The making of a nation

THE MAKING OF A NATION Source: VOA eBook created (10/01/‘16): QuocSan CONTENTS: 001 History Repeats Itself: A Fresh Start to ‘The Making of a Nation’ 1400s–1500s 002 Columbus Sails, Others Follow, and Spain Is on Top of the World 003 A Difficult Life for English Settlers 004 Buffalo, ‘Mystery Dogs’ (Horses) and the Lives of the Plains Indians 005 A Clash of Cultures in the New World 006 How a Desire for Religious Freedom or Land, or Both, Led to Colonies 1600s–1776 007 Slavery Arrives as Colonial Expansion Heads South 008 By 1750, Almost One in Four People in the Colonies Were Slaves 009 British Defeat the French in a Struggle for North America 010 Britain Says No to ‘No Taxation Without Representation’ 011 A Tea Party at Night, on the Road to Revolution 012 A Declaration for Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness 1776–1800 013 How the Revolution Against Britain Divided Families and Friends 014 How Britain’s Defeat at Saratoga Marked a Turning Point 015 How the Constitution Came to Life 016 After the Revolution, the Nation Faces a Weak Political System 017 The Founding Fathers Meet in Philadelphia to Write a Constitution 018 Finding the Right Plan for a New Government 019 Early Leaders Debate Presidential Powers 020 In 1787, Debating the Need for Federal Courts 021 Struggle to Balance Power Between Big States and Small States 022 A ‘Great Compromise’ on State Representation 023 Debating Slaves’ Part in Representation of States 024 The Signing of the Constitution in Philadelphia 025 The Constitution Goes to the States for Approval 026 The Heart and Spirit of the Constitution 027 From Revolutionary War Hero to President 028 The Imagination of Alexander Hamilton 029 For a New Nation, Hamilton Seeks a Bank 030 Two-Party Political System Takes Hold in US 031 How a Dispute Helped Lead to Party System 032 John Adams Is Elected Nation’s Second President 033 Adams Avoids War With France, Signs Alien and Sedition Acts 1800–1825 034 Jefferson Is Elected President in 1800, But Only on the 36th Vote 035 Jefferson, at Inaugural, Urges Unity of Hearts and Minds 036 Jefferson Begins Presidency With a Loyal Cabinet 037 Jefferson Moves to Cut Debt, Spending 038 Jefferson Gets Louisiana Territory From France 039 A Supreme Court Justice Is Put on Trial in 1805 040 The Treason Trial of Aaron Burr, Former VP 041 Jefferson Suspends Trade with Europe in 1807 042 Jefferson Tries to Keep Trade Ban on Europe 043 The Last Days, and Lasting Influence, of Thomas Jefferson 044 Relations With Britain Hit a Low Point in 1811 045 Madison Declares War on Britain in 1812 046 British Set Fire to City of Washington in 1814 047 A National Anthem Is Born From the War of 1812 048 War of 1812 Ends, but Fighting Continues 049 War of 1812 Ends With Treaty of Ghent 050 James Monroe Easily Wins Election in 1816 051 Monroe Doctrine Warns Europe Not to Interfere in the Americas 052 Monroe Dislikes but Signs Missouri Compromise 053 In Election of 1824, a Clash of Personalities 054 John Quincy Adams, a Man Raised to Serve 1825–1850 055 In Election of 1828, a Bitter Campaign 056 Tragedy Hits as Jackson Prepares for Presidency 057 Split Divides Jackson, Vice President Calhoun 058 For President Jackson, a Question of States’ Rights 059 Bank of the United States Worries Jackson 060 Debating the Powerful Bank of the US 061 As Jackson Aims to Shut Bank, an Economic Crisis Results 062 Jackson’s Victory Over the Bank of the US 063 Trouble Grows Deep in the Heart of Texas 064 Jackson, ‘the People’s Friend,’ Leaves Office 065 New President Deals with Old Problems 066 US Gets a New President in 1837, and a Depression 067 The Rise of the Movement Against Slavery 068 Whigs See a Chance to Defeat Van Buren in 1840 069 The Brief Presidency of William Henry Harrison 070 President John Tyler Shows His Independence 071 Texas Statehood Is Chief Issue in 1844 Campaign 072 In 1845, Republic of Texas Faces a Choice 073 Polk Sends Troops to Border With Mexico 074 Polk Decides Not to Seek Second Term in 1848 075 Zachary Taylor Is Elected President in 1848 1850–1861 076 Plan in 1850 on Slavery Aims to Save Union 077 ‘The South Asks for Justice, Simple Justice’ 078 ‘The Fresh Air of Liberty and Union’ 079 Millard Fillmore Signs Compromise of 1850 080 Pierce, New President, Is Friendly but Weak 081 The Kansas-Nebraska Bill Divides the Country 082 Kansas Takes Steps Towards Statehood 083 The Struggle Over Slavery in the Kansas Territory 084 Slavery Debate Intensifies With Dred Scott Ruling 085 The Effort to Make Kansas a Slave State 086 Search for Gold Drives Settlers to the West 087 Brigham Young Leads His Mormons to a New Home 088 The Story of the Lincoln-Douglas Debates of 1858 089 Slavery Crisis Eases, but Not for Very Long 090 Story of John Brown’s Raid on Harpers Ferry 091 A Failed Attempt to Raise a Rebel Army of Slaves 092 Hopes, Fears and the Election of 1860 093 Lincoln Takes Presidency of a Nation in Crisis 094 South Carolina Leaves Union, Tensions Increase 095 Lincoln Names a Cabinet 096 Lincoln’s Policy on South Is Soon Tested 1861–1865 – The Civil War 097 The Civil War Begins 098 The Civil War’s First Days 099 The North Loses the First Major Battle of the War 100 Lincoln Names a General to Defend Washington 101 The Civil War at Sea 102 South Defends Its Capital 103 At Bull Run, a Terrible Defeat for the North 104 Lincoln Needs a Victory 