concrete, 73–4 generation, 259–61 measurement, 75–6, 78, 80, 85, 202 of research, quantification of, 77–8, theoretical, 75–9, 281 conceptual model, 82 scheme theory, 86 conceptually ordered display, 268 conclusions, 7, 8, 9, 11, 21, 22, 26, 42, 47, 48, 50, 51, 88, 91, 94, 96, 122, 125–9, 132–3, 137, 138, 140, 145, 153, 155–7, 184, 195, 199, 206, 235, 243, 245, 259, 261, 282, 287, 290, 291 conclusion indicators, 123 writing, 295–6 consistency, 130 construct, 82 hypothetical, 75 social, 16, 203 construction, 94 content analysis, 98, 259, 228, 268 control, 82, 91, 92, 99, 190–2, 235, 237, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 253, 254 data, 263 group, 94, 244, 245, 246 of variables, 93, 94, 96, 228, 245, 247 quality, 257 samples, 94, 245 correlation, 26, 79, 80, 81, 88, 91–2, 93, 94, 121, 153, 244, 246, 254 coefficient of, 22, 256 degree of, 22, 121, 256 Spearman Rank Order, 258 techniques, 254 RP10 16/10/00 3:14 pm Page 319 INDEX 319 costs, 44, 285, 287 critical path diagram, 249 rationalist approach, 161 realism, 170, 172 cultural background, 16, 96, 199 context, 94, 96, 168 elements, 94, 308 exchange, 97 meaning, 98, 170 reality, 166, 170 research, 88, 97 texts, 97 data, 11, 12, 27, 40, 43–8, 50, 71, 75, 82, 83, 86, 88, 89, 92, 96, 109, 153, 166, 189, 190, 193, 195, 196–204, 215, 216, 219, 220, 290 analysis, 22, 27, 92, 93, 174, 177, 190, 225, 226, 227, 235, 243–50, 253–72, 278, 283 collection, 27, 39–40, 70–1, 91, 95, 110, 175, 177, 202, 206, 225–32, 236, 238, 240–2, 243–50, 260–5, 271, 272, 283, 284, 308 display, 261, 265–70 interpretation of, 22, 91, 97, 174 limitations, 251 measurement, 78–81 primary, 197, 198, 199, 229, 230, 231–2 protection, 218 secondary, 39, 197, 198, 229, 230–1 sets of, 22, 94, 254, 258, 265 database, 40, 42–3, 45, 52–3, 58–61, 215, 261, 265, 292 deduction, 9, 83, 129, 132, 154, 157, 173 deductive argument, 128–9, 132–3, 140 reasoning, 9, 155, 206 definition, 50, 82, 85, 120, 132, 193 dictionary, 73 of research, 7–8, 96, 181 of research objectives, 181, 201 of research problem, 26 307 of theoretical concepts, 122 operational, 75–81 dependent variable, 85, 93, 121, 247, 266, 280 derived term, 72 descriptive statistics, 255 diagrammatic models, 95, 248–9, 268 diagrams, 296 of research process, 194–5 Venn, 133–7, 140 diaries, 199, 230, 236, 238, 241 Dilthey, 15 dimension, 109, 110, 169, discourse, 98–9, 118, 119, 122–4, 131, 144 analysis, 74, 97, 98 assertive, 122 scientific, 143 display case ordered, 269 conceptually ordered, 268 drafting, 53, 289, 292, 293–4, 296–9 editing, 26, 52, 265, 289, 298 e-mail, 45 empirical generalization, 87, 166 relevance, 192, 193 empiricism, 70 ethics, 214–9, 308 ethnogenic, 88, 96, 241 evaluation, 88, 94–5, 96, 161, 190, 191, 284 evidence, 7, 48, 50, 83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 156, 160, 162, 174, 175, 215, 260, 265, 279, 295, 308 empirical, 11, 85, 87, 228 historical, 88, 89, 231 existence statement, 119–20 experience, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 20, 24, 25, 71, 77, 84, 90, 131, 155, 157, 166, 197, 198, 205, 206, 241, 267, 286, 307, 