BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF SOLID WASTE Enhancing Sustainability © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF SOLID WASTE Enhancing Sustainability Edited by Elena Cristina Rada, PhD © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 Apple Academic Press, Inc 3333 Mistwell Crescent Oakville, ON L6L 0A2 Canada © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc Exclusive worldwide distribution by CRC Press an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S Government works Version Date: 20150811 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-77188-280-4 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint Except as permitted under U.S Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400 CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com For information about Apple Academic Press product http://www.appleacademicpress.com © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc About the Editor ELENA CRISTINA RADA, PhD Elena Cristina Rada, PhD, earned her master's degree in Environmental Engineering from the Politehnica University of Bucharest, Romania; she received a PhD in Environmental Engineering and a second PhD in Power Engineering from the University of Trento, Italy, and the Politehnica University of Bucharest Her post-doc work was in Sanitary Engineering from the University of Trento, Italy She has been a professor in the Municipal Solid Waste master’s program at Politehnica University of Bucharest, and has served on the organizing committees of “Energy Valorization of Sewage Sludge,” an international conference held in Rovereto, Italy, and Venice 2010, an International Waste Working Group international conference She also teaches seminars in the bachelor, master, and doctorate modules in the University of Trento and Padua and Politehnica University of Bucharest and has managed university funds at national and international level Dr Rada is a reviewer of international journals, a speaker at many international conferences, and the author or co-author of about a hundred research papers Her research interests are bio-mechanical municipal solid waste treatments, biological techniques for biomass characterization, environmental and energy balances regarding municipal solid waste, indoor and outdoor pollution (prevention and remediation) and health, and innovative remediation techniques for contaminated sites and streams © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc Contents Acknowledgment and How to Cite ix List of Contributors xi Introduction xv Part I: Microbial Technologies Management Options of Food Waste: A Review F Girotto, L Alibardi, and R Cossu Effect of Increasing Total Solids Contents on Anaerobic Digestion of Food Waste under Mesophilic Conditions: Performance and Microbial Characteristics Analysis 23 Jing Yi, Bin Dong, Jingwei Jin, and Xiaohu Dai Microbial Anaerobic Digestion (Bio-Digesters) as an Approach to the Decontamination of Animal Wastes in Pollution Control and the Generation of Renewable Energy 47 Christy E Manyi-Loh, Sampson N Mamphweli, Edson L Meyer, Anthony I Okoh, Golden Makaka, and Michael Simon New Steady-State Microbial Community Compositions and Process Performances in Biogas Reactors Induced by Temperature Disturbances 83 Gang Luo, Davide De Francisci, Panagiotis G Kougias, Treu Laura, Xinyu Zhu, and Irini Angelidaki Part II: Composting Composting of Organic Fraction of Municipal Solid Waste: A Pilot Plant in Maxixe District, Mozambique 107 C Collivignarelli, A Perteghella, and M Vacchari Changes in Bacterial and Fungal Communities across Compost Recipes, Preparation Methods, and Composting Times 119 Deborah A Neher, Thomas R Weicht, Scott T Bates, Jonathan W Leff, and Noah Fierer © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc viii Contents Effects of Bulking Agents, Load Size or Starter Cultures in Kitchen-Waste Composting 145 Norazlin Abdullah, Nyuk Ling Chin, Mohd Noriznan Mokhtar, and Farah Saleena Taip Microbial Diversity of Vermicompost Bacteria that Exhibit Useful Agricultural Traits and Waste Management Potential 169 Jayakumar Pathma and Natarajan Sakthivel Part III: Biodrying Criteria for Assessing the Viability of a Small Scale MSW Bio-Drying Plant Aimed at RDF Production for