105 Lincoln Declares Slaves Free in Rebel States 106 The South Wins a Victory, but at a Great Cost 107 Lee and His Army Cross Into the North 108 As the Civil War Grows, So Does Opposition 109 The American Civil War: Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address 110 The American Civil War: Battle of Vicksburg Splits the Southern Confederacy 111 The American Civil War: Closing in on Richmond, the Confederate Capital 112 The American Civil War: Sherman’s March to the Sea 113 The American Civil War: Election of 1864 114 The American Civil War: Victory Is Close for the Union 115 The American Civil War: Surrender at Appomattox 1865–1880 116 After the Civil War: Death of Lincoln Helps Unite a Divided Nation 117 After the Civil War: Searching for the Man Who Shot Lincoln 118 The American Civil War: Final Surrender of the Confederate Army 119 Andrew Johnson: The Story of America’s Seventeenth President 120 The Great Impeachment Trial of Andrew Johnson 121 Reconstruction: After the Civil War, the American South Rebuilds 122 Election of 1868: Famous War Hero Becomes President 123 President Grant: Civil War Hero Faces Battles of Politics 124 Questions of Wrongdoing Trouble President Grant’s Second Term 125 Election of 1876: One of the Closest in American History 126 Rutherford Hayes Wins Disputed 1876 Presidential Election 127 Gold! How the Search for Riches Drove Development After the U S Civil War 128 Early Country Music: Cowboys Told About Their Lives in Song 129 Native Americans Went to War to Protect Their Lands 130 Native Americans Fight Two Wars Over Land Rights 131 How the Western United States Was Settled 1880–1900 132 James Garfield: Gunfire Ends a Presidency After Only Six Months 133 1881: Vice President Chester Arthur Replaces Murdered Leader 134 Grover Cleveland: A Democrat Wins the White House in 1884 135 Immigrants: America’s Industrial Growth Depended on Them 136 American Lawmakers React to Flood of Immigrants in Late 1800s 137 Election of 1888: Voters Cared Most About Import Taxes 138 Competition Drives Industrial Growth in the Late 1800s 139 Grover Cleveland Returns to the White House in 1892 140 Nation Is in Economic Trouble as President Cleveland Takes Office 141 President Cleveland Uses Federal Troops to Stop Railroad Strike 142 Election of 1896: It Came Down to a Question of Money 143 Trade Drives America’s Foreign Policy in the Late 1800’s 144 United States Declares War on Spain in 1898 145 William McKinley: The Twenty-Fifth President of the United States 146 Theodore Roosevelt Becomes America’s Youngest Leader 1900–1916 147 Theodore Roosevelt Leads America Into the 20th Century 148 Theodore Roosevelt Answers Public Demand for Reforms 149 President Roosevelt Decides to Build the Panama Canal 150 Teddy Roosevelt’s Policies Lead to Social Reform in America 151 William Howard Taft Replaces Teddy Roosevelt as President 152 President Taft Breaks From Teddy Roosevelt – His Closest Friend 153 Woodrow Wilson Wins 1912 Presidential Election 154 America’s Economic Life Changes Under President Woodrow Wilson 155 Wilson Presidency Remembered Best for Its Foreign Policy 1916–1919 – World War I 156 Wilson Is Re-elected in 1916 on a Promise: ‘He Kept Us Out of War!’ 157 ‘Right Is More Precious Than Peace’: U S Enters World War One 158 1918: American and German Forces Meet on a Battlefield Near Paris 159 Technology Helps the Allied Forces Win World War One 160 President Wilson Begins Negotiations for a World War One Peace Treaty 161 World War One Ends, but Wilson Knows His Battle Is Only Half Over 1919–1929 162 Wilson Builds Public Support for the League of Nations 163 America Turns Inward After World War One 164 Lost in the Stars: Movies Become Big Business in 1920s America 165 America’s Fear of Communism in 1920 Becomes a Threat to Rights 166 Americans Vote for Change in 1920 as Harding Promises ‘Normalcy’ 167 After Harding Dies, Coolidge Aims to Rebuild Trust in the Government 168 ‘Roaring Twenties’ a Time of Economic and Social Change 169 In the 1920s, a Burst of American Art and Expression Takes Form 170 A Turn to the Right: Conservatism Grows in America in the 1920s 171 Blacks Set Out in Search of a Better Life in 1920s American Society 172 Coolidge Easily Wins Election of 1924 173 By 1920, America Had Become World’s Top Economic Power 174 Election of 1928: Americans Are Presented With a Clear Choice 175 Hoover’s High Hopes for American Economy Come Crashing Down 1929–mid-1930s – The Great Depression 176 The Great Depression: Fear Took Hold as an Economy Came Apart 177 The Great Depression: How It Affected U S Foreign Relations 178 Election of 1932: A Long Conservative Period in U S Politics Ends 179 1933: An Angry Nation Puts Its Hopes in President Roosevelt 180 1933: President Roosevelt’s First 100 Days Give People Hope 181 ‘We Have Only Just Begun to Fight’: Roosevelt’s Campaign of 1936 182 Roosevelt Aims for Economic Security With ‘Second New Deal’ 183 From Great Depression’s Depths, Creativity Reached New Heights 184 1930s: ‘New Deal’ Starts to Fail, Just as Threats Grow Overseas mid-1930s–1945 – World War II 185 Road to World War Two: 1930s See Major Changes in Europe, Asia 186 1930s: Britain Calls for ‘Peace in Our Time’ 187 1940: Roosevelt Continues Policy of Neutrality After His Re-election 188 1941: Attack on Pearl Harbor Ends American Effort to Avoid War 189 Path to World War Two: Japan