308 experiment, 26, 88, 90, 92, 93, 142, 153, 154, 157, 166, 183, 193, 215, 241, 243, 244–7, 252 experimental research, 90, 92–4, 96, 174, 202, 228, 229, 247 explanation, 2, 15, 50, 71, 82, 85, 86, 95, 183, 190, 191, 193, 228, 241, 242, 244, 263, 264, 266, 277, 283, 303 external reality, 11, 16 validity, 247 fallacy, 132, 137–45 formal, 138 informal, 138 falsification, 157, 158–60 feminist research, 88, 97 theory, 172 figures, 300 population, 153 flow chart, 249, 266 footnotes, 296, 303 formal fallacies, 138 Foucault, 16, 99 funded research, 25, 206, 278, 279, 282, 284, 305 proposals for, 285–7 gaussian curve, 255–6, 258 generality, 11, 16, 255 Goethe, 15 grounded theory, 259–60 historical records, 44, 96, 131, 199, 230, 231, 271, 281 research, 26, 44, 88–90, 91, 192, 199, 206, 226, 228, 229, 230 honesty, 214, 216 hypotheses, 9, 12, 51, 70, 82, 83, 86–7, 88, 93, 109, 110, 142, 151, 153, 154, 248, 256, 259, 262, 271, 282, 284, 296, 307 alternatives to, 179–82 formulation, 173–6 null, 174–5, 258 operationalizing, 177 testing, 157–60, 253 hypothetical construct, 75 hypothetico-deductive method, 154, 159,–60, 173, 179, 183, 215 idealism, 15, 169 ideas, 8, 11, 16, 25, 27, 46, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53, 70, 86, 97, 118, 127, 214, 230, 248, 259, 260, 262, 263, 264, 268, 290, 291, 293, 294, 295 illustrations, 50, 296, 299 independent variable, 85, 93, 96, 121, 244, 247, 280 index, 40, 41–3, 48, 261, 263 card, 261, 301 indicator, 76, 109, 110, 123–4, 126, 177, 182, 184 induction, 129, 132, 154, 155–7, 173 inductive argument, 128–9, 131, 132, 142, 143, 145, 156 reasoning, 9, 155, 160 inferential statistics, 255, 256–8 informal fallacy, 138 informative language, 118–9, 122 instrumentation, 28, 87, 197, 199, 242, 247 intellectual property rights, 286 interim summary, 263, 264 internal validity, 247 internet, 40, 42, 44–5, 230, 231 interpretation, 11, 16, 70, 76, 89, 97, 98, 152, 166, 169, 183, 198, 206, 238, 241 of data, 7, 22, 50, 93, 95, 96, 97, 166, 197, 199, 230, 231, 256, 264, 291 interpretivism, 165, 166, 167–8, 170 intersubjectivity, 76, 152, 192–3 RP10 16/10/00 3:14 pm Page 320 320 INDEX interval measurement, 78, 79–81, 121, 240, 254 estimate, 257 interviews, 49, 50, 61, 91, 153, 202, 214, 218, 231, 234, 237, 238–40, 242, 260, 262, 284 introduction, 47, 125, 151, 290, 291, 293, 296 journal, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 59, 199, 214, 300, 301, 302 electronic, 44 of abstracts, 42 Kant, 15 Kierkegaard, 15 knowledge, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 40, 50, 71, 84, 85, 86, 92, 96, 97, 119, 120, 174, 182, 183, 190, 192, 194, 195, 197, 199, 202, 204, 206, 214, 218, 242, 256, 267, 272, 307, 308 contribution to, 278, 279, 285, 308 nature of, 5, 151, 152, 156, 157, 160–73, 183, 184, 202 scientific, 9, 84, 120, 160, 165, 190, 192 Kuhn, 16, 87, 161–3, 165 language, 42, 72, 73, 96–9, 118–22, 131, 138, 169, 172, 197, 237, 254 directive, 118, 119, 122 expressive, 118, 119, 122 law, 70, 82, 85, 86, 87, 98, 110, 155, 157, 164, 166, 167, 167, 168, 169, 171 set of laws theory, 85 level of abstraction, 74, 