Copyright © 2012 by The McGraw-Hill Companies All rights reserved Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher ISBN: 978-0-07-176780-4 MHID: 0-07-176780-0 The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: ISBN: 978-0-07-176779-8, MHID: 0-07-176779-7 All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a trademarked name, we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark Where such designations appear in this book, they have been printed with initial caps McGraw-Hill eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs To contact a representative please e-mail us at bulksales@mcgraw-hill.com Illustrations on the following pages by Cenveo: 4, 7, 10, 13, 19 (bottom of page), 21, 27, 36, 54, 70, 78, 80, 97, 110, 122, 145, 152, 155, 163, 171, 181, 185, 187, 194, 195, 199 All other illustration and photo credits can be found on page 209, which is to be considered an extension of this copyright page Other titles in the series: Easy Algebra Step-by-Step, Sandra Luna McCune and William D Clark Easy Chemistry Step-by-Step, Marian DeWane Easy Mathematics Step-by-Step, William D Clark and Sandra Luna McCune Easy Precalculus Step-by-Step, Carolyn Wheater Easy Writing Step-by-Step, Ann Longknife and K D Sullivan TERMS OF USE This is a copyrighted work and The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc (“McGraw-Hill”) and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work Use of this work is subject to these terms Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy of the work, you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify, create derivative works based upon, transmit, distribute, disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the work or any part of it without McGraw-Hill’s prior consent You may use the work for your own noncommercial and personal use; any other use of the work is strictly prohibited Your right to use the work may be terminated if you fail to comply with these terms THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS.” McGRAW-HILL AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO GUARANTEES OR WARRANTIES AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED FROM USING THE WORK, INCLUDING ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK VIA HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE McGraw-Hill and its licensors not warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free Neither McGraw-Hill nor its licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any damages resulting therefrom McGraw-Hill has no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through the work Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such damages This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise Contents Preface The Study of Life A Thematic Perspective on Biology Levels of Biological Organization (for All Organisms) Levels of Biological Organization (for Multicellular Organisms) The Six Characteristics of Life The Scientific Method The Chemistry of Life Basic Chemistry Carbon Chemistry Organic Macromolecules Cell Structures and Functions Cell Diversity The Prokaryotic Cell The Eukaryotic Cell Cell Homeostasis and Metabolism Cell Homeostasis Photosynthetic Metabolism Cellular Respiration Metabolism The Cell Cycle and Cell Division The Cell Cycle Mitosis: Nuclear Division Heredity: Meiosis and Mendelian Genetics Meiosis: Production of Gametes Mendelian Genetics DNA and the Genetic Code The Structure of DNA The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology DNA Replication Protein Synthesis Human Genetics and Biotechnologies The Human Genome Other Complex Patterns of Human Inheritance DNA Fingerprinting The Origins of Life on Earth Early Experiments in the Origins of Life From an Inorganic World to Cellular Life Early Events in Evolutionary History 10 Evolution and Adaptation of Life Evolution by Means of Natural Selection Evidence for Evolutionary Theory From Microevolution to Macroevolution 11 Classification of Life Eight Levels of Taxonomy Six Kingdoms of Life 12 Microbes: Viruses and Bacteria Viruses as Nonlife Bacterial Biodiversity 13 Protists and Fungi Protist Biodiversity Fungus Biodiversity 14 Plants and Animals Plant Biodiversity