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THÔNG TIN TÀI LIỆU
Cấu trúc
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Brief Contents
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments
1 CRITICAL THINKING: WHY IT'S IMPORTANT
WHAT IS CRITICAL THINKING?
Critical Thinking in Everyday Life
Cognitive Development in College Students
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD CRITICAL THINKER
Analytical Skills
Effective Communication
Research and Inquiry Skills
Flexibility and Tolerance for Ambiguity
Open-Minded Skepticism
Creative Problem Solving
Attention, Mindfulness, and Curiosity
Collaborative Learning
CRITICAL THINKING AND SELF-DEVELOPMENT
Living the Self-Examined Life
Developing a Rational Life Plan
Facing Challenges
The Importance of Self-Esteem
Critical Thinking in a Democracy
BARRIERS TO CRITICAL THINKING
The Three-Tier Model of Thinking
Resistance
Types of Resistance
Narrow-Mindedness
Rationalization and Doublethink
Cognitive and Social Dissonance
Stress as a Barrier
CRITICAL-THINKING ISSUE: Perspectives on Affirmative Action in College Admissions
2 REASON AND EMOTION
WHAT IS REASON?
Traditional Views of Reason
Gender, Age, and Reason
Dreams and Problem Solving
THE ROLE OF EMOTION IN CRITICAL THINKING
Cultural Attitudes Toward Emotion
Emotional Intelligence and the Positive Effects of Emotion
Negative Effects of Emotion
Integrating Reason and Emotion
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, REASON, AND EMOTION
The Field of Artificial Intelligence
Can Computers Think?
Can Computers Feel Emotions?
FAITH AND REASON
Fideism: Faith Transcends Reason
Rationalism: Religious Beliefs and Reason
Critical Rationalism: Faith and Reason Are Compatible
Religion, Spirituality, and Real-Life Decisions
CRITICAL-THINKING ISSUE: Perspectives on Reason and Proofs for the Existence of God
3 LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION
WHAT IS LANGUAGE?
Functions of Language
Nonverbal Language
DEFINITIONS
Denotative and Connotative Meanings
Stipulative Definitions
Lexical Definitions
Precising Definitions
Persuasive Definitions
EVALUATING DEFINITIONS
Five Criteria
Verbal Disputes Based on Ambiguous Definitions
COMMUNICATION STYLES
Individual Styles of Communication
Sex and Racial Differences in Communication Style
Cultural Differences in Communication Styles
THE USE OF LANGUAGE TO MANIPULATE
Emotive Language
Rhetorical Devices
Deception and Lying
CRITICAL-THINKING ISSUE: Perspectives on Free-Speech Zones on College Campuses
4 KNOWLEDGE, EVIDENCE, AND ERRORS IN THINKING
HUMAN KNOWLEDGE AND ITS LIMITATIONS
Rationalism and Empiricism
Structure of the Mind
EVALUATING EVIDENCE
Direct Experience and False Memories
The Unreliability of Hearsay and Anecdotal Evidence
Experts and Credibility
Evaluating Evidence for a Claim
Research Resources
COGNITIVE AND PERCEPTUAL ERRORS IN THINKING
Perceptual Errors
Misperception of Random Data
Memorable-Events Error
Probability Errors
Self-Serving Biases
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
SOCIAL ERRORS AND BIASES
"One of Us/One of Them" Error
Societal Expectations
Group Pressure and Conformity
Diffusion of Responsibility
CRITICAL-THINKING ISSUE: Perspectives on Evaluating Evidence for the Existence of Unidentified Flying Objects (UFOs)
5 INFORMAL FALLACIES
WHAT IS A FALLACY?
FALLACIES OF AMBIGUITY
Equivocation
Amphiboly
Fallacy of Accent
Fallacy of Division
Fallacy of Composition
FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE
Ad Hominem (Personal Attack)
Appeal to Force (Scare Tactics)
Appeal to Pity
Popular Appeal
Appeal to Ignorance
Hasty Generalization
Straw Man
Red Herring
FALLACIES INVOLVING UNWARRANTED ASSUMPTIONS
Begging the Question
Inappropriate Appeal to Authority
Loaded Question
False Dilemma
Questionable Cause
Slippery Slope
Naturalistic Fallacy
STRATEGIES FOR AVOIDING FALLACIES
CRITICAL-THINKING ISSUE: Perspectives on Gun Control
6 RECOGNIZING, ANALYZING, AND CONSTRUCTING ARGUMENTS
WHAT IS AN ISSUE?