Local Use 219 E C Rada and M Ragazzi 10 Technical and Economic Efficiency of Utilization of Biogas from Animal Waste for Energy Generation 235 E Minciuc, R Patrascu, M Norisor, and D Tutica 11 Potential of Bio-Drying Applied to Exhausted Grape Marc 255 Elena Cristina Rada and Marco Ragazzi Author Notes 271 Index 275 © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc Acknowledgment and How to Cite The editor and publisher thank each of the authors who contributed to this book The chapters in this book were previously published elsewhere To cite the work contained in this book and to view the individual permissions, please refer to the citation at the beginning of each chapter Each chapter was carefully selected by the editor; the result is a book that looks at the sustainable treatment of solid waste from a variety of perspectives The chapters included are broken into three sections, which describe the following topics: • When considering the biologic treatment of solid wastes, microbial technologies are the foundation for all other considerations, while at the same time they also offer unique treatments of their own The articles in chapters through were chosen to specifically examine the contributions and implications of various forms of microbial technology • Composting is one of the most ancient of all waste management systems, dating at least as far back as the first century of the Common Era Today’s composting treatments offer important solutions to solid waste problems The articles in chapters through were selected to represent investigations into important aspects of this technology, including vermicomposting • Biodrying, the process by which biodegradable waste is rapidly heated through initial stages of composting to remove moisture from a waste stream, thus reducing its overall weight, is the next step in our considerations Biodrying reduces the moisture content of waste without the need for supplementary fossil fuels, and with minimal electricity consumption— and it can take as few as days to dry waste in this manner, which in turn reduces the cost of solid waste management Biodrying is not yet a perfect technology, however, and it calls for ongoing research and development The articles chosen for chapters to 11 represent a sample of this most recent ongoing research © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc Potential of Bio-Drying Applied to Exhausted Grape Marc 269 REFERENCES 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 ISTAT [Internet] Roma: The Italian National Institute for Statistics, [cited 2012] Available from http://www.istat.it/it/ Devesa-Rey R., Vecino X., Varela-Alende J.L., et al Valorization of winery waste vs the costs of not recycling Waste Manag 2011;31:2327–2335 Fiori L., Florio L Gasification and combustion of grape marc: comparison among different scenarios Waste Biomass Valor 2010;2:191-200 Thorngate J.H., Singleton V.L Localization of procyanidins in grape seeds Am J Enol Vitic 1994;45:259–262 Karleskind A Sources et monographies des principaux corps gras In: Manuel des Corps Gras Paris: Lavoisier; 1992 p 140–144 Maugenet J Evaluation of the by-products of wine distilleries II Possibility of recovery of proteins in the vinasse of wine distilleries C R Seances Acad Agric Fr 1973;59:481–487 UNI/TS 11184: 2006 Waste and refuse derived fuels - Determination of biological stability by dynamic respirometric index, ICS : [13.030.01] [75.160.10], October 2006 CEN/TR 15590:2007 Determination of potential rate of microbial self heating using the real dynamic respiration index, ICS : [75.160.10], October 2007 Rada E.C., Franzinelli A., Taiss M., et al Lower Heating Value dynamics during municipal solid waste bio-drying Environ Technol 2007;28:463-69 Ragazzi M., Rada E.C., Antolini D Material and energy recovery in integrated waste management systems: An innovative approach for the characterization of the gaseous emissions from residual MSW bio-drying Waste Manag 2011;31:2085-91 Rada E.C., Venturi M., Ragazzi M., et al Bio-drying role in changeable scenarios of Romanian MSW management Waste Biomass Valor 2010;1:271-279 Andreottola G., Dallago L., Ragazzi M Dynamic respirometric tests for assessing the biological activity of waste, Proceedings of the Tenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium; 2005 Oct 3-7; S Margherita di Pula (CA), Italy Ciuta M.S., Marculescu C., Dinca C., Badea A Primary characterization of wine making and oil refining industry wastes Sci B - Electr Eng 2011;73:307-320 La Pera L., Dugon G., Rando R., et al Statistical study of the influence of fungicide treatments (mancozeb, zoxamide and copper oxychloride) on heavy metal concentrations in Sicilian red wine Food Addit And Contam 2008;25:302-312 86/278/EEC:1998 Council Directive of on the protection of the environment, and in particular of the soil, when sewage sludge is used in agriculture, 12 June 1986 Rada E.C., Ragazzi M., Panaitescu V., Apostol T Bio-drying or bio-stabilization process? Sci B Sci B - Electr Eng 2005;67:51-60 UNI 9903-1:2004 Non mineral refuse derived fuels - Specifications and classification, ICS : [75.160.10], March 2004 UNI CEN/TR 15508:2008 Key properties on solid recovered fuels to be used for establishing a classification system, ICS : [75.160.10], October 2006 © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc Author Notes CHAPTER Data Availability The authors confirm that all data underlying the findings are fully available without restriction All sequences have been deposited into the NCBI short read archive (SRA) under the accession number SRX484115 for bacteria and SRX485028 for archaea Funding This research has been supported financially by National Key Technologies R&D Program of China (2010BAC67B04) and the key projects of National Water Pollution Control and Management of China (2011ZX07316004) The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript Competing Interests The authors have declared that no competing interests exist Author Contributions Conceived and designed the experiments: XD Performed the experiments: JY Analyzed the data: BD Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: JJ Contributed to the writing of the manuscript: JY CHAPTER Acknowledgments The authors wholeheartedly appreciate the financial support offered by Claude Leon Foundation, South Africa Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc 272 Author Notes CHAPTER Competing Interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests Author Contributions GL and IA designed the experiment GL and XYZ carried out the experiment DDF, PGK, and TL participated in the molecular analysis GL performed the bioinformatics analysis and drafted the manuscript All the authors have read and approved the final manuscript Acknowledgments This study was funded by the Yangfan project from the Science and Technology Commission of Shanghai Municipality (14YF1400400), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51408133), and The Danish Council for Independent Research (12-126632) and Strategic Research (12-132654) CHAPTER Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to CeLIM NGO for logistical and financial support and to all the people and local bodies for supporting the local activities, in particular CeLIM local staff and Maxixe municipality This work was part of the “Urban and peri-urban environmental protection: a project for Maxixe Municipality”, founded by Comune di Milano and Peppino Vismara foundation CHAPTER Funding DAN received USDA Hatch VT-HO1609MS funding and NF received funding from the National Science Foundation to support this research The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc Author Notes 273 Competing Interests The authors have declared that no competing interests exist Acknowledgments The authors thank Tom Gilbert (HCC), James McSweeney (HCC), and Alexander Utevsky (HCC) for formulating recipes and managing variations of the thermophilic process at a realistic commercial scale We thank Jessica Henley and Chris Lauber for technical assistance with the laboratory analyses Author Contributions Conceived and designed the experiments: DAN TRW NF Performed the experiments: DAN TRW Analyzed the data: DAN JWL Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: DAN NF STB Wrote the paper: DAN TRW STB JWF NF CHAPTER Acknowledgments The authors wish to acknowledge the R&D collaborative work of UPMO3 Solutions (2008 to 2010) and Dr Chon Seng Tan from the Biotechnology Research Centre, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, for