Invertebrate Biodiversity Vertebrate Biodiversity 15 Plant Structure and Function Plant Physiology Plant Characteristics 16 Animals and the Organ Systems Animal Organization Animal Physiology: Organ Systems 17 Populations and Communities Ecological Levels of Organization Populations and Intraspecific Interactions Communities and Interspecific Interactions 18 Ecosystems and Biomes Ecosystems Terrestrial and Aquatic Biomes Answer Key Illustration and Photo Credits Index Preface Easy Biology Step-by-Step is an accessible guide designed to introduce you to (or remind you of) the core concepts necessary for developing a thorough understanding of the study of life Each chapter presents easy-to-follow descriptions of necessary information in short, targeted text with helpful supporting images The Foundation checklist provides an overview of the fundamentals of the subject The Step-by-Step definitions of key terms will build your understanding, including devices to help you remember their meaning Vertigo panels provide problem-solving techniques and tips on how to demystify a problem Misstep panels warn you of common mistakes or misconceptions Following each thorough description of a new concept, a review Exercise helps to reinforce and apply new concepts Learning biology can seem overwhelming for a few reasons One major factor is the breadth of information involved; biology studies everything from the organic molecules that provide the fundamental structure of living things to the complex interactions between organisms and the nonliving environment in an ecosystem Biology doesn’t skimp on depth either, for at the most fundamental level, it involves biochemistry, principles that guide the metabolism of any cell or organism Another issue is the sheer number of vocabulary terms involved in the discipline While it may seem as if learning biology is like learning a new language, the more you focus on recognizing the Greek and Latin roots present in terms, the more you are building an understanding of the meaning behind a term rather than simply memorizing a definition You will learn to predict the meaning of new terms before you ever read the definition Easy Biology Step-by-Step was designed with these challenging aspects of learning biology in mind Using the written descriptions, supporting images, step-by-step problem-solving techniques, pop-up boxes, and review questions, you should be armed with the tools necessary for mastering the fundamentals of this fascinating subject The Study of Life Biology is the study of all life-forms and life processes The term is derived from bios (meaning “life”) and logos (meaning “study of”) Biology includes a focus on both microscopic and macroscopic levels of organization, from cells and the smaller structures within them to tissues and organs within an individual organism and finally to the totality of ecosystems that constitute the living Earth, or biosphere Biologists characterize something as a living thing, or organism, if it possesses all six of the characteristics of life to some degree To relate the various levels of organization, it is helpful to use a thematic approach Overarching and unifying concepts like the relationship between structure and function and continuity and variation provide a basis for connecting topics and concepts that at first may seem completely unrelated Biology, like any natural science, relies on a set of logical steps called the scientific method to guide the inquiry process The powers of observation are significant at all points of the inquiry process Biologists use many tools to investigate nature, but none is more significant than the microscope, which enables the detection of life-forms that are too small to be seen with the naked eye A Thematic Perspective on Biology If you aren’t already interested in biology, you should be! Take a walk outside, and you will be surrounded by all things biological Think about the ingenious way that plants are able to produce their own food and then thankfully share it with us Consider how we and other animals are able to extract oxygen from the air and why we really need it in the first place From a more selfish perspective, biology explains how your own body