120, 145 of association, 81 of measurement, 78–81, 254, 266 library, 40, 41–5, 59, 61, 230, 231, 308 catalogue, 42, 50 linear responsibility diagram, 249 literature review, 25, 28, 30, 40–5, 90, 145, 174, 229, 281, 282, 283, 284, 288 292, 300, 307 logic, 15, 26, 94, 118, 138, 140, 155, 157, 174, 206, 228 Boolean, 45 in argument, 9, 11, 85, 86, 122, 125, 128, 129, 130–7, 145 of discovery, 162 logical indicator, 123–4, 126 rigour, 192, 193 truth, 131–2 map, 240, 248, 249, 266, 296 cognitive, 248, 268 mental, 261 systems, 248 masters degree, 101, 279 mathematical algorithm, 249 model, 169, 144, 248, 249, 250–1 proof, 15 proposition, 132 sign, 72, mathematics, 72, 193 matrix, 228, 261, 265–6, 268–71, 271 measurement, 51, 76, 77, 83, 121, 122, 153, 181, 182, 191, 193, 198, 256 concept, 75–6, 78, 80, 82, 85, 92, 109, 122, 177, 202, 135, 249, 251, 259 instruments, 241, 242 levels of, 78–81, 254, 266 memo, 260, 261, 263, 264 methodology, 7, 10, 51, 70, 97, 162, 169, 206, 227, 259, 270, 283, 307, 308 ethno–, 153, 167 mistakes, 5, 22, 59, 88, 121, 137, 293, 299 model, 42, 84, 97, 162, 229, 241, 243–4, 248–52 causal, 268–9 decision tree, 268 diagrammatic, 248 evaluation, 95 mathematical, 169, 250 of reality, 70–1, 82, 87, 97, 161 physical, 249–50 social, 170–1 theoretical, 259 MPhil., 29, 204, 270, 278–9, 282, 283, 284, 305, 308 network, 261, 265, 266–70 causal, 261 computer, 44, 181, 182, 230 nominal scale of measurement, 78, 80, 81, 254, 258 non-parametric statistics, 255, 258 non-random sampling, 232, 234 notes field, 240, 260, 262, 263, 265, 267, 269 taking and organizing, 47, 49–53, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 205, 215, 240, 288, 296, 292–4 null hypothesis, 174–5, 258 numbering, 300 objectives of research, 2, 11, 22, 31, 91, 95, 109, 173, 181, 189, 190–3, 201, 205, 219, 279, 287, 305 objectivity, 15, 89, 98, 216 observation, 9, 11, 83, 84, 86, 89, 91, 93, 96, 131, 153, 154, 155–9, 160, 166, 167, 168, 175, 183, 193, 197, 198, 202, 218, 231, 238, 241–2, 245, 247, 251, 260, 262, 284 OPAC, 42 operational definition, 75–8, 81 operational statement, 122 operationalizing hypotheses, 177, 184 order, 10, 16, 71, 78, 95, 98, 118, 126, 169, 251, 261, 262, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294 alphabetical, 301 ordered displays, 267–70 rank, 78, 79, 258 ordinal scale, 78–9, 80, 81, 254, 258 organization chart, 249 outcomes, 92, 94, 99, 153, 175, 176, 192, 197, 200, 204, 216, 220, 245, 246, 266, 277, 278, 279, 283, 284–5, 286 outline, 53, 265, 289, 290–1, 293, 295, 305, 308 of methods, 279, 283 outputs, 285, 286 paradigm, 87, 97, 162–3, 165 paragraphs, 47, 254, 291, 295, 297, 299 parameters, 94, 165, 255, 256, 257, 258 parametric statistics, 255–8 parsimony, 11, 16, 83 partially ordered display, 269 pattern coding, 263 personalized bibliography, 59 personnel, 43, 285–6, 287 perspective, 16, 27, 45, 77, 161, 162, 166, 168, 182, 183, 214, 269, 278 of research methods, 226, 228, 229, 271 PhD, 30, 204, 270, 278, 282, 283, 284, 279, 305, 308 philosophy, 99, 152, 172, 179 of research, 151, 152–72 physical model, 249 physical survey, 241–2 