their assistance and valuable advice CHAPTER Competing Interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests Author Contributions JP: Collected and reviewed the literature and drafted the manuscript NS: Formulated the objectives, provided guidance and improved the quality of the manuscript Both authors read and approved the final manuscript © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc 274 Author Notes Acknowledgments The financial support from Department of Biotechnology (DBT), New Delhi, India, and Department of Science and Technology (DST), New Delhi, India, through Fund for Improvement of Science and Technology Infrastructure in Higher Educational Institutions (FIST), is gratefully acknowledged CHAPTER 11 Author Contributions: Both the authors contributed to conception and design, to acquisition of data and to analysis and interpretation of data; both the authors drafted the article and revisited it critically for important intellectual content; and both the authors gave final approval of the version to be published © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc Index A abattoir, 76, 98 acetate, 37–38, 40–41, 55–56, 58–60, 69, 78, 83, 86, 92, 100, 102 acetogens, 55–58, 69 syntrophic acetogens, 56–58, 69 acetogenesis, 39, 55, 58, 60, 66 acidogens, 57, 86 acidogenesis, 24, 55, 60, 68, 101 Acremonium, 127–128, 134, 137 Actinobacteria, xxii, 36, 58, 71, 126–127, 135, 137, 143, 181–183 active but non cultivable (ABNC), 61 aerated static pile (ASP), xxiii, 120–123, 127, 131, 133–138 agriculture, xviii–xx, xxiv, 3–5, 14, 20, 48–49, 76, 80–81, 111, 116–117, 119, 139, 145, 152, 169–170, 175–176, 197–199, 202–203, 206, 210–211, 213–214, 236–238, 253, 255, 268–269, 273 agro-industrial, 4, 18, 21, 47 alcohols, 13, 58 algae, 54 Alternaria, 134–135, 172 amino acids, 37, 55, 58, 152, 171 ammonia (NH3), 26, 29–30, 37–38, 44, 56, 59, 67–70, 76, 78, 81, 92, 97, 163, 165, 167, 197, 260, 266–268 ammonia concentration, 30, 67–70 ammonia-nitrogen, 29 free ammonia-nitrogen (FAN), 29–31 total ammonia-nitrogen (TAN), 29–30, 188, 214, 244, 273 © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc amplification, 27, 62–63, 124, 198, 205 anaerobic, xvi, xx–xxi, 8, 14–15, 23–27, 29–31, 33, 35–41, 43–45, 47–49, 51, 53–63, 65–83, 95–97, 100–102, 147, 166, 169, 179, 207, 236, 238, 240–242, 254 anaerobic digestion (AD), xvi, xx–xxi, 8, 14–15, 23–25, 27, 29–31, 33, 35, 37–41, 43–45, 47–49, 51, 53–57, 59–63, 65–77, 79, 81–83, 95, 97, 100–102, 166, 206, 209, 238, 241, 254 conventional wet, 24 modern dry, 24 semi-dry, 24–25, 29, 43 Anaerolineae, 38 animal, xv–xvi, xxi, 8, 11, 13, 19, 47–57, 59, 61, 63, 65–77, 79, 81, 120, 135, 154, 175–177, 188, 201, 203, 214, 235–243, 245, 247, 249–253, 256 antibiotic, 50–51, 54, 175, 179, 184 antibiotic resistance, 54 Archaea, 27–28, 59, 79, 83, 89, 92, 124, 126, 141, 271 Ascobolus, 127–128, 134–135 Aspergillus, 134–135, 152 autofluorescence, 61 B Bacteroidetes, 36–38, 71, 90, 126– 127, 133–137, 181, 183 bio-digesters, xxi, 47, 49, 54, 65 276 bio-drying, xxiv–xxv, 219, 221–229, 231–233, 255–257, 259–269 bio-filter, 227 bio-hydrogen, 8, 20 bio-methane, 8, 49 bio-stabilization, 221, 232, 269 bioavailability, 72, 82, 146 biodegradability, 8, 15, 17–19, 23, 43, 67, 72, 75, 146, 156, 167, 175 biodiesel, 12–13, 21 biodiversity, xxiv, 13, 63, 80, 100, 170, 180 bioethanol, 14 biofuels, xv, xx, 12, 14–15, 17, 19–21, 74, 77, 81, 83 biogas, xvi–xvii, xix, xxi–xxii, 14, 19, 24, 28, 31–32, 44, 48–49, 56, 60–61, 65, 69, 71–72, 74–86, 89–90, 95–98, 100–102, 166, 235–245, 247–254 biogas boiler, 244, 247 biogas production, xvii, xix, 14, 31–32, 44, 48, 75–77, 82, 85, 96, 98, 101, 237, 252 biogas reactors, xvii, xxi–xxii, 74, 77–79, 83–86, 89–90, 95–97, 102 biogenic cycles, bioinformatics, 65, 102, 141, 272 Biological Mechanical Treatment (BMT), 219, 227–229 biological oxygen demand (BOD), 51, 74, 186 biomass, xvi, xx, 14, 18, 21, 36, 45, 47–49, 57, 62, 68, 70, 74, 77, 79, 82, 101, 107, 166–167, 179, 181, 189, 198, 202, 212, 215–216, 221, 231, 237, 252–253, 256, 269 biooxidation, 177 bioprocessing, 15, 75 biorefinery, 12, 15, 103 buffering, xxiv, 30, 68–69, 73, 185, 198, 211 © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc Index bulking, xviii, xxiii, 145–151, 153–155, 157, 