works and what you need to to keep it healthy and functioning optimally The discipline of biology increasingly investigates many things that are invisible to the naked eye; these include some organisms like the tens of thousands of species of soil bacteria and the thousands of species of microscopic zooplankton and phytoplankton in the ocean It also includes many things that are not living in their own right, such as viruses that imitate and parasitize life as well as the organic molecules on which all life depends—such as DNA and proteins How does a student of biology manage all this information? Approaching biology from a thematic perspective can be a significant tool for both organizational and memory purposes Themes of biology can be devised and phrased in many ways, so the following six themes are suggested, overarching principles that help to connect ideas that at first seem unrelated The first theme is the relationship between structure and function; this explains that the particular form a thing takes is related to the particular task it is designed to carry out Another theme, Evolution, 113–23 See also Origins of life events in evolutionary history, 109–11 evidence for, 117–20 exercises, 116, 119–20, 123 macroevolution versus microevolution, 120–23 natural selection, 114–16 Excretory system, 177 Exocytosis, 45 Exothermic reactions, 21 Experimental groups, 12, 14 Experiments (scientific method), 12 analyzing results, 13 controlled experiments, 12 drawing conclusions, 13 validity, 14 Exponential growth, 185 Extremophiles, 182 Facilitated diffusion, 44–45 Family, 126–27 Feedback loops, 172 Female reproduction system, 177–78 Ferns, 162 Fish cartilaginous versus bony, 157 Flagellum, 32 Flatworms, 154–55 Flowers, 165–66 Fluorine gas, 19 Fly development, 104 Food chain, 191, 195–96 Food web, 191, 195–96 Forelimbs, 117–18 Fossils, 103, 113, 155 fossil record, 117 Fruits, 165–66 Function See Structure and function, relationship between Fungi kingdom, 129–30, 145–48 exercises, 148 Galapagos, 180 Gametophyte generation, 150 Gas, 20 Gel electrophoresis, 99 Gemetophyte generation, 150 Gene pool, 120 Genetic mutation See Mutation Genetics, 91–101 genetic code, 8, 29, 77–89 genetic equilibrium, 120–21 genetic variation, 114 Mendelian genetics, 67, 72–76 variation, 68 Genome, 9, 57 Genotype, 73, 91 Genus, 127 Geographic isolation, 121 Giardia, 143 Glomeromycota, 146 Glucose, 41 Glucose monomers, 27 Glycogen, 27 Glycolysis, 52 Golgi body, 38 Gram-positive bacteria, 138–39 Grasslands, 197 Gravitropism, 167 Green alga ancestor, 152 Ground tissue, 162 Growth, ability of, Growth of population carrying capacity, 185 exponential growth, 185 logistic growth, 185 Guanine (G), 28–29, 78, 84 Guard cells, 152 Gymnosperms, 151, 162 Habitat, 175 Halophiles, 137 Haploid cells, 67, 68, 150, 151 Hardy, Godfrey H., 121 Heart chambers, 157–58 heart rate, Helicase action, 82 Heredity, 67–76, 91 complex patterns, 94–97 laws of, 74–76 HMS Beagle, 114, 115 Homeostasis, 41–55, 167, 172, 173 maintenance of, 9–10 Homologous structures, 117–18 Homologues, 69 Hormones, 28 Human genome, 92–94 exercises, 94 Hydrogen atom, 26 Hydrogen bond, 77 Hydrolysis, 24 Hyphae, 145 septate versus coenocytic, 145 Hypothesis (scientific method), 12 Immune systems, 173 Immutability of species, 113 Imperfect fungi, 148 Incomplete dominance, 76, 95 Independent variables, 12, 13 Inorganic matter, 17 Insects, 155 Integumentary system, 177 Interdependence in nature, Interspecific interactions, 179, 186–90 competition, 187–88 Intertidal zone, 198 Intraspecific interactions, 179, 180 Invertebrates, 153–56 exercises, 156 Ion, 20 Ionic bond, 19 Isotopes, 18 Jurassic period, 155 Karyotypes, 92 Keratinized scales, 158 Kingdom, 126, 128 Krebs cycle, 52–53 Lactobacillus, 138 Latent period, 134 Lateral growth, 166 Lateral line, 157 Law, 14 Law of dominance, 74 Law of independent assortment, 74–75 Law of segregation, 74–75 Law of superposition, 117 Law of the conservation of matter, 21 Leaves, 162 blade, 164 multiple, 164 petiole, 164 Life on other planets, 182 Light, 10 Linnaeus, 126, 127 Lipids, 24, 27–28 CHON atoms, 29 Liquid, 20 Logistic growth, 185 Lysogenic cycle, 134, 136 Lysosomes, 38, 39 Lytic cycle, 134 Macrolevel of