pilot study, 238 planning, 249 research, 30, 49, 189, 190, 195, 203–4, 205–6, 218, 220, 226 written work, 290, 291 population, 91, 217, 232–6, 238, 239, 247, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 284 RP10 16/10/00 3:14 pm Page 321 INDEX 321 positivism, 15, 70, 77, 83, 86, 98, 152, 154, 165, 166–7, 168, 170, 173, 227 postmodernism, 70 poststructuralism, 70 prediction, 10, 71, 82, 85, 86, 92, 155, 157, 159, 160, 175, 190, 191, 192, 193, 251, 256, 257, 280 prediction studies, 92 pre-experiment, 93, 94, 244, 245 preliminary analysis, 31, 262, 269 premise, 9, 123, 125, 126, 128–9, 132–3, 137–8, 145, 155, 174, 256 indicators, 123–4 presentation, 127, 237, 299–303 of argument, 138 of findings, 125, 254, 267 prestructured case analysis, 264, 265 primary data, 197, 198, 199, 229, 230, 231–2 sources, 189, 199, 229 primitive term, 72, 73 probability 10, 121, 156, 175, 257, 261 problem area, 24–6, 30–2, 109, 145, 190, 199 definition, 26–7, 307–8 of induction, 156, 157 of scaling, 249–50 of writing, 277, 288–9 research, 5, 6, 11, 12, 20–2, 24–30, 40, 41, 46, 50, 51, 70, 86, 110, 125, 153, 165, 166, 173, 174, 176, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 190, 201, 203, 206, 219, 226, 232, 241, 253, 271, 279, 281, 282–3, 289, 306 solving, 204–5 sub-, 27, 284, 290 programme of work, 11, 272 proportional sampling, 233 proposition, 82, 83, 85, 86–7, 118, 128, 129, 180, 183, 184, 268, 307 hypothetical, mathematical, 132 punctuation, 297–8, 301, 305 purposive sampling, 234 qualitative analysis, 202, 229, 259–70, 284 data, 201, 202, 238, 241, 242, 254, 260, 261, 263, 267 model, 248 research, 20, 92, 189, 201, 202–3, 226, 227, 234, 260, 263, 264, 283 quantification, 77–81, 121, 254 quantitative analysis, 169, 229, 239, 253–59, 284 data, 225, 227, 229, 236, 238, 242, 249, 254, 261 model, 249–51 research, 20, 92, 189, 201–3, 220, 226, 227–9, 264, 271 quasi-experiment, 93, 94, 169, 229, 244, 246 question, 6, 7, 11, 12, 20, 21, 22, 26, 31, 48, 50, 52, 76, 80, 82, 85, 88, 119, 163, 180, 183, 184, 190, 219, 231, 239–41, 254, 260, 262, 282, 284, 289, 290, 291 research, 27, 77, 86–7, 180, 228, 256, 264, 265, 268 questionnaire, 75, 76, 91, 231, 236–8, 238, 240, 284 Quine, 16, 84 quota sampling, 234 quotation, 49, 51, 53, 214, 267, 295, 296–7, 298, 300, 301 mark, 298, 301 random number generation, 250 sampling, 232–4 rank, 78, 79, 141, 258 ratio, 78, 80–1, 121 reading, 39, 40, 46–9, 70, 117, 289, 291, 298 analytical, 14, 117 background, 6, 24, 30, 61, 70, 174, 205, 288, 295, 307 instrumental, 198, 205 reality, 10, 70, 71, 76, 86, 160, 169, 175, 194, 196, 197, 203, 248, 251 cultural, 166, 170 external, 11, 16 social, 97, 152, 153, 168, 169 reasoning, 8, 9–10, 11, 122, 125–6, 137, 138, 161, 202 deductive, 155–7 inductive, 155, 157–8, 160, 206 reconciliatory approach, 166, 168–72 redrafting, 53, 289, 293–5 references, 40, 41, 42, 43, 46, 50, 52, 53, 59, 61, 174, 205, 214, 215, 281, 282, 291, 295, 296, 297, 300, 301–3, 307 relational statement, 120–1 relational studies, 92 relativism, 152, 161, 183 reliability, 11, 16, 76, 87, 94, 98, 156, 197, 198, 199, 200, 203, 