Widens Its Influence in Asia 190 US Goes to War After Pearl Harbor, but Japan Is Not the First Target 191 Fighting World War Two: Powerful Germany Begins to Face Defeats 192 D-Day, June 6, 1944: The Greatest Military Invasion in History 193 World War Two in the Pacific Comes to a Fiercely Fought Close in 1945 194 On the Home Front During World War Two 195 Fighting World War Two Through Diplomacy 196 Story of World War Two: Developing the First Atomic Bombs 1945–1950 197 Life in the US After World War Two 198 Nation Still at War, Truman Is Suddenly President 199 After World War Two, US Reacts to ‘Iron Curtain’ Across Europe 200 For Truman, One Problem After Another in His First Months in Office 201 Dewey Defeats Truman in 1948 Oops, Make It Truman Defeats Dewey 1950s – Korean War 202 Truman Faced Communist Fears, Real or Imagined 203 War Hero Is Elected President in 1952 204 Conflict in Korea Spills Over Into Eisenhower’s Presidency 205 1950s Popular Culture Helped Take Minds Off Nuclear Fears 206 A Freeze Hits US-Soviet Relations After World War Two 207 The Space Race Heightens Cold War Tensions 1960s – Kennedy Becomes President 208 Election of 1960 Brings Close Race Between Kennedy, Nixon 209 Kennedy Begins His Presidency With Strong Public Support 210 The Presidency of John Kennedy Begins With Great Energy, but Ends in Tragedy 211 Johnson Takes Over Presidency After Kennedy’s Murder 1964 – Vietnam War 212 Johnson Wins a Full Term in 1964, Defends Vietnam Policies 213 Civil Rights Movement: In the ‘60s, a Struggle for Equality in US 214 The ‘60s Become a Time of Social Revolution and Unrest 1968 – Richard Nixon Becomes President 215 1968 in America: a Year of Social Unrest and a Presidential Election 216 Nixon Promises to ‘Bring the American People Together’ After ‘68 Win 217 Vietnam War: Nixon Tries Secret Talks, but Also Invades Cambodia 218 Watergate: How a Name, and a Failed Break-In, Became a Symbol of Political Corruption 219 Ford Leads Nation Through Difficult Days of Watergate 1976 – Bi-centenial 220 Jimmy Carter Wins the 1976 Presidential Election 221 Fuel Prices, Iran Hostage Crisis Weigh on Carter 222 Election of 1980 Launches the ‘Reagan Revolution’ 223 President Reagan’s Main Goal was to Shrink Government But Budget Deficits Created a Huge National Debt 224 1970s and ‘80s Were a Period of Change in American Society 1988 – George H W Bush Becomes President 225 George Herbert Walker Bush Is Elected President in 1988 226 George H W Bush’s Presidency Saw End of Cold War 1993 – Bill Clinton Becomes President 227 A ‘Man From Hope’ Is Elected to the White House in 1992 228 Bill Clinton Begins His First Term in 1993 229 Bill Clinton Wins Re-election in 1996 230 How Bill Clinton Became the Second President Ever to Be Impeached 231 How Science and Technology Helped Shape ‘90s 2000 – George W Bush Becomes President The hijackers also seized United Airlines Flight Ninety-Three Some passengers found out about the terrorist attacks in New York and Washington through cell phone calls to their families Several passengers and crew members tried to retake control of the plane It crashed near the small town of Shanksville, Pennsylvania Investigators later said the hijackers probably planned to attack the Capitol building or the White House in Washington The terrorist attacks on Nine-Eleven were the most deadly in American history Almost three thousand people died Most of the victims worked in the World Trade Center They included many citizens of other countries The victims also included three hundred forty-three New York City firefighters and twenty-three city police officers They died trying to save others Search and rescue operations began immediately Hundreds of rescue workers recovered people and bodies from the wreckage Aid was organized for victims and their families President Bush stood in the wreckage of the World Trade Center and promised that the attacks would be answered It took workers eight months to complete the cleanup of Ground Zero Every day, thousands of people visited the area to see where the attack took place and to honor those who died there Near Washington, D C , people left flowers and messages near the heavily damaged wall of the Defense Department headquarters One hundred eighty-four military service members and civilians died there New York City changed forever on that day The attack destroyed a major part of the financial center of the city It had a huge economic effect on the United States and world markets The New York Stock Exchange was closed until September seventeenth When it reopened, American stocks lost more than one trillion dollars in value for the week For days after the attacks, most planes stopped flying When normal flights began again, many people were too afraid to travel by air The airline and travel industries suffered Thousands of hotel workers and others lost their jobs Many other businesses suffered as well When people started flying again, they found it much more difficult because of increased security at airports People across America experienced great shock, fear, sadness and loss They could not understand why anyone would attack innocent Americans They also felt a renewed love for their country They put American flags on their houses, cars and businesses President Bush said Osama bin Laden and terrorists linked to his al-Qaida group plotted and carried out the attacks