Seafood enzymes utilization and influence on postharvest seafood quality

Preface It has been over 100 years since Eduard Büchner showed that molecules with catalytic activity could be isolated from yeast cells Following decades of intensive research on these molecules (enzymes), we now know they are ubiquitous in living systems and are the agents that make chemical reactions possible in a diversity of life forms, albeit sometimes under vastly different environmental conditions In 1961, when the International Commission on Enzymes of the International Union of Biochemistry established a system to classify enzymes, the committee listed only 712 enzymes The total number of enzymes identified has since grown to more than 3000 Most of the known enzymes have been extensively studied in land mammals, such as rats, and microorganisms, such as Escherichia coli So why devote a book to enzymes from aquatic animals? Although most of the enzymes discussed in this book are also found in terrestrial life forms, homologous enzymes from different sources, which have the same name and Enzyme Commission (EC) number, may exhibit vastly different properties with respect to stability, temperature optimum, secondary substrate specificity, and others These differences are based on adaptation and are magnified when the cellular milieu of the source organisms varies because of habitat conditions or other reasons Aquatic organisms occupy unique and often extreme environments, such as the deep ocean where pressure is high and light is absent; temperature ranges from –2ºC in Polar saline gradients to 103ºC at thermal vents; salinity ranges from very low vii Foreword v fish processing byproducts as processing aids These discussions of the special roles of seafood enzymes in postmortem fish metabolism and the quality changes they effect are critical pieces of knowledge in achieving the goal of obtaining maximum value from the available species We have a strong obligation to use seafood resources wisely and responsibly so future generations may also enjoy their benefits Herbert O Hultin, Professor Department of Food Science University of Massachusetts/Amherst Gloucester Marine Station Gloucester, Massachusetts Index Ca2+ sensitivity, 79 Ca-chelating agent (EDTA), 417 Calcium-activated ATPase, 38 Calcium-activated factor (CAF), 412 Calcium-activated neutral proteinases (CANP), 412, 456 Calcium-activated proteinase, 412 Calpain autolysis, 416 Calpains, 412, 415, 416, 418, 422, 424, 427–429, 431, 515, 538, 621, 647, 658 and lysosomal enzymes, synergistic action, 424 competitive inhibitors of, 417 properties, 414 Calpastatins, 412, 415, 416, 417, 422, 432, 538 Carbohydrases, 7, 521, 592 Carbohydrate catabolism, 453 γ-Carboxyamide, 147, 157 Carboxypeptidases, 511, 514, 216 Cardiac muscle, 416 Carnitine palmitoyltransferase, 15, 16 Carnitine, dietary, 26 Carnivore, 133 Carnivorous fish, 141 Carnosinase, β-carotene, 458 Carotenoids, 3, 25, 519, 603 Carotenoproteins, 510, 627, 628 Carrageenan, 404 Casein, 434 Catalase, 4, 11, 459, 490, 495 Catalytic efficiency, 216, 259 Catechol oxidase, 274, 276, 519, 522 Catecholamines, 456 Cathepsin B, 194, 200 Cathepsin C, 203 Cathepsin D, 9, 17 Cathepsins, 412, 414, 418, 422, 423, 426–431, 433, 511, 514, 531, 536, 538, 542, 585, 623, 626, 647 lysosomal, 412 Caviar, 154, 581, 582, 626 cDNA, 139, 667 Charged myosin, 420 Chelating agents, 292, 299, 490 Chelators, 532 Chikuwa, 573 Chitin, 279, 302, 518, 628 Chitosan, 156, 302 Cholesterol, 125 Cholesterol esterase, 127, 325 Cholesterol esters, 125 Cholinesterase, 6, Cholinesterase family, 127 Chylomicrons, 125 Chymosin, 194, 196, 197, 596 from seal stomach, 204 Chymosinlike protease, 597 Chymosins, properties of, 197 Chymotrypsin, 22, 24, 197, 198, 216, 237–261, 277, 417 catalytic activity of, 198, 199 Chymotrypsin/trypsin activity, starvation relationship, 239 Chymotrypsinogen, 10, 12 activation of, 215 Citraconylation, 159 Citrate synthase, 6, 7, 13, 15, 19 Citric acid, 296, 298–299 as acidulant, 306 cycle, 19 Coagulogen, 149 Cod liver oil, 578 Cold adapted pepsins, 582 Cold denaturation of proteins, 564 Cold shortening, 425 Cold storage, 287 Cold-adapted enzymes, 572, 588, 605, 642 Cold-adapted gastric proteases, 596 Colipase, 126, 130 Collagen, 249, 251, 421, 428, 455, 456, 543, 585, 593, 624, 626 catabolism, 251 denaturation of, 421 structure, 247 Collagen/muscle, 251 mobilization