Identifying an Issue
Asking the Right Questions
RECOGNIZING AN ARGUMENT
Distinguishing Between Argumentation and Rhetoric
Types of Arguments
Propositions
Premises and Conclusions
Nonarguments: Explanations and Conditional Statements
BREAKING DOWN AND DIAGRAMMING ARGUMENTS
Breaking Down an Argument into Propositions
Identifying the Premise(s) and Conclusion in Complex Arguments
Diagramming an Argument
EVALUATING ARGUMENTS
Clarity: Is the Argument Clear and Unambiguous?
Credibility: Are the Premises Supported by Evidence?
Relevance: Are the Premises Relevant to the Conclusion?
Completeness: Are There Any Unstated Premises and Conclusions?
Soundness: Are the Premises True, and Do They Support the Conclusion?
CONSTRUCTING AN ARGUMENT
Steps for Constructing an Argument
Using Arguments in Making Real-Life Decisions
CRITICAL-THINKING ISSUE: Perspectives on Same-Sex Marriage
7 INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
WHAT IS AN INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT?
The Use of Inductive Reasoningin Everyday Life
GENERALIZATION
Using Polls, Surveys, and Sampling to Make Generalizations
Applying Generalizations to Particular Cases
Evaluating Inductive Arguments Using Generalization
ANALOGIES
Uses of Analogies
Arguments Based on Analogies
Analogies as Tools for Refuting Arguments
Evaluating Inductive Arguments Based on Analogies
CAUSAL ARGUMENTS
Causal Relationships
Correlations
Establishing Causal Relationships
Causal Arguments in Public Policy and Everyday Decision Making
Evaluating Causal Arguments
CRITICAL-THINKING ISSUE: Perspectives on the Legalization of Marijuana
8 DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
WHAT IS A DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT?
Deductive Reasoning and Syllogisms
Valid and Invalid Arguments
Sound and Unsound Arguments
TYPES OF DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
Arguments by Elimination
Arguments Based on Mathematics
Arguments from Definition
HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISMS
Modus Ponens
Modus Tollens
Chain Arguments
Evaluating Hypothetical Syllogisms for Validity
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS
Standard-Form Categorical Syllogisms
Quantity and Quality
Diagramming Propositions with Venn Diagrams
Using Venn Diagrams to Evaluate Categorical Syllogisms
TRANSLATING ORDINARY ARGUMENTS INTO STANDARD FORM
Rewriting Everyday Propositions in Standard Form
Identifying the Three Terms in the Argument
Putting the Argument into Standard Form
CRITICAL-THINKING ISSUE: Perspectives on the Death Penalty
9 ETHICS AND MORAL DECISION MAKING
WHAT IS MORAL REASONING?
Moral Values and Happiness
Conscience and Moral Sentiments
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL REASONING
Lawrence Kohlberg's Stage Theory of Moral Development
Carol Gilligan on Moral Reasoning in Women
The Development of Moral Reasoning in College Students
MORAL THEORIES: MORALITY IS RELATIVE
Ethical Subjectivism
Cultural Relativism
MORAL THEORIES: MORALITY IS UNIVERSAL
Utilitarianism (Consequence-Based Ethics)
Deontology (Duty-Based Ethics)
Rights-Based Ethics
Virtue Ethics
MORAL ARGUMENTS
Recognizing Moral Arguments
Constructing Moral Arguments
Evaluating Moral Arguments
Resolving Moral Dilemmas
CRITICAL-THINKING ISSUE: Perspectives on Abortion
10 MARKETING AND ADVERTISING
MARKETING IN A CONSUMER CULTURE
Marketing Research
Avoiding Confirmation Bias and Other Errors in Thinking
MARKETING STRATEGIES
The SWOT Model
Consumer Awareness of Marketing Strategies
ADVERTISING AND THE MEDIA
The Role of Advertising in the Media
Product Placement
Television Advertising and Children
EVALUATING ADVERTISEMENTS
Common Fallacies in Advertisements
Rhetorical Devices and Misleading Language
Faulty and Weak Arguments
A Critique of Advertising
CRITICAL-THINKING ISSUE: Perspectives on Advertising and Marketing "Junk Food"