on Nine-Eleven On September twentieth, the president declared a War on Terror The goals were to find and punish Osama bin Laden and to use economic and military actions to prevent the spread of terrorism PRESIDENT BUSH: “Our war on terror begins with al-Qaida, but it does not end there It will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped and defeated ” American officials said the Taleban administration in Afghanistan was sheltering Osama bin Laden They said al-Qaida terrorists operated a training camp in Afghanistan under Taleban protection President Bush demanded that the Taleban close the training camp and surrender Osama bin Laden The Taleban refused American and British airplanes launched attacks against the Taleban in Afghanistan on October seventh The goals were to oust the Taleban, capture Osama bin Laden and destroy al-Qaida The bombers struck in and around the Afghan capital, Kabul Ethnic tribal groups of the Afghan Northern Alliance then led a ground attack By November the Taleban began to collapse in several provinces Taleban forces fled Kabul and the city of Kandahar The military offensive defeated the Taleban and ousted them from power It also captured a number of Taleban fighters and al-Qaida terrorists But the war in Afghanistan was not over And the leader of al-Qaida, Osama bin Laden, had not been captured Some enemy fighters seized in Afghanistan were sent to a United States Navy detention center in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba The United States government did not identify them as prisoners of war Instead, the detainees were called “unlawful enemy combatants ” As such, they lacked some of the rights provided by an international treaty on conditions for war prisoners The United States government also detained hundreds of foreign citizens Most of these people had violated immigration laws No terrorism charges were brought against them Human rights activists and some legal experts protested the treatment of the prisoners The activists said holding people in secret without trial violated the United States Constitution In October, Congress passed the U S A Patriot Act It provided the government with more power to get information about suspected terrorists in this country Critics said the legislation invaded citizens’ rights to privacy Civil liberties groups charged that it gave law enforcement and other agencies too much power After Nine-Eleven, government agencies were criticized for not cooperating to gather intelligence that might have prevented the terrorist attacks In 2002, a new Department of Homeland Security was created to strengthen defenses against terrorism Twenty-two agencies were combined into a new department of about two hundred thousand employees The Department of Homeland Security was one of the major changes brought about by the attacks of Nine Eleven Many Americans believed the attacks had changed their lives, their country, and the world, forever 234 How Bush’s War on Terror Led to Iraq Islamic terrorists of the al-Qaida group attacked the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon near Washington, D C , on September 11, 2001 After the attacks, the Bush administration supported the policy of preventive war to end threats to its national security Many of President Bush’s top advisers had long supported an invasion of Iraq As early as that October, Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld suggested that military action against Iraq was possible Government officials charged that Iraq was linked to terrorist groups like al-Qaida They noted that Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein had used chemical weapons and said he was trying to develop biological and nuclear weapons President Bush gave his yearly State of the Union report to Congress in January 2002 He said some nations support terrorist organizations He said the United States would not wait to be attacked by such groups Instead, it would strike first at the countries that sheltered them The president especially noted three nations as supporters of terror He said North Korea, Iran and Iraq threatened the United States PRESIDENT BUSH: “States like these, and their terrorist allies, constitute an axis of evil, arming to threaten the peace of the world By seeking weapons of mass destruction, these regimes pose a grave and growing danger They could provide these arms to terrorists, giving them the means to match their hatred ” Iraq had been defeated in the Persian Gulf War of 1991 The United Nations ordered Iraq to destroy all development and supply centers for nuclear, biological and chemical weapons The U N had sent teams of weapons inspectors to make sure Iraq was following orders But since 1998, Iraq had refused to permit U N weapons inspection teams into the country President Bush and his administration believed Iraq was making or hiding weapons of mass destruction, known as WMDs He said if the United Nations failed to force Iraq to disarm, the United States might launch a military attack against the country Mr Bush began making his case to the international community for an invasion of Iraq in a speech to the U N Security Council in September, 2002 Then the president asked Congress to pass a resolution giving him power to use military force against Iraq Congress approved the resolution in October In November, Iraq agreed to permit the U N weapons