of, 251 668 Collagenases, 198, 251, 455, 513, 595, 621, 626 action on native collagen, 200 pH optima, 200 purification, 200 Collagenolytic enzymes, 585 Competitive inhibition of PPO, 297 Complexing agents, 292 Connectin, 413, 421, 423 Connective tissues, 455, 456 Contractile muscles, 424 Contractile proteins (actin and myosin), 70, 418, 420, 423 Corolase, 277 Coronary heart diseases and marine oils, 577 Costameres, 421 Covalent-crosslinks, 147 Creatine kinase, 6, 9, 420 Creatine phosphate, 419, 453 Creatine phosphokinase, 15 Cresolase activity, 273 Crustacean species, phenolase, Cryoprotectants, 172, 428, 430, 510, 537, 562, 574 Cubenol, 400, 401, 404 Cucumberlike aroma, 374, 390, 403 Cured herring (matjes), 573, 582, 641 Cuticle, 273, 277 Cutinase, 125 Cyanide inhibition of enzymes, 490 3’, 5’-Cyclic AMP (cAMP), 105 Cyclodextrins (CDs), 300 Cyclomaltoldextrin glucanotransferase, 300 Cystatins, 413, 414, 429, 534, 542, 651 Cysteine carboxypeptidase, 413 Cysteine dioxygenase, 20, 21 Cysteine inhibition of melanosis, 297 Cysteine inhibitors (cystatin), 538 Cysteine prote(in)ases, 5, 413, 414, 422, 426, 427, 534, 538, 623, 630 Cysteine proteinase inhibitors, 414, 434 Cysteine proteinases, effect on texture, 426 Index Cysteine/thiol proteinase, 193, 194, 200 Cytochrome c oxidase, 6, 7, 490 Cytochrome oxidase effect of frozen storage, 344 Cytochrome P450 aromatase, 6, 10 Cytoskeletal proteins, 419, 455 Cytosol, 414, 415, 421, 423 Cytosolic enzymes, 411 Deaminases, 453 Deamination, 148, Degradation of myofibrillar proteins, 427 Denaturation, 172 of collagen, 421 temperature, 182 ∆-5-Desaturase, 105 Descaling (enzymatic removal of fish scales), 594 Deskinning (enzymatic skin removal), 592, 593, 625 Desmin, 423, 428 Destruction of membranes, 57 Diabetes, 126 Diet, 24 Diet and nutrition, 20 Dietary estradiol, 326 Dietary hormones, 26 Dietary protein, digestion and absorption of, 232 Dietary protein-nitrogen, 247 Dietary sodium lactate, 26 Dietetic foods, use of FPHs, 587 Digestion: acid proteases, 242 chymotrypsin, 242 trypsin, 242 Digestive aids, 631 Digestive collagenases,, 200 Digestive enzymes, 12, 21, 24, 25, 533, 583, 630, 644, 650 and quality deterioration in krill, 506 Digestive lipases, 21 Digestive peptidases, 513 Digestive prote(in)ases, 572 Index Digestive proteases and autolysis in krill, 506 Digestive proteinases, 14, 21, 644 applications, 203 Arrhenius activation energy, 201 chymosin, 203 chymotrypsins, 203 classification, 193 dietary influence, 203 distinct properties, 192, 193 free energy of activation, 201 gastricinogens, 203 isolation and purification, 195 isozymes, 203 methods used to recover, 197 Michaelis-Menten constant, 201 non-isozymes, 203 pepsinogens, 203 purification, 195 sources, 203 unique properties, 203 Dihydroperoxidation, 322 Dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA), 276 Diisopropylphosphofluoridate (DFP), 194 Dimethyl sulfide (DMS), 367 and seaweed flavor, 386–389, 403, 404 Dimethylamine (DMA), 167, 176, 368, 497 Dimethyl-propiothetin (DMPT) and seaweed flavor, 367, 388, 389, 405 Dimethyl-propiothetin dethiomethylase, 388 Dioxygenation of fatty acids, 322 Diphenol oxidases, 273–275 Disease infections, 254 Disomic (Mendelian) inheritance, 219 Dithiothreitol, 159 Docosahexanoic acid (DHA), 102, 112, 130, 370, 372, 377, 577, 578, 580 Docosapentaenoic acid, 373 Drip, 509 Dystrophin, 421 669 Earthy off-flavors, 368 Ecdysis, 280 Edible coatings, 306 Edible films, 434 Edible seaweeds: kombu, 385, 400 nori, 385, 402, 403 wakame, 385, 386, 400, 401 EDTA, 102, 152 as chelating agent, 417 EDTA-ATPase activities, 339 Effect on nucleotide degradation, 45 Effects of handling, 45 Effects on digestive enzyme pattern, 24 Eicosanoid, 100, 328 generation/biosynthesis, 317, 318, 328 Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), 102,130, 372–373, 375, 377, 458, 577, 580 Elasmobranchs, 3, 4, 169 Elastase, 194, 197, 199, 539 optimal activity, 199 preparation, 199 Elastase inhibitors, 199 dimethyl sulfoxide (DMS), 199 soybean trypsin inhibitor, 199 TPCK, 199 Endomysium, 456 Endoproteinases, 194 Environmental stressors, 10 Enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning, 59 Enzymatic approach, plastein reaction, 205 Enzymatic browning or melanosis, 271, 277 Enzymatic browning, prevention/control, 286, 301 Enzymatic removal: of fish scales (descaling), 594 of membranes, 594, 595 of skin (deskinning), 592, 593, 625 Enzymatic tenderization, 451 Enzymatically derived aroma components of fresh fish, 374 670 Enzyme activity and stability, ionic effects on, 492 Enzyme activity: control by chemical modifications, 492 effect of chilling or freezing, 537 effect of freezing and thawing, 344, 345 indicator for quality, 337, Enzyme ATPase, 337 Enzyme catalysis, mechanisms for control, 489 Enzyme co-factors, 490 Enzyme denaturation: by heat, 489 by pressure, 289, 489 Enzyme inactivation, by SCF, 289 Enzyme inactivators, 532 Enzyme indicators, 337 Enzyme inhibition: by substrate analogs, 491 reversible and irreversible, 532 Enzyme lactic dehydrogenase (LDH), 337 Enzymes: applications of, 203 as ampholytes, 491 association of ATP breakdown, 337 association of rigor mortis, 337 competitive inhibitors, 105 in biogeneration of aroma, 374 uses, 205 Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), 148 Erythorbic acid, 296 Essential amino acids, 434 Essential FFA, 235, 243 Essential light chain, 78 Essential oils from seaweeds, 392, 398 Esterase, 91 serine, 121, 126, 127 Esters, wax, 106, 141 Ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA), 299 Index Ethyleneglycoltetraacetic acid (EGTA), 152 Excessive proteolysis, 496 Exopeptidases, 195 Exoskeleton, 460 F-actin, 72 Fast-twitch, 69 Fatty acid: ω-3 polyunsaturated (PUFA), 100, 105 ω-6 polyunsaturated, 105 aggregation of myofibrillar proteins, 344 oxidation, 15, 26 polyunsaturated (PUFA), 107, 114 saturated (SFA), 107, 131 transacylation, 102 Fatty acids, monounsaturated (MUFAs), 131, 133 Feed consumption, 228 Feed conversion efficiency (FCE), 229, 230, 231, 237 Feed utilization, 254 Fermentation, 149, 155 Fetuins, 414 Fibrin, 149 Fibrinogen, 149, 157 Fibrinoligase, 148 Ficin, 414, 494 Filament formation, 74, 75 Fisetin, 495 Fish: frozen, 141 lipids, 100 Fish aroma: as quality indicator, 365 biogenesis, 370 Fish flavor, 367 Fish gel softening, 412 Fish health, 252 Fish lipase, properties, 131 Fish milt, 627 Fish muscle lipolysis, 457 Fish muscle softening, 537 Fish muscle texture, 411 Index Fish muscle tissue, comparative biochemistry, Fish muscle, deterioration, 100 Fish oils, 577 Fish peptones, 586 Fish protein hydrolysates (FPHs), 536, 573, 586, 602 Fish quality, prime quality deterioration, 489 Fish ripening, 536 Fish sauce, 573, 589, 591, 619–621, 641 fermentation, 622 Fish silage, 599, 619, 623, 648 Flavor biogenesis, 317 Flavor enhancers, 588 Flavor potentiators, 588 Flavor, generation, 113 Food conversion 228 Food irradiation, 288 Formaldehyde (FA), 167 Formaldehyde and fish texture toughening, 497 Free fatty acid (FFA), 110, 243, 250, 252, 344 absorption rate of, 244 accumulation, 141 protein digestion of, 244 Fresh aroma of seafood, 458 Fresh fish flavor, 320 Frozen storage, 167 Fructose-1, 6-biophosphatase, 6, 18, 23, 247 β-Galactosidase, 522, 653 Gaping, 26 Gastricsin, 17,194, 197 Gel: softening (modori), 419, 433, 434 strength, 148, 341, 433 weakness, 538 Gelatin, 428 of fish muscle proteins, 147, 153, 412 of surimi, 425 671 [Gelatin] properties of myosin, 426 structure-setting reaction, 426 Gene cloning, Gene expression, induction by external factors, 227 Genetic variation, 237 Geosmin, 367 γ-Globulin, 160 Glucagon, 140 Glucanases, 521 Gluconeogenesis, 24, 247 Gluconolactone, 2, β-N-Glucosaminidase, 344 Glucose oxidase/catalase system, 306, 494 Glucose oxidase, 492, 495 Glucose oxidase, effect of frozen storage, 344 Glucose-6-phosphatase, 24 Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, 11, 14, 15, 17, 20, 22, 23, 24, 26 Glucosephosphate isomerase, 15, 22, α-Glucosidase, role in fish muscle, 344 β-Glucosidase, 521, 522 Glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH), 6, 9, 14, 17, 21 Glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase, effect of frozen storage, 344 Glutamic pyruvic transaminase, 15 Glutamine transferase, transport, 242 γ-Glutamyl transpeptidase, 24 γ-Glutamylamine cyclotransferase, 161 ε-γ−Glutamyl-lysine (GL) crosslinks, 574, 577 γ-Glutamyltransferase, 147, 161 Glutathione (GSH), 159, 304, 459 Glutathione peroxidase, 4, 8, 25, 113, 459 Glutathione S-transferase, 4, 11 Glycerolysis, 580 Glycerylphosphorylcholine (GPC), 111 Glycogen, 419, 453, 454, 506, 507 Glycogen phosphorylase, 13 Glycogen phosphorylase kinase, 13, 14 672 Glycogen rich muscle, oxygenation, 338 Glycogen synthesis, 24 Glycogenolysis, 4, Glycogenolytic