organization, Macromolecules of life, 26 Male reproduction system, 177–78 Mammals, 158, 170 Managing waste, 177 Matter, 17, 20 states of, 20 Meiosis, 67–72 exercises, 72 nuclear division, 67 production of gametes, 67–70 Membrane, plasma membrane, 43–44 Membrane proteins, 43 Mendel, Gregor, 67 research of, 73–74 Mendelian genetics, 67, 72–76 allele, 72–73 exercises, 76 genotype, 73 phenotype, 73 trait, 72 Meristems, 166–67 Metabolism, 9, 41–55, 165 cellular metabolism, 24 metabolic reaction, 21 Methanogens, 137 Metric system, 14 Microbes, 133–39 Microlevel of organization, Microorganisms, 104 Microscope, 1, 14–15 Microspheres, 107 Miller, Stanley, 106 Mimicry, 186 Mitochondrion, 38, 41 Mitosis, 59, 61–63, 68 meristems, 166 Mitotic division of haploid cells, 68 Mixtures, 20 Molds, 141 Molecules, 18–19 comparing, 113 macromolecules of life, 26 organic molecules, 23, 106–7 Monocots, 151 Monogenic traits, 91 Monomers, 23, 24 Monosaccharide, 26 Moss, 162 Movement, 173 Multicellular organisms, 6–8 exercises, Multiple-allele traits, 95 Muscle tissue, 170 Muscular systems, 173 Mutation, 78, 83, 96–97 deletion mutation, 96 exercises, 97–98 frameshift mutation, 96 inversion mutation, 97 nondisjunction mutation, 97 point mutation, 96 substitution mutation, 96 translocation mutation, 97 Mutualism, 188 Mycelia, 145 Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 138 NADH molecule, 52–53 NADPH molecule, 47, 48, 55 Natural selection, 114–16 Nerve cell, 176 axons, 176 dendrites, 176 synapse, 177 Nervous system, 176–77 Nervous tissue, 170 Neutron, 18 Nitrogen cycle, 193 Nitrogenous bases, 28, 77 Nuclear division, 61–63 Nucleic acids, 24, 28–29 CHON atoms, 29 Nucleolus, 37 Nucleoplasm, 37 Nucleotide, 28, 77, 84–85 Nucleus, 37 Nutrition, 173–74 OAA molecule, 52–53 Obligate intracellular paracite, 136 Observation (scientific method), 12 Oceanic zone, 198–200 Oligotrophic lake, 199 Oogenesis, 70–71 Oparin, Alexander, 106 Order, 126–27 Organ system, 6, 169–78 exercises, 172, 178 Organelles, Organic macromolecules, 17, 24, 26–30 exercises, 30 Organic matter, 17 Organic molecules, 3, 23, 106–7 Organism, 1, definition, 17 multicellular, 6–8 Organs, 6, 170 Origins of life, 103–11 See also Evolution biogenesis, 103, 105 events in evolutionary history, 109–11 exercises, 105–6, 108, 111 inorganic to cellular life, 106–8 multicellular life, 110 Outcome variables, 12 Ova, 178 Overreproduction, 114 Ovovivipary, 157 Paramecium, 143 Parasite, 2, 188 Parenchyma cells, 163 Passive transport, 44–46 Pasteur, Louis, 104–5, 113 Pattern baldness, 95 Peer review process, 14 Pelagic zone, 198 Penicillium, 130 Pentose sugar, 77 Periodic table, 18 Peroxisomes, 39 Petunias, 76 Phagocytosis, 45 Phenotype, 73 Phosphodiester bond, 78 Phospholipid bilayer, 42, 46 Phospholipids, 42 Phosphorus cycle, 193 Photic zones, 198 Photoautotrophs, 41, 49, 109, 110, 161 Photophosphorylation, 48 Photoreceptors, 10 Photosynthesis, 41, 46–51, 165 electron transport chain, 47–48 sum reaction, 46 Photosynthetic metabolism, 46–51 exercises, 51 Photosystems, 47 Phylogenetic trees, 115, 130 Phylum, 126, 170 Phytoplankton, Pinocytosis, 45 Pioneer species, 189 Pitcher plants, 168 Plant cells, 31, 38–39, 41, 161 Plant tissue, Plantae kingdom, 129 Plants, 150–53 alternation of generations, 150 characteristics of, 165–68 chloroplasts, 10 evolution of, 152 exercises, 153, 164–65, 168 function, 161–68 growth, 166 organ types, 162 organization of, 165 root system, 162 shoot system, 162 structure, 161–68 tissues, 162 Plasma membrane, 4, 34–35, 41, 43, 46 structure of, 44 Plasmodium, 143 Plastids, 161 Polar bodies, 71 Polar molecules, 20 Polygenic traits, 91, 94 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 82, 99 Polymers, 23, 24 Polypeptide, 26 Polysaccharide, 27 Pond ecosystem, 10 Population ecologists, 179 Populations, 183–86 clumped distribution, 184 definition, 180 density, 183 dispersion, 183–84 dynamics of, 184 exercises, 186 growth, 185 random distribution, 183 uniform distribution, 183 Predators, 186–87 Prey, 186–87 Primary consumers, 194 Primary producers, 194 Primary succession, 189 Primordial soup, 106 Process and application of science, Prokaryotic cells, 4, 31, 33, 34–37, 88, 109 exercises, 36–37 structure, 36 