159, 161, 163, 165, 167, 202 burning, 108, 223, 225, 228–229, 243 butanol, 14 C carbohydrates, 14–15, 17–18, 37–38, 55, 57, 72, 152, 155, 171 carbon cycle, xxiii, 145 carbon dioxide (CO2), 7, 14, 37, 40, 55–56, 58, 78, 83, 157, 163, 177, 236–238, 276 chemical oxygen demand (COD), 51, 69–71, 74, 186, 260, 267–268 chlorine (Cl), 101, 141, 151, 166, 260–261, 268 Chloroflexi, xx, xxii, 35–36, 41, 44, 126–127, 133, 135, 137, 142 cleavage, 56 climate change, 7–8, 12 clone, 33, 36, 62, 65, 75, 84, 140 Clostridium acetobutylicum, 14 co-digestion, 43–44, 48, 75, 81, 100 coal, 12, 48, 165, 219, 221, 231, 237 cogeneration, 238–240, 243, 247–248 combustion, xix, 14, 19, 47, 221, 227, 229, 233, 238, 240, 242–243, 247, 250, 259, 269 competition, 12, 14, 45, 84, 184, 193 compost, xvii–xviii, xxii–xxiii, 110– 112, 114–117, 119–121, 123, 125– 128, 130–131, 133–137, 139–141, 146–148, 151–160, 163, 165–168, 170, 172, 175, 177, 181–182, 192, 197–198, 201–202, 204–207, 212, 214–215, 221, 232–233 compost mass, 153 compost maturity, xviii, xxiii, 157, 165–167, 215 Index 277 compost process, 121, 123, 127, 133, 135–136 compost volume, 155 biocomposting, 185 vermicompost, xviii–xix, xxiii– xxiv, 12, 120, 122–124, 127, 131, 133–140, 142, 169–171, 173–211, 213–216 composters, xviii, xxiii, 139, 146, 149–153, 166 composting, xv–xviii, xx, xxii–xxiv, 8, 105, 107, 109–111, 113, 115–124, 133–137, 139–143, 145–148, 150– 158, 161–167, 170, 175–177, 182, 197, 200, 203–205, 208, 212, 215 commercial composting, 120 conservation, 4, 10, 20–21, 48, 210, 212 consumer, 3–8, 10–12, 19, 37, 76 consumer behavior, cooking, xvi, 4, 7, 10, 13, 49 cooking oil, 13 copper (Cu), 50–51, 72, 115–116, 184, 55–56, 58, 157, 163, 236–237, 260–261, 268–269, 276 corn, 12, 14, 17–18, 188, 194, 199 cost, xviii–xix, 5, 7, 12, 14, 18, 23, 64, 76, 85, 175, 184, 197, 213, 222–223, 227–231, 248, 251–253, 256, 269 capital cost, 18, 222, 227–228, 231 maintenance costs, 248, 251 operating costs, 222, 227–228 production cost, 18 cyanobacteria, 54, 76 D decomposition, xvi, xxiv, 38, 71, 74, 133, 140, 142, 158, 163, 170–172, 174, 176–177, 182, 184, 209, 211 © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc degradation, xix, xxiii, 25, 29, 37, 39, 41, 54, 58, 69, 77–78, 101, 111–112, 114, 116, 145, 155–158, 165–166, 169–171, 180, 236 denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE), 62, 65, 75, 84, 140–141, 143, 166 diet, 48, 55, 71, 171, 186 digester, xxi, 24–28, 31, 33, 36–41, 43–44, 47–49, 54–62, 65–68, 70–71, 73–76, 78, 81, 92, 101–102, 240, 242, 244, 247–248, 250–251 discount payback period (DPP), 247, 252 disease, xviii, 54, 108, 137, 139, 181, 191–192, 194, 198, 202–203, 211, 213–214 disease suppression, xviii, 137, 139, 181, 192 diversity, xvi, xviii, xxii, 25, 28, 33, 39–40, 43, 48, 61–63, 79–80, 101– 102, 120, 136, 138, 140–142, 169, 171, 173, 175, 177–179, 181, 183, 185, 187, 189, 191–193, 195, 197, 199, 201, 203–205, 207, 209–211, 213, 215–216 DNA, 27, 33, 39, 62, 64–65, 77, 99, 122, 124, 140–141 DNA sequencing, 62, 77 next generation sequencing methods (NGS), 62–63 drains, 108 dumping, 111 E earthworms, xxiv, 120, 123, 136–137, 142, 169–186, 188–189, 192, 194, 196–216 anecic, 173, 204 epigeic, 173–174, 214 278 Index ecology, 25, 77, 84, 100–101, 142, 199–200, 202–203, 205, 208, 212 economic, xviii–xix, xxiii, 4–5, 11–13, 19–21, 75–76, 107, 139, 209, 223, 225, 227–229, 235, 238, 244, 248–250, 253–254 economic efficiency, viii, 235, 244, 248 edible, 3–4, 11–14 education, Eisenia fetida, 123, 198, 201, 205, 209–210, 212 electrical conductivity (EC), xvi, 49, 76, 153, 176–177, 197, 212, 219, 255 electricity, 223, 225, 238–239, 241–244, 248–249, 251 electricity consumption, 241–242 electricity peak demand, 244 electrolysis, 95–96, 102 energy security, 12 Enterobacteriaceae, 57, 183 equilibrium, 69–70, 230–231 Escherichia coli, 21, 50, 58, 115–116, 172, 185–186 esterification, 13 ethanol, 14, 55, 167–168 cellulosic ethanol, 14 ethical, extracellular polysaccharide (EPS), 57 F farms, xvii, 5–6, 12, 48–51, 54–55, 75–76, 117, 119, 121, 125, 169, 203, 205, 207, 210, 213–214, 238–240, 242, 244, 248–253 fatty acids, xvi–xvii, xxi, 13, 28, 30, 55, 58–59, 68–71, 74, 85, 140 fatty acid alkyl esters, 13 feedstock, 14–15, 18, 23, 56, 61, 66, 72, 74, 82, 102, 134 © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc fermentation, 14–15, 17–18, 20, 24, 27–28, 36–39, 41, 68, 79, 82, 102, 166, 168, 235, 242, 256 acidogenic fermentation, 18 bacterial fermentation, 17 fertilizer, xvi–xvii, xxi, 48–49, 55, 74, 111, 167, 178, 184–185, 190–191, 193, 195–198, 200, 202, 205–207, 209, 211–214, 216, 252, 256 filtration, xvi, 13, 25, 43, 61, 89, 247, 251 Firmicutes, xxii, 35–37, 39, 90, 126–127, 133, 135–137, 181–183 flame ionization detector (FID), 29, 100 flooding, 108 fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), xxiii, 36, 62, 65, 98, 102, 148, 151, 156, 166 food Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 3, 5, 20 food donation, 11 food insecurity, food mass, 3–4 food processing, 4, 47, 98 food security, 5, 8, 110–111 food supply chain (FSC), 4–6, 8, 14, 19 food waste (FW), xv–xvi, xx, 3–15, 17–21, 23–27, 29, 31, 33, 35–41, 43–45, 82, 112, 147, 155–156, 165, 167–168, 187, 199 formic acid, 28 formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase (FTHFS), 58, 78 fossil fuels, xix, 12, 48, 235 fungi, xviii, xxiii, 120–121, 124, 126, 133–137, 139–140, 142–143, 147, 152, 157, 166, 169, 172, 176, 192, 197, 201, 204, 210, 216 Index 279 G Gammaproteobacteria, 71, 90, 181, 183 garbage picker, 11 gas chromatograph (GC), 28–29, 100, 139, 189, 216 gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS), 189 gasification, 47, 269 genus, 35, 37–41, 71, 90, 92, 128 Giardia, 50 global warming, 12 grape marc (GM), xix, xxiv–xxv, 141, 143, 166, 255–257, 259–261, 263, 265, 267–269 greenhouse gas (GHG), xvi, xxiii, 4, 7, 12, 14, 19, 48–49, 54, 74, 108, 145, 235 H health hazards, 48 heat, xvi, xxiv–xxv, 8, 24, 49, 67, 73, 85, 121, 133, 139, 147, 150, 156, 194, 222–223, 225–226, 228, 230–232, 238–239, 241–242, 244, 248–253, 256, 260–261, 267–269 heating value, 222, 225, 232, 260, 267, 269 heavy metal, xviii, 50, 71, 73, 116–117, 185–186, 269 high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), 189 high-throughput sequencing, xxii, 85, 101, 120–121, 134 hormones, xxiv, 50, 170, 179, 183– 184, 187, 189, 202, 210, 214–215 household, 4–5, 7–8, 10–11, 20–21, 110, 204 humic, 8, 115–117, 177, 184–185, 187–188, 190, 196, 198–199, © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc 201–202, 204, 206, 208–209, 212, 214–215 humic acids, 177, 185, 187, 190, 196, 199, 201, 204, 212, 214–215 hydraulic retention time (HRT), xxi, 41, 44, 60, 66–68, 70–72, 74, 79–80, 82, 84, 96, 98, 101 hydrazine oxidoreductase genes (hzo), 62, 80 hydrogen, 8, 15, 19–20, 39, 55–56, 58, 68, 78, 92, 102, 197, 237, 259–261, 267 hydrolysis, 24, 36–37, 39, 55, 57, 60, 70, 79, 81, 89, 167 I incineration, xv, xx, indole-acetic-acid (IAA), 189 infrastructure, 6, 13, 274 inoculum, xxi, 25–26, 43, 82, 85, 96–98, 157 internal rate of return (IRR), 244, 252 investment, 12, 231, 247–248, 251 K Kyoto Protocol, xix, 221, 232 L lactose, 14 lag phase, 157 landfill, xv, xx, xxiii, 4, 7–8, 11–12, 19–21, 77, 80, 119, 145–146, 219, 221, 233, 269 leachate, 8, 77, 145, 150, 259 library, 33, 62, 65, 75, 99 lignin, 37, 146–147, 157, 166, 168, 183 lignocellulosic, 14, 21, 72, 166–167 280 Index litter, 166, 169, 172, 174, 178, 215 livestock, 48–49, 54–55, 66, 68, 71, 75, 81, 122, 140, 238 M manure, xvi–xvii, xxi–xxiii, 4, 44, 48–52, 54–56, 61, 65–68, 70–76, 80–81, 85, 89, 92, 95–98, 100–101, 120–123, 126–128, 130, 135, 137, 139–140, 142–143, 147, 154–155, 167, 174–178, 187–188, 191, 198–202, 205, 208–209, 211–212, 214, 238, 252 cattle manure, xvii, xxi, 81, 85, 89, 95, 97–98, 101, 137, 142, 178, 187, 208–209, 211 dairy manure, xxiii, 44, 74, 76, 80 marketing, Mechanical Biological Treatment (MBT), 219, 221, 232–233 membrane, xvi, 25, 28, 36, 43, 57, 61, 63, 201 membrane filtration, xvi, 25, 43, 61 mesophilic, xx, 23–27, 29, 36, 38, 41, 43, 45, 58–60, 68, 70, 75–76, 78–79, 81–82, 98, 101–102, 120, 123, 136– 137, 155, 157, 163, 167, 176, 207 methane (CH4), xvii, xx–xxi, 4, 8, 12, 14–15, 24, 27–29, 31–32, 37, 40–41, 45, 48–49, 54–60, 68–72, 74, 77, 80–83, 85–86, 89, 92, 96–97, 100–102, 227, 230–231, 236–237, 240–241, 250, 276, 280 methane production, 15, 24, 31–32, 37, 40–41, 45, 56, 60, 71–72, 85, 89, 92, 96, 100 methane yield, xvii, xx–xxi, 27, 29, 32, 41, 48, 68–69, 71–72, 85–86, 89, 97, 100 Methanobacteriales, 39, 59, 92 