hydrolases, 453 Glycolysis, 4, 7, 452 Glycolysis enzymes, 13 Growth and feed utilization, 229, 230 Growth rate index, 7, 8, 228 Guanosine triphosphate (GTP), 153 Guanosine-5′-monophosphate (5′-GMP), 588 Gulonolactone oxidase, 2, Heart muscle, trout, 14 Heat-stable alkaline proteinases (HAP), 419, 428, 432, 433 Heat-stable proteinases, 574 Hemocyanins, 282 Hemoproteins, 459 (Z)-4-Heptenal, and off odor of coldstored cod, 369 Herbivores, 133, 141 Hexokinase, 22 4–Hexylresorcinol (4HR) – inhibitor of melanosis, 302, 494 High-pressure denaturation of fish muscle proteins, 554 High-pressure effects: coagulation of ovalbumin, 549 on enzymes, 549, 552, 553, 555 on free fatty acid levels in fish muscle, 555 on gel strength, 554 modification of proteins, 549, 552 on phospholipid levels in fish muscle, 555 on proteins, 289 reversible versus irreversible effects, 551 on transglutaminases, 553 High-pressure inactivation of endogenous fish muscle proteases, 553 High-pressure inactivation of endogenous proteases, 564 Index High-pressure setting of surimi pastes, 553 High quality feed, 232 High-pressure CO2, 290 Himono, 154 Hirudin, 534, 655 Histamine, 498, 632 Histidine decarboxylase, 498 Homeotherms, 161 Homeoviscous adaptation, 558 Honey and inhibition of enzymatic browning, 304 12-HPETE and 15-HPETE, 323 Hydrolases, 193, 641 lipolytic enzymes, 495 proteolytic enzymes, 495 Hydrolysis of lipids, 452 Hydrolytic enzymes, source of, 619 Hydroperoxide lyase (HOL), 370–372, 376, 394, 395 Hydroperoxides, 368 and conjugated dienes, 114 formation by enzymatic and nonenzymatic pathways, 365 5-Hydroperoxyeicostetraenoic acid (5-HPETE), 318, 328 5-Hydroxyeicostetraenoic acid (5-HETE), 318, 328 Hydroxamate, 148 3-Hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, β-Hydroxyacyl-CoA-dehydrogenase (HADH), quality of fresh fish, 337 12-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid, 370 (S)-Hydroperoxy-fatty acid, 394 Hypertriglyceridemia, 126 Hypoxanthine, 3, 4, 17, 453, 632 Hypoxia, 18 Ice crystal formation, 46 Immune mechanisms, 254 Immune parameters, 252 Immunity and disease resistance, 252 IMP dephosphorylation, 338 Inactivation by milder heat, 192 Index Inhibition: by aw, 287 by dehydration, 287 by end products, 287 Inhibition, by substrate, 287 Inhibitors, 290, Inorganic halides, as inhibitors of PPO, 304 Inosine, 48, 453, 632 Inosine accumulatiors, Inosine hydrolase, 3, Inosine monophosphate (IMP), 17, 452 Inosine phosphorylase , 3, Inosine-5’-monophosphate (5’-IMP), 588 Inositol phosphate, 109 Insulin, 140, 243–246 anabolic hormone, 243 levels of, 243 Interesterifications, 579 Interfacial activation, 91, 124, 137 Intramyofibrils, 421 Iodine (in brown and red seaweeds), 386, 397, 400 Iodoformlike off flavors, 367 β-Ionone, 400–404 Isoenzymes, 572 Isoforms, 103, 273, 342 from heart muscle, 342 Isoosmotic salinity, 19 Isopeptide bonds, 155, 156, 434 Isozymes (isoenzymes), 153, 257, 274, 286, 323 Itasuki, 573 K-value, 14, 58, 453 K+-EDTA-ATPase, 75 α-Keto acids, dehydrogenation of, 26 Kamaboko, 156, 573, 574, 589 Kelplike odor, 401 Killer enzymes (a.k.a anti-enzyme enzymes), 305–306 Kinase-activating factor (KAF), 412 K-index, 40, 57–59 Kininogens, 414, 542 673 Kojic acid: and melanosis, 300 antibacterial and antifungal properties, 300 Krill products, nutritional value, 506 Krill proteinases, thermal inactivation of, 515 Laccase, 276 α-Lactalbumin, 158, 159 Lactate, 453 Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), 6, 7, 9, 13, 15, 19, 341, 342, 344, 460, 558, 560 bisubstrate enzyme, 341 reduction of pyruvate to lactate, 342 Lactic acid, 420 freshness of fish, 342 measurement of enzyme activity, 342 β-Lactoglobulin, 159, 434 Laminarin, 521, 522 Laminarinase, 521 Leucotrienes (LT), 328, 371 Leupeptin, 415, 416, 534 Light chains of myosin, 78 Limited proteolysis, 414, 415, 536 α-Linoleic acid, 578 Linoleic acids, 372, 395, 399 Lipase: gastric, 130 preduodenal, 130 Lipases, 91, 92, 121, 141, 495, 520, 521, 579 amino acid composition, 138 chemical inhibitors of, 496 and interesterification reactions, 579 modification of marine oils, 580 Lipid autoxidation, 369, 378 Lipid autoxidation products and fish aroma profiles, 369 Lipid hydroperoxides (ROOH), 113 Lipid oxidation, 111, 141, 365, 368, 458, 459, 495 Lipid peroxidation 459 Lipids, postmortem oxidation, 57 674 Lipoamide reductase, activity of, 345 Lipogenesis, 15, 24 