Promoter gene, 86 Prophage, 134 Protein, 4–5, 17, 24, 26, 77, 79 CHON atoms, 29 membrane proteins, 43 Protein synthesis, 85–89 exercises, 89 Proteobacteria, 138 Protista kingdom, 129, 141–44 animal-like protists, 143 biodiversity, 142–44 evolution of, 143 exercises, 144 funguslike protists, 144 plantlike protists, 143 Protocells, 107 Proton, 18 Pseudopod, 143 Rain forests, 198 Redi, Francisco, 104 Reduction division, 68 Regulation: feedback and response, Relative dating, 117 Reproduction, 9, 115, 177–78 of plants, 165–66 Reptiles, 157–58 Resource partitioning, 187–88 Respiratory system, 175 Restriction enzymes, 98 Ribose sugar, 84 Ribosomal RNA (ribonucleic acid), 37 Ribosome, 5, 35 RNA (ribonucleic acid), 26, 28–29, 35–36, 79–80 nucleotides, 84–85 transcription, 79, 86 translation, 80, 87–89 virus, 136 Root hairs, 164 Roots, 162 fibrous, 164 lateral, 164 Roundworms, 154–55 Sac fungi, 147 Saprophytes, 130 Saturated chain, 27 Scientific method, 1, 12–14 exercises, 15–16 flowchart, 13 peer review process, 14 Sclerenchyma cells, 163 Sea anemones, 188 Secondary succession, 189 Seedless vascular plants, 151, 162 Segmented worms, 154–55 Sex cells, 28, 91, 93 Sex chromosomes, 91, 92 Sex-influenced trait, 95 Sexual reproduction, 9, 67 Simple sugars, 27 Single-allele traits, 96 Skeletal systems, 173, 174 Snapdragons, 76 Solid, 20 Solutions, 20 Spallanzani, Lazzaro, 104 Speciation, 122 Species, 125, 127 evenness, 189 new, 113 richness, 189 Sperm, 177 Spermatogenesis, 70–71 Spirilli, 138–39 Splitting water, 48 Sponges, 154, 169, 170, 172 Spontaneous generation, 103, 104–5 Sporophyte generation, 150 Starches, 27 Stem cells, 171 totipotent, 171 Stems, 162 stolons, 164 Steroids, 28 Stimuli detection of, 10–11 response to, 10–11 Stomatal pores, 152 Striated tendons, 173 Stroma, 38 Structure and function, relationship between, 1–2 Subatomic particles, 18 Survival struggle, 114–15 differential survival, 115 Survivorship curves, 184 Swim bladder, 157 Symbiotic relationships, 188 Sympatric speciation, 122 Synapsis, 68–69 Taiga, 197 Taproot, 164 Taxonomy, 125 exercises, 128 levels of, 126–28 Temperate broadleaf forest, 197 Tendons, 173 Termination signal, 86 Terrestrial animals, 175 Terrestrial biome, 191, 196–98 Testosterone, 28 Tetrad, 69 Thematic approach to biology continuity and variation, energy transfer, feedback and response, interdependence in nature, process and application of science, relationship between structure and function, 1, Theory (scientific method), 14 Thermoacidophiles, 137 Thigmotropism, 167 Thylakoids, 47 Thymine (T), 28–29, 78 Tissue, 5, 6, 155, 162, 169, 170–71, 172 Trait, 72, 91 autosomal, 95 incomplete dominance, 76, 95 monogenic traits, 91 multiple-allele traits, 95 polygenic traits, 91, 94 sex-influenced, 95 sex-linked, 93 single-allele traits, 96 Transpiration, 167 Triglyceride, 27 Trophic levels, 193–94 Tropisms, 167 Tundra, 197 Turgor pressure, 39 Unicellular organisms, Unsaturated chain, 27 Uracel (U), 84 Urey, Harold, 106 Valence electrons, 22–23 Valence level, 19 Validity, 14 Variation See Continuity and variation Vascular cambium plants, 166 Vascular tissue, 6, 162, 166 Venus flytrap, 168 Vertebrates, 156–60 biodiversity, 159 exercises, 160 major organs, 171 Vestigial structures, 118 Virus, 2, 133–39 energy and, 135–36 exercises, 136–37 as nonlife, 134–37 replication, 134–36 structure of, 134 Vital force, 103, 104, 105 Volume, 20 Wallace, Alfred, 116 Water, 17 in solutions, 20 Water cycle, 193 Wax, 28 Weinberg, Wilhelm, 121 Woody plants, 166 Worms, 154–55 X chromosomes, 91, 92–93 Y chromosomes, 91, 92–93 Yeasts, 141 Zooplankton, Zygote, 71 ... series: Easy Algebra Step- by -Step, Sandra Luna McCune and William D Clark Easy Chemistry Step- by -Step, Marian DeWane Easy Mathematics Step- by -Step, William D Clark and Sandra Luna McCune Easy Precalculus... read the definition Easy Biology Step- by -Step was designed with these challenging aspects of learning biology in mind Using the written descriptions, supporting images, step- by -step problem-solving... Step- by -Step, William D Clark and Sandra Luna McCune Easy Precalculus Step- by -Step, Carolyn Wheater Easy Writing Step- by -Step, Ann Longknife and K D Sullivan TERMS OF USE This is a copyrighted