232, 241, 244, 264, 272 research approach, 5, 19, 26, 30, 70, 92, 109, 110, 153, 157, 179, 182, 183, 184, 201, 205, 206, 220, 283, 287, 307 definition, 7–8, 96, 181 design, 27, 28, 184, 219 methods, 30, 40, 70, 153, 177, 194, 202, 225–72, 278, 279, 307 objectives, 2, 11, 22, 31, 91, 95, 109, 173, 181, 189, 190–3, 201, 205, 219, 279, 287, 305 perspectives, 226, 228, 229, 271 problem, 5, 6, 11, 12, 20–2, 24–30, 40, 41, 46, 50, 51, 70, 86, 110, 125, 153, 165, 166, 173, 174, 176, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 190, 201, 203, 206, 219, 226, 232, 241, 253, 271, 279, 281, 282–3, 289, 306 process, 6, 7, 10, 24, 40, 41, 93, 151, 189, 190, 192, 193–5, 197, 203, 219, 277, 279 proposal, 1, 2, 29, 199, 200, 226, 276–87, 288, 294, 305, 306–9 qualitative, 20, 92, 189, 201, 202–3, 226, 227, 234, 260, 263, 264, 283 quantitative, 20, 92, 189, 201–3, 220, 226, 227–9, 264, 271 question, 27, 77, 86–7, 180, 228, 256, 264, 265, 268 scope of, 8, 24, 27, 70, 86, 89, 181, 204, 237, 272, 278, 282, 284 skills, 1, 2, 26, 27, 39, 46, 117, 118, 197, 204, 206, 231, 246, 253, 272, 277, 286, 294 strategy, 145, 173, 182, 183, 204–5, 228, 229 respect, 74, 214–8 responsive evaluation, 95 retrieving notes, 39, 46, 62, 263, 292–3 role ordered display, 269 sample, 91, 94, 197, 232–6, 237, 238, 239, 245, 246, 247, 254, 257, 258, 272, 284 sampling, 232–6 accidental, 234 cluster, 233 error, 236 stratified, 233 scale, 77–81, 240–1, 249–50, 267, 283 scanning, 47, 49 scientific enquiry, 10, 11, 16, 85, 95, 152, 154–60, 161, 182, 206 RP10 16/10/00 3:14 pm Page 322 322 INDEX scientific continued knowledge, 9, 84, 120, 160, 165, 190, 192 method, 5, 6, 10–12, 15, 16, 17, 19, 30, 89, 151, 152, 153, 159, 164, 165, 167, 179, 183, 202, 203 scope of research, 8, 24, 27, 70, 86, 89, 181, 204, 237, 272, 278, 282, 284 of survey, 91 search engine, 44, 45 secondary data, 39, 197, 198, 229, 230–1 sources, 41, 42, 1989 semiotics, 97, 98 sense of understanding, 71, 85, 120, 191 sequential analysis, 264–5 set of laws theory, 85 simple randomized sampling, 233 simple stratified sampling, 233 skimming, 47 social construct, 16, 203 context, 16, 90, 94, 96, 97, 98, 161, 170, 199, 203, 217, 233 facts, 152–3, 166, 167, phenomena, 90, 166, 170, 192, 262 problems, 22, 94, reality, 97, 152, 153, 168, 169 science, 1, 16, 59, 75, 79, 83, 86, 90, 92, 97, 152, 153, 165–73, 200, 202, 206, 217, 226 survey, 202 system, 16, 168 theory, 99 sociology, 10, 11, 16, 154, 167, 172, 201, 202 spelling, 293, 298–9, 305 standardized displays, 269 instruments, 27 scales and tests, 240 statement, 9, 71–2, 73, 75, 78, 80, 81, 82, 85, 119–24, 126, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 145, 153, 154, 155, 158, 160, 161, 173, 174, 184, 191, 192, 193, 215, 280 general, 9, 156, 157 observation, 155, 156, 157, 160, 161 of intent, 181 of objectives, 11 of problem, 26, 51 theoretical, 82, 84, 86–7, 122, 215–23 statistics, 50, 51, 75, 89, 92, 193, 229, 254–9 descriptive, 255 inferential, 256–8 non-parametric, 258 official, 153 parametric, 255 stratification of knowledge, 171–2 stratified sampling, 233 structural limits, 214 