Lipogenic enzymes, 14, 15, 18, 21 Lipolysis, 131 Lipolytic enzymes, 91 Lipolytic reaction, 121 Lipopolysaccharides, 460 Lipoproteins, 125, 324–325 high-density (HDL), 125, 325 low-density (LDL), 125, 325, 328 very-low-density (VLDL), 125, 324 Lipoxygenase (LOX), 141, 317, 319–322, 365, 366, 370, 376, 394, 405, 458, 492 12–HPETE generation, 329 14–HPDHE generation, 329 activation (Ca2+, ATP, ionophore), 328 antherogenic oxidation causing pathogenesis, 328 desirable flavor, 331 conformational specificity of, 372 defense mechanisms, 328 and destruction of essential fatty acids, 494 and destruction of vitamins and proteins, 494 and development of off flavors and odors, 494 and eicosanoid biosynthesis, 318 flavor formation, 329 and flavor generation, 318, 373 inhibitors, 494 isozymes, 371–372, 376 LDL oxidation, 328 mode of action, 372 oxidative fishy odor, 329, positional specificity of, 372 properties, 325 role in defense against pathogens, 328, seafood flavor from PUFA, 329 self-inactivation (suicidal effects), 330 stability by protector compounds, 377 Index [Lipoxygenase] stabilization, 325 substrate specificity of, 372 undesirable flavor, 329, 331 Lipoxygenase-derived volatiles, 368 Lipoxygenases: application in foods, 377 common substrates of, 372 Liquemen, 586 Liver peroxidase , Long-chain aldehyde-forming enzyme (LAFE), 391–393, 396, 397, 405 Long-chain aldehydes, mechanism of formation in seaweeds, 394 Long-term feed deprivation, 26 Low fatty aldehydes in seaweeds, 394 Low quality feed, 232 Low-temperature setting and transglutaminase, 425, 426 LOX and lipid peroxidation, 373 Lyases, 498 Lysine linkage ε-(γ-glutamyl), 147 Lysinoalanine, 622 Lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), 102 Lysophospholipase, 102, 127 Lysosomal cathepsins, 412 Lysosomal enzymes, 5, 344, 411, 412, 424 activities, 344 Lysosomal proteinases, 422–424, 429 Lysosomes, 412 Lysozyme, 160, 598, 629 α2-Macroglobulin, 157, 497, 532, 534, 539 Macropain (MCP), 422, 423 Maillard reaction, 366, 369 Malate dehydrogenase, 6, 12, 15, 16, 19, 22 effect of frozen storage, 344 Malic enzyme, 22, 23, 24, 26 Malonaldehyde, Maltase, 24 Index Maltol, 299 Marine oils and coronary heart diseases, 577 Matjes (cured herring), 203, 582, 584, 641 Measurement of fish freshness, 59 Measurement of nucleotide catabolites, 59 Meat tenderization, 418, 421 Meat tenderness, 420, 421, 424 Melanin, formation from tyrosine, 275, 460 Melanosis (in crustacean species), 271–273, 277, 288, 492, 493 Melanosis scale, 273, 288 Melanosis, control by chemicals, 493 Meromyosin, 154, 426 Metalloprote(i)nases, 193, 195, 456, 543, 630 Metalloproteinase, inhibition, 195 Metalloproteins, 299, 519 Metaphosphate, 299 Methionyllysine, 161 2-Methyl-3-furanthiol and canned tuna aroma, 369 2-Methylisoborneol, 367 Mg2+-ATPase, 72, 73, 78, 82, 339–40 Mg-ATPase, 506 Mg-ATPase, activation by UV irradiation, 435 Microbial enzymes, 536 Microbial transglutaminase (microbial TGase or M-TGase), 418, 434, 576 Microsomal NADH peroxidase, 458 Mitochondrial enzymes, 344 Modori (gel softening), 419, 426, 433 Modori, 155 Modori-inducing proteinases (MIP), 419 Mollusks, Molting, 280, 460 Monodansyl cadaverine, 148, 157 Monophenol oxidase, 273–274 Monosodium glutamate, 510, 588 Multicatalytic enzymes, 621 675 Multicatalytic proteinases, 423, 424 Muscle, 4, 37, 69, 169 cardiac, 415 contraction, 38, 69, 72, 75, 420 regulation, 78 conversion into meat, 419 dark, 12, 140, 169, 176 enzyme activities, 19 glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, glycogen, 26 growth, 249 light, 169 lipid, 20 M-4-lactate dehydrogenase, 16 metabolism, 140 proteases (proteinases), 421, 423, 646, 647 protein catabolism, 21 red, 16, 140, 452 regulatory light chain, 78 skeletal, 16, 70, 125, 249, 342, 415, 422 smooth, 80 striated, 74, 80 tenderization: mechanism, 421 postmortem, 416 tissues, 1, 19 metabolic capacity, transglutaminases, 20 white, 16, 140, 176, 235, 237, 244–255, 413, 452 Muscle-buffering capacity, 252 Myocommata, 455, 456 Myofibril ATPase, 16, 80, 339 Myofibrillar Ca-ATPase, High-pressure inactivation of, 556 Myofibrillar protein degradation, 537 Myofibrillar proteins, 69, 111, 341, 413, 416, 419, 421–423, 425, 426, 430, 431, 510, 518, 574 Myofibrils, 411, 412 EDTA-ATPase activities, 339 Myokinase, 49 Myosin (charged), 420 676 Myosin, 48, 69, 70, 71, 76, 154, 155, 158, 159, 160, 420, 424–428, 508, 513, 574 of