inspectors to return After more investigation, the leader of the inspection team reported to the U N in February, 2003 He said the team had found no evidence of WMDs He also said Iraq was not cooperating with efforts to find out if suspected weapons had been destroyed and if weapons programs had been ended In January, 2003, President Bush used his State of the Union speech to strengthen his case against Iraq He said British intelligence reported that Saddam Hussein had tried to buy uranium from Africa Uranium can be used to make nuclear weapons But several months later, the White House said the intelligence was false The president wanted the U N to approve military force against Iraq Britain and Spain also supported military force They asked the Security Council to pass a resolution approving military action against Iraq But some important members of the 15-member Security Council opposed such action They included Germany, France and Russia They said inspections should be increased They said use of force should be used only as a last choice The United States withdrew the resolution The United States and Britain decided to invade Iraq without U N support Most Americans supported the decision But there was widespread international opposition In February, millions of people around the world took part in anti-war protests in hundreds of cities Some people argued that the United States would be violating international law by invading a nation that was not an immediate threat Mr Bush said the war was being launched to prevent Saddam from supplying weapons of mass destruction to terrorist groups that might attack the United States or other countries He also argued that Saddam was an evil dictator who had ordered the killing of thousands of people and should be removed from power On March seventeenth, Mr Bush told Saddam Hussein and his sons to leave Iraq or face military action Saddam rejected the demand U N inspection teams left Iraq four days before the American-led invasion, even though they had requested more time to complete their job Many international leaders, including U N Secretary-General Kofi Annan, criticized the war They said the weapons inspectors should have been given more time On March twentieth, Iraqi time, air strikes by the United States and Britain began the effort called “Operation Iraqi Freedom ” The United States said the war was meant to disarm Iraq of weapons of mass destruction, end Saddam Hussein’s support for terrorism and free the Iraqi people A number of other countries joined the war effort The coalition quickly defeated the Iraqi military On April ninth, United States forces took control of Baghdad In a dramatic event on that day, Iraqis and American forces destroyed a large statue of Saddam Hussein in the capital The allies controlled all major Iraqi cities Saddam Hussein had disappeared into hiding Another dramatic event took place on May first President Bush landed in a plane onto the deck of the aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln Then he declared victory PRESIDENT BUSH: “Thank you all very much Admiral Kelly, Captain Card, officers and sailors of the USS Abraham Lincoln, my fellow Americans… Major combat operations in Iraq have ended In the battle of Iraq, the United States and our allies have prevailed ” The government in Baghdad had fallen But a deepening conflict in Iraq lay ahead American troops and an American inspection team searched Iraq for WMDs But none were found That led to accusations against President Bush Critics of the war said the United States and Britain provided false evidence about Iraqi weapons programs and links to terrorists They said Mr Bush accepted false or misleading intelligence because he wanted to invade Iraq More severe critics said he knowingly used false intelligence The United States turned its attention to rebuilding Iraq and establishing a new Iraqi government The Coalition Provisional Authority was created as a temporary government in Iraq President Bush replaced a general with State Department official Paul Bremer as head of the Authority The United States remained in control of Iraq until a temporary Iraqi government could be formed But establishing normal life in Iraq proved difficult People rioted and stole things from government buildings, museums, banks and military storage centers In many places there was little or no electric power, running water or waste removal The Coalition Provisional Authority dismissed the Iraqi army and the government Those people now had no jobs The presence of foreigners in their country angered many Iraqis Some denounced what they called the occupation force Militants attacked coalition troops They also attacked Iraqis and international organizations seen as cooperating with American forces In some areas, longtime religious differences between Sunni and Shi’ite Muslims became armed disputes The invasion of Iraq was the most widely and closely reported war in military history At the start of the war, as many as seven hundred reporters and photographers were living and traveling with the troops Also, for the first time in history, troops on the front lines were able to provide direct reporting through Web logs, or blogs, they posted on the Internet In December, 2003, United States forces captured Saddam Hussein hiding on a farm near Tikrit Iraqi officials said he would be tried for crimes against