structure of argument, 48, 126, 130, 306 of interviews, 238–40 of language, 172 of logic, 18 of management, 186 of research, 52, 307, 308 of science, 160,161 of sentence, 52 of society, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172 of theory, 83, 96, 154 of writing, 289–91, 293, 296, 306, 307 status, 78 subclass, 140 hypotheses, 177, 284 problems, 12, 27, 282, 284, 290 questions, 12, 180 system, 248 subjectivity, 15, 70 inter-, 76, 131, 149, 161, 192–3 survey, 91, 197, 226, 228,, 231, 135, 238, 239, 241, 242 analytical, 92 physical, 241 research, 229, 231–43 social, 202 technique, 91 telephone, 239 visual, 241 syllogism, 9, 134–7, 144 symbol, 71, 72–3, 78, 254, 267 symbolic interactionism, 168, 202 logic, 93 systematic sampling, 233, 234 systems analysis, 95 map, 248 tables, 296, 299, 300 taxonomy, 261, 262, 268 technical drawing, 249 term, 70, 122, 128, 139, 256, 303 theoretical concept, 75–9, 281 statement, 82, 84, 86–7, 122, 215 theory, 9, 15, 69, 70, 75, 82–6, 87, 96, 97, 152, 154, 156, 157, 159, 160, 161, 164, 169, 193, 215, 229, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 265, 268, 308 feminist, 172 grounded, 259–60 of research, 1, 2, 30, 70, 194 of science, 19 social, 99 time ordered display, 267–8 timetable, 279, 285, 286, 288 title of books etc., 41, 42, 47, 50, 59, 295, 301–3 of research project, 279, 280, 285, 307 of tables etc., 299–300 truth, 10, 15, 17, 25, 26, 85, 87, 128, 131–2, 154, 157, 158, 161, 163, 164, 165, 194, 196, 197, 198, 215 typology, 71, 119, 120, 190–1, 261, 262 validity, 48, 83, 87, 129, 130, 131, 132–7, 140, 144, 153, 199, 200, 204, 237, 246, 247 value, 71, 75, 78, 80, 94, 96, 97, 161, 162, 165, 168–70, 177, 180, 183, 214, 217, 308 neutrality, 97 of arguments, 145 of concepts, 71, 121, 191 of data, 192, 199, 201, 230, 256 of research, 88–90, 183, 190, 204, 219, 220, 272, 277, 296 of variables, 93, 177, 250, 251, 255, 256, 269 statistical, 236, 257 variable, 81, 82, 83, 94, 95, 121, 153, 165, 174, 176, 177, 184, 191, 229, 235, 237, 242, 243, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 254, 256, 259, 261, 264, 265, 266, 268, 269, 270, 280, 308 dependent, 85, 91, 92, 93, 96, 121, 244, 266, 268, 280 independent, 85, 93, 121, 244, 266, 280 Venn diagram, 133–7, 140 vignette, 264–5 Weber, 15, 166, 168, 170, 202 Wittgenstein, 16, 97 World Wide Web, 44, 45 writing a proposal, 1, 276, 277, 306–9 a thesis or report, 27, 40, 41, 49, 50, 52, 109, 144, 193–4, 265, 276 notes, 40, 49–53, 240 process, 193, 214, 283, 288–305 ... 11:14 am Page i your research project RP00 18/10/00 11:14 am Page ii RP00 18/10/00 11:14 am Page iii your research project a step- by -step guide for the first- time researcher NICHOLAS WALLIMAN with... the way in which the collected information is appraised: by counting and assessing numbers – quantitative research by measuring and evaluating qualities – qualitative research Yet another way is... RESEARCH PROJECT PARTICULAR FEATURES OF THE BOOK The particular features of this book are the way it: • combines the explanation of practical and theoretical aspects of research directly with the