cold adapted species, 556 degradation 515 denaturation, 81 gelation properties, 426 gels, strength and elasticity of, 425 heavy chain, 413 proteolysis, 426 resynthesis, 420 stability, 82, 83 Myosin ATPase, 69, 70, 74, 75, 80, 338, 420 skeletal muscle, 73 Myosin B, ATP-sensitivities of, 339 Myosystem, 69 NADP-isocitrate dehydrogenase, 22, 23, 27 NADP-malate dehydrogenase, 15 Na-K-ATPase, 20 Natural protease inhibitors, 516 Nebulin, 412, 413, 423 Neomycin, 109 Neurofilament proteins, 412 Neutral proteinase, 428 Ngapi, 590 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, 453 Nitrogenous compounds from catabolic changes, 452 (EZ)-2,6-Nonadienal, oxidation by LOX in fresh fish, 369, 374 Non-protein nitrogenous compounds, 455, 510 Nucleoside hydrolase, 51 Nucleoside phosphorylase (NP), 51, 54, 59 5’ Nucleotidase, 5, 8, 17, 50, 59 Nucleotide breakdown, 14, 40, 39, 42, 43, 44, 452, 453 Nucleotide-degradation, sexual maturation, 44 Nucleotides and carbohydrates and loss of seafood freshness, 452 Index Nuoc-nam, 590 Nutritional status, 20 Octopine, 455 Odors, rancid, 112 Off flavor in raw milk, 627 Off flavors, 110, 141, 597 Off odors, 390 Off-flavor compounds (geosmin and 2methylisoborneol), 367 Oleic acid, 391, 399 Ontogenic, 25, 102, 141 Opine dehydrogenases, 455 Ornithine decarboxilase, Oryzacystatin, 538, 542 Osmoregulation, 19, 171, 184 Ovalbumin, 160 Ovoinhibitor, 534 Ovomacroglobulin, 534 Ovomucoid, 534 Oxidation of esterified linoleic acids, 324 α-Oxidation of fatty acids, 392 β-Oxidation of fatty acids, 15 Oxidative rancidity, 296, 555, 556 in fish, 370 Oxidized flavors, in raw milk, 598 Oxyanion hole, 122 Oxygenase, 149 Oxylipins (bioactive), 394, 395 Pancreatic zymogens: chymotrypsinogen, 215 procarboxypeptidase, 215 proelastase, 215 Pancreatitis, 126 Papain, 205, 413, 414 and fish protein concentrate (FPC), 496 Paramyosin, 508 Partial freezing, 43 Penetration site, 92 Pepsin, 17, 20, 194, 195, 196, 197, 201, 216, 249, 277, 556, 622, 646 and fish protein concentrate (FPC), 496 Index Pepsinlike enzymes, 195 Pepsinogen, 646 Pepsins: cold rennetting milk, 204 molecular weights, 196 pH optima, 196, 197 temperature coefficient (Q10), 204 temperature range, 196 Pepstatin, 196, 512, 514, 534, 543 Peptidases, 193, 216, 531 Peptidoglutaminase, 159 Perimysium, 456 Peroxidase activity, 11, 25 Peroxidase of fish blood, 458 Peroxidation: enzymatic and nonenzymatic, 113 of lipids, 452 Peroxide value, 459 pH and enzyme stability, 491 Phaffia rhodozyma, 603 1, 10-Phenanthroline, 195 Phenol oxidase, hydroxylation and oxidation by, 276 Phenolase, Phenolic antioxidant, 298 Phosphadidylinosotol (PI), 99 Phosphatase, 7, 10, 11 Phosphatidic acid, 99 Phosphatidylcholine, 100, 457 Phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), 99, 457 Phosphatidylinositol, 100, 415 Phosphatidylserine (PS), 99 Phosphofructosekinase, 6, 13, 22 Phosphofructokinase from hepatopancreas, 20 6-Phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, 9, 15, 22, 23, 26, Phospholipase A, 5, 8, 91–95, 102, 103, 124, 324, 459 Phospholipase A2 isoforms, 103 Phospholipase A, bovine recombinant enzyme, 95 Phospholipase C, 99 Phospholipase, characteristics, 100 677 Phospholipases, 495, 521 Phospholipid peroxidation, 324 Phospholipids, 91, 100, 102, 103, 125, 416, 457, 458, 459, 520, 577 acylhydrolases, 91 phosphodiesterases, 91 Phosphorylase b kinase, 412 Phospholipase, 325 Phylogeny, 121 Phytocystatin, 542 Piperidine, 368 Plaice, Planktonivorous, 133 Plasteins, plastein reaction, 205, 536, 588 Plasticizing agent, 38 Poikilotherms, 107, 572 catalytic efficiency, 139 cold adapted, 139 Polyenoic fatty acids, 457, 523 Polymerization of proteins, 434 Polyphenol oxidases (PPO), 3, 273–277, 459, 460, 492 Polyphenol oxidase: and host defense, 281 and immunity (disease resistance), 278 inactivation of, 284 properties, characteristics, 284–285 and wound healing, 277 Polyphosphates, 299, 428, 430, 431 Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), 317, 323, 367–370, 372, 394, 521, 577, 578 Porcine pepsin, 20 Positional specificity, 322 Postmortem muscle, 4, 37, 39, 45 Postmortem muscle pH, 419, 433 Postmortem muscle tenderization, 416, 419, 423 Postmortem softening, 420–422, 538, 583 Postmortem storage temperatures, 39 PPO, 493 PPO inactivation by CO2, 290 678 Prehydrolysed dietary protein on growth, effect of, 227 Premortem, 40 Prerigor fillets, 338 Prerigor fish, 