the Iraqi people But the declaration of an end to “major combat operations” and the capture of Saddam did not mean that peace would soon return to Iraq 235 The 43rd President’s First Four Years, Revisited Republican George W Bush defeated his Democratic Party opponent, Al Gore, in the presidential election of 2000 The election results were extremely close Mr Gore disputed them Five suspense-filled weeks passed as several courts considered the voting issues Finally, a decision by the United States Supreme Court effectively settled the election George W Bush was to be president Mr Bush gave his inaugural speech in January 2001 to a politically divided nation He called on Americans to care for and respect others PRESIDENT BUSH: “Today we affirm a new commitment to live out our nation’s promise through civility, courage, compassion and character America, at its best, matches a commitment to principle with a concern for civility A civil society demands from each of us good will and respect, fair dealing and forgiveness ” During his election campaign, Mr Bush had promised he would help social aid organizations linked to religious groups He established the White House Office of Faith-Based and Community Initiatives soon after his inauguration Its goal was to help social agencies fight problems like homelessness and illegal drug use Critics argued that this would violate the separation of church and state required by the United States Constitution But Mr Bush said the agencies would provide shelter and food and not religious holy books President Bush took several actions on the environment during his first term In March 2001, he withdrew the United States from the Kyoto Protocol Many nations had signed the treaty in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan This treaty developed from earlier international efforts to control climate change The Kyoto Protocol restricted the amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases that nations could release into the atmosphere The limitation was placed to reduce global warming, the increase in the average temperature of Earth’s surface More than one hundred nations have approved the treaty But Mr Bush said the agreement was unfair He noted that China and India were not required to limit release of greenhouse gases The president believed the Kyoto Protocol requirements would harm American industry and the economy Critics said Mr Bush’s decision meant more damage to the environment They also said it set a bad example for the world Another environmental issue concerned exploring for oil and gas The president supported a measure for drilling in a protected wildlife area in the state of Alaska He said getting the resources from the state would reduce American dependence on foreign oil Opponents disagreed They said the measure would destroy wildlife in some of America’s most beautiful natural surroundings Congress did not approve the measure One of Mr Bush’s major goals was improving America’s public schools In January 2002, he signed a law called the No Child Left Behind Act PRESIDENT BUSH: “And we owe the children of America a good education And today begins a new era, a new time in public education in our country As of this hour, America’s schools will be on a new path of reform, and a new path of results ” The law increased the role of the federal government in guaranteeing quality public education for all children in the United States It had several goals: To help poor and minority students improve their performance To provide choices for parents with students in low-performing schools And to increase money for schools in low-income areas The law required all students in grades three through eight to be tested every year in reading and mathematics It held schools responsible for the progress of their students Some educators praised No Child Left Behind But many educators criticized the law They said teachers had to spend too much time preparing students for the tests They also said the law permitted students to leave failing schools instead of finding ways to improve those schools Critics also said not enough federal money was provided for the program Another major piece of legislation dealt with health care for senior citizens President Bush wanted to extend Medicare, the nation’s health care plan for people sixty-five and older In 2003 he signed a law to help forty million older Americans buy medicines ordered by their doctors The program was expected to cost four hundred billion dollars It provided billions of dollars to private health insurance companies Supporters of the law said it would lead to better private insurance coverage for senior citizens Opponents said it would help health insurance and drug companies the most and might lead to the end of the Medicare system American law lets presidents decide some issues without Congressional action Mr Bush announced such an executive decision about scientific research He decided to permit federal financing for research that uses existing groups of cells created from human embryos It was the first time federal money would be used for such stem cell research Stem cells can grow into many different kinds of cells For example, they can become cells of the heart, nerves or brain Scientists say such cells might in the future be used to treat diseases like Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s