Methanobacterium, 57, 59, 92 © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc Methanococcales, 39, 59, 92 Methanoculleus, 40–41, 59, 92 methanogens, 40–42, 45, 55–60, 62–64, 67, 69–71, 75, 77–80, 86, 92, 101–102 methanogenesis, 24, 39–41, 55–56, 58, 60, 63, 66, 68–70, 77–78, 83, 92 Methanomicrobiales, 39–40, 59, 73, 92 Methanosarcinales, 39, 58–60, 73, 92 microbial communities, xvi–xviii, xx–xxii, 24–25, 27, 33, 39, 41, 43, 45, 49–50, 56–57, 60–62, 64–65, 73, 75, 77, 79, 82–85, 87, 89, 91, 93, 95–97, 101–103, 115–116, 120–121, 123, 134, 136–137, 139–141, 143, 154–155, 166, 169, 176, 181, 198, 205, 215 microbial diversity, xvi, 25, 33, 43, 102, 120, 140, 169, 171, 173, 175, 177, 179, 181, 183, 185, 187, 189, 191–193, 195, 197, 199, 201, 203, 205, 207, 209, 211, 213, 215 mixing, 26, 73–74, 76, 81–82, 147, 173–174 moisture, xxv, 13, 17, 23, 72, 114–115, 145–146, 148, 150, 153, 171, 210, 260–261, 264, 268 money, 7, 229 Mortierella, 127, 134–136 most probable number (MPN), 61, 115, 185 mucus, 171, 175, 184 municipal solid waste (MSW), xxiv, 20, 23, 29, 75, 82, 107–109, 111, 113, 115, 117, 120, 139–140, 167, 205, 219, 221–223, 225–227, 229–233, 260, 269 N nematodes, xix, xxiv, 136, 196–200, 203, 207, 212–214, 216 Index 281 net present value (NPV), 244, 251 newspaper, xviii, xxiii, 146, 148, 151, 153–161 nutrient, xvi, xx–xxi, xxiii–xxiv, 5, 8, 18, 48–51, 55, 71–74, 76, 119, 142, 145, 154, 170, 172–174, 176, 178–179, 181–185, 187, 190–191, 194, 196, 198, 201–202, 206, 210 O odor, xxi, xxiii, 8, 145, 186, 236 oleate, 96–97, 101 onion peels, xviii, xxiii–xxiv, 146, 148, 151, 153–162, 164–165 organic loading rate (OLR), xvi, 25–26, 30–32, 37, 40–41, 65, 67–68, 70–72, 81–82, 101 oxygen supply, 114, 116 P packaging, 4, 6–7, 10, 225, 229 paper mill, 18, 177, 188, 200–201, 204 pathogens, xix, xxiii–xxiv, 49–51, 54, 68, 76, 120, 123, 136, 147, 170, 179, 184–187, 191–193, 198, 200, 203–206, 210, 214, 252 Penicillium, 134, 137, 152 permeability, 17 Personal Genome Machine (PGM), 85, 99 pH, xvii, 24, 26, 28–30, 38, 40, 58–60, 65, 67–69, 71–72, 80–82, 85–86, 89, 98, 101, 115–117, 141, 153, 167, 176–177, 184, 197, 212 phytoplankton, 51 pipeline, 124 plant growth, xviii–xix, xxiv, 139, 170, 178–181, 184–185, 187–191, 195, 197–203, 205, 207–208, 210, 215 © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), 179, 197 plant metabolism, 189 pollution, xvi, xviii, 47, 49, 51, 74, 108, 116–117, 145, 205, 271 air pollution, 108 polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), 16–19, 21 polylactic acid (PLA), 17 population, xv, xviii, xx–xxi, 23, 37–39, 41, 47, 50, 61–62, 66, 73, 75, 77, 79–80, 107–108, 111, 146, 157, 166, 170, 178, 181–182, 184, 192, 195–197, 206, 208, 211–212, 222, 227, 229 population growth, 23, 157, 196, 206 postharvest, 3, 5, 11 poultry, 48–49, 66, 68, 75, 147, 154, 163, 167 power grid, 238, 244, 248 pretreatment, xix, 13 principal coordinates analysis (PCoA), 94–95, 99, 130–131 processing, xxiii, 3–5, 7, 10–11, 17, 38, 44, 47, 81, 98, 116, 125, 148, 151, 199 production, xv, xvii–xxii, xxiv, 3–8, 10, 12–21, 24, 31–32, 37, 40–41, 44–45, 48, 56, 60, 71–72, 75–77, 79, 81–83, 85, 89, 92, 96, 98, 100–102, 110, 114, 117, 121, 143, 158, 166– 167, 171, 177, 179, 184, 188–190, 199–200, 207–210, 213–215, 219, 237–238, 252–253 Proteobacteria, 35–37, 90, 126–127, 133–137, 181, 183 Pseudomonas, 152, 169, 178–180, 182–183, 186, 192, 194, 197, 206–208, 212, 214 public health, xxi, 44, 47, 49–50, 52, 54, 76, 100, 102, 117, 175 282 Index purity, 13 pyrosequencing, xvi, xx, 25, 27–28, 33–34, 39, 42–43, 75, 77, 79–80, 101–102, 135, 141–142 R reactor, xvii, xx–xxii, xxv, 16, 24, 26–27, 29–33, 36–39, 41, 43–45, 65–66, 68–74, 77–80, 83–87, 89–90, 92, 95–99, 101–102, 123, 147, 156, 165, 175, 204, 221, 231, 258–259 recovery, xx, 7–8, 19, 23, 48, 89, 96, 103, 118, 219, 233, 269 energy recovery, 7–8, 19, 23, 269 recycling, 7, 13, 19–21, 55, 120, 139, 145, 166, 170, 209, 214, 219, 238, 256, 269 Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF), xxiv, 219, 221–223, 225–229, 231–232 restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), 62, 79, 84, 140 retailers, 3, 7, 19 reuse, 7, 19, 23, 82 Ribosomal Database Project (RDP), 89, 95, 99, 102, 125 S salinity, 60, 154, 177–178 Salmonella, 50, 75, 115–116, 185– 186, 201, 