46, 338 Prerigor muscles, 456 Prerigor phase, 338 Pressure and enzyme hydration, 562 Pressure and pH effects on enzyme activity, 560 Pressure inactivation of enzymes, 289 Pressure-induced inactivation of enzymes, 558–560 Pressure-shift freezing, 562 Primitive fish, sea lamprey, Procarboxypeptidase, activation of, 215 Procolipase, 125 Product inhibition, 287 Proelastase, 215 Proelastase, activation of, 215 Proenzyme activation, 531 Proenzymes, 94, 415, 460 Prooxidant enzyme, lipoxygenase, 25 Pro-oxidants, 459 Prophenoloxidase from crayfish, amino acid composition, 283 Propolyphenol oxidase, activation of, 278 Propyl gallate, 298 Prostaglandin, biosynthesis, 104 Prostaglandins, 105, 578 Protamine, 126 Protease inhibitors, 531 definition, 532 specific versus nonspecific, 532 Proteases, 121, 522, 531 Proteasomes, 422–424, 531 Protein degradation by proteinases, 507 Protein denaturation, 46, 48, 141 Protein denaturation and aggregation, 510 Protein digestion, 237, 244 Protein efficiency, 228, 229 Protein extractability, 508 Protein inhibitors, 422, 539 Index Protein kinase C, 99, 108, 140, 412 Protein repression, 27 Protein resynthesis, 536 Protein synthesis: capacity for, 244, 245, 254 precursors for, 243, Proteinase (protease) inhibitors, 413, 431 Proteinase, calcium-activated, 412 Proteinases, 3, 7,121, 191, 411, 421, 426, 433, 511, 512, 515, 630 acid and alkaline, 515 sources, 191 use, 191 Protein-glutamine γ-glutamyltransferase, 147 Protein-induced softening, mechanism, 432 Proteolysis, 421–423, 426, 431, 433, 456, 509, 76 of myosin, 426 and postmortem tenderization, 421 in seafood, control of, 531 Protransglutaminase, 417 PUFA, 104,131, 133, 321–322, 329 and fish oils, 578 seafood flavor, 329 PUFA n-3, 130 Putrescine, 148, 152 PV, 344 Pyrophosphate, 157, 299 Pyrrolidine, 368 Pyruvate carboxylase, 21, 26 Pyruvate kinase, 6, 7, 19, 22, 556 Quercetin, 494 Rancid fish, 365 Rancid odors, 370 Rancidity, 330 oxidative, 112 rDNA technology , Recognition site, interface, 92 Recombinant chymotrypsin, 206 Reducing agents, 292 Index Resorcinols, 4-hexylresorcinol (4HR)–competitive inhibitors of PPO, 302 Ribulose-bis-phosphate carboxylase, 149 Riddling, 581 Rigor mortis, 37, 40, 41, 46, 418–420, 452, 506, 508 Rigor shortening, 40 Roe, 581 Salting in and salting out ions, 561, 562 Sarcolemma, 421 Sarcoplasm, 411 Sarcoplasmic proteins, 411, 518 Sarcoplasmic recticulum, 420 Sclerotization, 273, 277, 279, 280, 460 Scombroid poisoning, 498 Seafood flavors, 589 Seafood freshness, 451 Seafood quality deterioration, 451 Seaweed enzymes, 385 Seaweed flavor, 320, 385 Seaweed flavor biogenesis, 386 Seaweeds, edible, 385 Self-inhibiting (suicidal) enzymes (LOX) in fish, 377 Sericin, 493 Serine (proteases) proteinases, 96, 122, 130, 193, 194, 197, 215, 255, 261 Serine esterase, 135 Serine proteases, phylogenetic tree, 256 Serine proteinase inhibitors, 539, 542 Serine proteinases, 197, 422, 511, 534, 539, 540, 543, 646 properties, sources and distribution, 215 Serpins, 535, 542 Skeletal muscle: integrity, 25 LDH specific activity, 342, 422 Slow-switch, 69 Smooth muscle, 70 Sodium erythorbate, 296 Soft or mushy texture, 426 Softening of surimi-based products, 426 679 Sorbitol, 341,428, 430, 431 Soy protein concentrate (SPC), 25 Soybean globulin, 434 Soybean proteins, 434 Soybean trypsin inhibitor , 242 Spawning migration, 427 Specific growth rate (SGR), 231 Sphingomyelinase (Smase), 99 Spoilage, 48, 54, 168 in chilled fish, 56 Stability, 167 Stale and rancid notes of frozen stored fish, 365 Starvation in fish, 26, 27, 237 Stearic acid, 391, 399 Stefins, 414, 542 Stereospecificity, 126, 158, 322 of lipoxygenase, 373 Steroid hormone-binding proteins, 412 Strecker degradation products, 369 Stress, 45 from contaminants, 11 Stroma protein, 70 Strombine, 455 Substrate inhibition, 287 Substrate specificity, 108, 137, 152, 323 Succinate dehydrogenase, Sucrose, 341, 428, 430, 431 Sugars and sugar phosphates in muscle, 454 Suicidal (self-inhibiting) enzymes (LOX) in fish, 377 Sulfate-adenyltransferase, 404 Sulfhydryl, 249 Sulfhydryl enzyme, 152 Sulfhydryl reagents: N-ethylmaleimide, 152 p-chloromercuribenzoate, 152 Sulfites and blackspot (melanosis), 293 Sulfiting agents, 292 Sulfurylase, 404 Supercritical fluid (SCF) extraction, 289 Superoxide dismutase, 4, 11, 18, 19, 25, 459 Supersubstrate-water, 99 680 Surimi, 147, 153, 157, 341, 412, 425–427, 430, 431, 433, 