and juvenile diabetes Mr Bush limited use of the cells, however He said taxpayers’ money could finance the research only if the embryos had already been destroyed The president said more than sixty groups of these cells were available for research However, some scientists said these stem cells were in poor condition and could not be used for research One of Mr Bush’s major goals was reducing taxes for Americans In 2001, he signed a bill calling for more than one trillion dollars in tax reductions These cuts were to become effective over time The president said the economy would improve if people had more money to spend Democrats said big reductions would harm the economy instead of helping it In 2003, Congress passed compromise tax measures They called for three hundred fifty billion dollars in tax reductions That was less than half of what the president had proposed Most reductions went to investors in the stock market, individual taxpayers, couples and businesses The rest was to help the states In 2002, President Bush signed a law that increased punishments for dishonesty in business The new law also established an independent group to oversee the accounting industry That is the industry that investigates the financial records of companies The action came after several major businesses failed For example, the Enron Corporation, once the leading American energy company, failed in 2001 It was one of the largest corporate bankruptcy claims in American history Some Enron investors lost all their money in the failure Retired employees lost monthly payments they needed to live on Some top officials in the company had used dishonest accounting methods to hide financial problems from investors A federal grand jury in Houston, Texas, brought charges against former Enron chairman and chief executive officer Kenneth Lay and other officers The collapse of Enron was followed by a series of other corporate failures involving dishonest accounting methods For example, the international communications company WorldCom Incorporated also went bankrupt The government charged several company officials with wrongdoing November 2, 2004 was Election Day The public would vote on whether to support President Bush for another term in office Four years earlier, George W Bush had been elected in one of the closest elections in history Now he would have another chance to test his popularity with the American people 236 How Foreign Policy Shaped the 2004 Presidential Race Every four years, American political parties nominate their candidates for president and vice president In the summer of 2004, Republican Party delegates chose George W Bush and Dick Cheney for a second four years in office During President Bush’s first term, Islamic terrorists attacked the United States Almost three thousand people died in strikes against New York City and Washington, D C , on September eleventh, 2001 President Bush declared a war on terror and led the nation into wars in Afghanistan and Iraq After the terrorist attacks, Mr Bush enjoyed record popularity Public opinion studies showed that almost ninety percent of the American public approved of the way the president was doing his job But this rating decreased over time One public opinion study organization said the president’s average approval rating for 2004 was fifty percent Before a presidential election, candidates compete in state nominating meetings and elections The person winning the most votes in these caucuses and primaries traditionally wins the party’s nomination for president In 2003, ten people were campaigning for the Democratic Party presidential nomination Among the candidates was John Kerry, a senator from Massachusetts Another was Howard Dean, a doctor and former governor of the state of Vermont Another was John Edwards, a lawyer and first-term senator from North Carolina Senator Joseph Lieberman of Connecticut also was running Senator Lieberman had been the vice presidential candidate in the election of 2000 Another senator and a former senator were also seeking the nomination So were two representatives in Congress, a former general and an African American civil rights activist Former Vice President Al Gore was not among the candidates He had lost the extremely close, disputed election of 2000 to George W Bush Mr Gore said he would not be a candidate in 2004 Many people thought Howard Dean would win the Democratic nomination Doctor Dean actively opposed the war in Iraq He won praise for the way he raised money for his campaign Supporters gave him millions of dollars in small gifts through the Internet Then came the Iowa caucuses, the first step in the presidential nominating process, in January of 2004 John Kerry won with a strong thirty-eight percent of the state’s delegates Senator Edwards finished second with thirtytwo percent Doctor Dean finished third with only 18% Senator Kerry continued to gain support in the state primary elections Several candidates withdrew from the campaign, including Howard Dean Senator Edwards withdrew in early March He did so after Senator Kerry won victories in nine state caucuses and primary elections that were held on the same day, called Super Tuesday John Kerry named John Edwards as his choice for vice president Senator Kerry officially received the Democratic Party nomination for president at the party’s convention in Boston, Massachusetts The combination