498, 536, 538, 573, 644, 647 Surimi gel strength, 433 Surimi softening (modori), 426, 430, 433, 434 Surimi texture, 411 Surimi, gelation of (suwari), 425 Suwari, 153, 425, 426, 538 Taste-active compounds, 366 Taste-active nucleotide degradation products, 368 Taurocholic acid (TchA), 110, 127 Tauropine, 455 TBA compounds, 112 TBARS, 114 Teleosts , Temperature coefficient (Q10), 287 Temperature, gel setting, 155 Tertiarybutylhydroxyquinone (TBHQ), 298 Tetradecatrien-2-one, key note compound of seafood flavor, 330 Tetrasomic inheritance, 219 Texture: fish muscle, 411 properties of fish, 141 surimi, 411 TGase, 148, 149–161 cloning, 151 cold restructuring of foods, 160 high-pressure effects, 160 Thaw rigor, 46 Thermal degradation, 431 Thermal denaturation, 426 Thermal stable proteinases, 426 Thermoirreversible gels, 574 Thermolysin, 543 Thiaminase, 3, 5, 457 Thiol prote(in)ases, 621 Thiol proteinases, 193 Thromboxanes, 578 Time-temperature integrators, 631 Tissue antioxidants, 25 Index Titin, 421, 423 TMA, 344 TMAO: biochemical functions of, 169 synthesis, 168 TMAOase, 168, 177–180, 182, 183 TMAO demethylase, 3, 498 biochemical nature, 176 solubilization, 178 TMAO demethylation, 180 Tocopherols, 25, 113, 114, 304 Total volatile bases, 509 Transacylase, 108 Transacylation, 93, 102 Transduction, signal, 99 Transesterification, 121 Transferase, 147 Transglutaminase (TGase), 147, 411, 412, 417, 425, 426, 431, 434, 497, 498, 574–577 Transglutaminase and low temperature gelation, 553 Transglutaminase and low-temperature setting, 425, 426 Transpeptidation, 588 Triacylglycerides, 121, 122, 125, 140, 141, 577, 578 Triacylglycerols, 106, 127, 520 Trilaurin, 123 Trimethylamine, 19, 367–368, 509 Trimethylamine dehydrogenase, 173 Trimethylamine monooxygenase, 173 Trimethylamine oxide (TMAO), 167–184, 367–368, 457, 497 Trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) demethylase, 5, 174, 497 Trimethylamine oxide reductase, 174 Triosephosphate isomerase, 18 Tropomyosin, 70, 71, 158 Troponin, 70, 71, 158, 420, 423 Trypsin, 2, 16, 17, 22, 122, 194, 203, 204, 205, 206, 215,216,219, 237–261, 414, 417, 511, 539, 556 amino acid composition, 198 anionic and cationic forms, 16 Index [Trypsin] inactivation of PME and PPO, 204 isolation, 198 molecular size, 198 molecular weight, 215 peptide chain, 215 pH range, 198 purification, 198 Trypsin genes, expression of, 219, 226, 227, 255 Trypsin inhibitor: in food plants, 243 from ascaris, 540 from bovine pancreas, 541 from soybean, 541 Trypsin isoforms , 2, 206, 216 Trypsin isozymes, 215, 216, 218, 219, 226, 237, 248, 255 expression of, 222 genetic variation, 237 variants, 218, 220, 221, 230, 243 Trypsin phenotype, 224–227, 240, 243 Trypsin phenotype, key factor of protein digestibility, 240 Trypsin variant TRP-2, 92, 222, 232 Trypsinlike enzymes, 511 Trypsinogen, 10, 12, 215, 261 Trypsinogen genes, 255, 257 Trypsinolysis, 94 Tunaxanthin, 458 Typsin-type enzymes, 583 Tyrosinase, 273, 519 Ultimate pH, 455 681 Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation and activation of Mg-ATPase, 435 Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation and polymerization of proteins, 434 Unsaturated fatty aldehydes and seaweed flavor, 390, 391, 404 Urea, and osmotic regulation, 19, 50 Urease, Uric acid, 38, 59 Uwo-shoyu, 590 Vertebrate muscle, 416 Very-low density lipoprotein (VLDL), 324 Vinculin, 421 Viscosity, 148 Vitamin A, 25 Vitamin C, 2, 3, 206 Vitamin E, 25 Vitamin K, 25 Volatile compounds: in oxidized fishy odors, 369 in seaweeds, 385 Water activity (aw), 287 White muscles, 455 Xanthine dehydrogenase (XD), 56 Xanthine oxidase (XO), 56, 59, 598 Xanthine oxidase biosensor, 632 Z,E-enal isomerase, 370 Zn-superoxide dismutase, 11 Zooplankton, 25 Zymogen, 94, 102, 149, 151, 152, 533, 597, 646 ... of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Seafood enzymes : utilization and influence on postharvest seafood quality / edited by Norman F Haard and Benjamin K Simpson p cm — (Food science and. .. environmental conditions In 1961, when the International Commission on Enzymes of the International Union of Biochemistry established a system to classify enzymes, the committee listed only 712 enzymes. .. Torrissen and Rune Male 215 10 Polyphenoloxidase Jeongmok Kim, M R Marshall, and Cheng-i Wei 271 11 Lipoxygenases Bonnie Sun Pan and Jen-Min Kuo 317 Part III Enzymes and Seafood Quality 12 Enzymes and