balanced the Democratic ticket in several ways Senator Kerry was considered a liberal He came from the Northeast Senator Edwards was considered more moderate He came from the South Senator Kerry was Roman Catholic Senator Edwards was Protestant John Kerry was born in Colorado in 1943 Like Mr Bush, he graduated from Yale University He joined the United States Navy Mr Kerry was wounded and won honors for his service in the Vietnam War He criticized the war after leaving the military John Kerry graduated from the Boston College law school in 1976 He became a lawyer for the Massachusetts state government Then he served two years as lieutenant governor of the state He was first elected to the Senate in 1984 His wife, Teresa Heinz Kerry, is head of a family foundation that gives money to important causes The presidential candidates debated three times on national television They campaigned hard across the country Foreign policy was the major issue during the campaign Mr Bush centered his campaign on national security He said he was the best candidate to keep America safe from terrorists He said Americans could trust him to be strong against terrorism He presented himself as a decisive leader He charged that Senator Kerry had changed positions on issues and would be unsure in the face of danger In 2002, Mr Kerry had voted to give President Bush the power to use force against Iraq But the senator now criticized the way the Iraqi conflict was being fought By the fall of 2004, more than 1,000 Americans had died in Iraq since the war started in March, 2003 Thousands of Iraqi civilians had also been killed Mr Kerry talked about the war in Iraq: JOHN KERRY: “You’ve got to be able to look in the eyes of families and say to those parents, ‘I tried to everything in my power to prevent the loss of your son and daughter ’ I don’t believe the United States did that ” Senator Kerry said his goal for the United States was “stronger at home, respected in the world ” He believed that the United States had lost respect from many of its allies because of Mr Bush’s foreign policy in Iraq President Bush defended American actions in Iraq He said the war was needed to fight terrorism The President also expressed great satisfaction that Iraqis were free of a cruel dictator Mr Kerry said the United States should be recovering faster from a weak economy The economy had slowed before George W Bush became president It got worse after the terrorist attacks in 2001 Mr Kerry denounced the growth of the national debt under Mr Bush’s leadership President Bush praised his administration’s actions in difficult economic times: PRESIDENT BUSH: “Six months prior to my arrival, the stock market started to go down And it was one of the largest declines in our history And then we had a recession and we got attacked, which cost us one million jobs But we acted I led the Congress We passed tax relief And now this economy is growing We added one point nine million new jobs over the last thirteen months ” President Bush proposed a plan for young workers to place some of the taxes on their pay in private retirement accounts John Kerry opposed this idea Mr Bush opposed most operations to end unwanted pregnancies Mr Kerry supported a woman’s right to have an abortion His position disagreed with the Roman Catholic religion’s position on this issue Early in the election campaign, an organization known as Swift Boat Veterans for Truth was established to oppose John Kerry’s candidacy The group was led by a veteran who, like Mr Kerry, fought in the Vietnam War The group argued that Mr Kerry was unfit to serve as president because of some statements he made about his military service and his past activism in the anti-Vietnam war movement The group even questioned the combat medals awarded to Mr Kerry Other Vietnam veterans, including several who had served with Mr Kerry, denounced the charges against him as completely false Many people believed the accusations and the Kerry campaign’s delay in answering them had an important effect on the results of the election Americans voted on November 2, 2004 As in the election of 2000, there were questions about voting problems during and after the election The vote was especially close in the state of Ohio Kerry supporters said there were problems with voting machines They also said many people were illegally prevented from voting The state had enough electoral votes to decide the winner of the presidential election But the day after the election, Senator Kerry decided not to dispute Mr Bush’s win in Ohio The final results showed that President Bush won about fifty-one percent of the national popular vote to about forty-eight percent for John Kerry George W Bush would serve four more years as president of the United States — THE END — ... area of Spain crossed the Atlantic Ocean They searched for whales along the east coast of North America They made temporary camps along the coast They often traded with the local Indians The Europeans... important part of the religion of most of the native people in the Great Plains The Lakota tribe is one of the people of the Great Plains The Lakota are sometimes called the Sioux They believed that... together George Catlin was an artist who traveled a great deal in the early American west He painted many beautiful pictures of American Indians Mr Catlin said the Plains Indian was the greatest