213 sanitation, xv–xvi, xxiii, 49, 51, 147 sawdust, 112, 120, 122, 139, 143, 146 scum, 73 sewage, 24, 43, 59–60, 92, 96, 100–101, 120, 147, 165–166, 168, 176–177, 185–186, 188, 200, 202, 208–209, 213–214, 238, 269 Shannon diversity, 28, 138 Simpson diversity, 28, 33 © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc single strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP), 62, 183 sludge, 24, 26, 36, 38–39, 43–45, 60, 66, 74–75, 79, 81, 92, 96, 98, 100, 102, 120, 135, 147, 154, 165–166, 168, 176–178, 185–186, 200–202, 204, 206, 208–209, 213–214, 238, 268–269 social, xix, 4–5, 12, 19, 49 socio-demographic, 4, 10 socioeconomic, 51 soil, xvi, xviii–xix, xxii, xxiv, 5, 12, 25, 43, 51, 77, 96, 101, 108, 110–111, 117, 137, 140–143, 152, 158, 165– 167, 169–175, 177–179, 181–187, 189–192, 195–204, 206–216, 269 soil fertility, xix, xxiv, 170, 183, 198, 206, 210 soil structure, 174, 184 solid recovered fuel (SRF), xxv, 256, 260, 268 solid retention time (SRT), 24, 27, 29–32, 37, 81 soluble microbial products (SMP), 36 Spirochaetes, 35–37, 39 standard deviation, 26, 29, 148, 153 stochastic assembly, 95, 102 stochastic factors, xvi–xvii, xxi–xxii, 84–85, 97 stoichiometry, 259 storage, 4, 6, 10, 15, 18, 48, 66, 71, 226, 240, 242, 247–248, 250–251 straw, 120, 122, 139–140, 142–143, 209 Streptomyces, 169, 179, 194 substrate, xviii–xix, xxi, xxiii, 13–15, 18, 25–27, 31, 36–38, 48, 55, 58–60, 65, 67–73, 77, 79, 82, 84, 96, 98, 112, 116, 139, 142, 147–148, 150–151, 163, 167, 171, 175–176, 182, 201, 205, 259 sugar cane, 12 Index 283 supply chain, 3–4, 6, 14, 21 T tax, 11 taxonomic, 28, 34–35, 40, 42, 78, 89, 91–92, 95, 99, 120, 124–125, 127, 141 temperature, xvii, xxi–xxiii, 27, 60, 66–71, 76–77, 79, 81, 83–86, 89–90, 92, 95–99, 101, 111–112, 114, 116, 120, 122–123, 136, 143, 147, 150–156, 159, 165, 167, 194, 211, 223, 236, 259–262, 267 ambient temperature, 120, 155–156 temperature disturbance, xvii, xxi– xxii, 85–86, 90, 92, 96–97, 99 temperature fluctuations, xvii, 85, 155 Tenericutes, 35–37, 39 thermophilic, xviii, xxiii–xxiv, 24, 41, 43, 58–60, 68, 70, 77–79, 81–82, 90, 101–102, 120–121, 123, 133–137, 139–140, 143, 147, 151, 154–155, 157–158, 163, 165–167, 175–176, 185, 192, 197, 207, 273 total dissolved solids (TDS), 186 total organic carbon (TOC), 152–153, 157–158, 161–164, 171 total solids (TS), xx, 23–27, 29–33, 35–41, 43, 45, 70, 72, 74, 98, 100, 216, 260–261, 269 total suspended solids (TSS), 186, 190 transesterification, 13 transport, 4, 7, 10, 208 transportation, 4, 6, 12, 49 Trichoderma, 135–136, 152, 192, 194, 197, 202 V valorization, 238, 242, 250, 256, 269 vegetable oil, 13–14 © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc volatile fatty acid (VFA), xvi–xvii, xxi, 19, 28–30, 37, 40–41, 58–59, 68–70, 74, 81, 85–86, 88–89, 96–97 volatile solid (VS), 12–13, 25–27, 29–32, 39–41, 70, 86, 98, 100, 256, 260–261, 267–269 W waste agro-industrial, 4, 18, 21, 47 food waste, xv–xvi, xx, 3–15, 17– 21, 23–27, 29, 31, 33, 35–37, 39, 41, 43–45, 82, 112, 147, 155–156, 165, 167–168, 187, 199 industrial, xv–xvi, xx, xxiv, 3–4, 8, 12, 17–18, 21, 23, 44, 47, 81, 101, 167, 175–176, 198, 203, 219, 222, 226–227, 229–230, 232, 238 kitchen waste, xxiii, 145–146, 149–152, 165–166, 168 milk house waste, 55 waste management, xv, xvii–xx, xxiv, 3, 5, 7–9, 12, 14, 19–21, 55, 75, 107, 109, 111, 117–118, 169–170, 175, 185–186, 197, 199, 203, 212, 219, 232, 269 waste management hierarchy, xx, 7, 9, 12 waste prevention, 7–8, 19, 219 waste volume, 21, 107 wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), 26, 36 water, xv–xvi, xxiv–xxv, 5, 13, 17, 21, 27, 43–45, 49–51, 54–56, 60, 62–63, 66, 75–76, 78–82, 101–102, 108, 111, 114, 124, 135, 145, 150–151, 154, 157, 163, 165–167, 173, 175, 184–186, 189, 197, 204, 210, 213, 221, 238, 240, 256, 259, 267–268, 271 surface water, 54, 145 284 weed, xviii, 68, 139, 176 wheat, 14, 180, 190, 192, 200, 202, 206, 209, 213 wine, 201, 255–256, 269 © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc Index Z zinc (Zn), 50–51, 72, 115–116, 184, 191 .. .BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF SOLID WASTE Enhancing Sustainability © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc © 2016 by Apple Academic Press, Inc BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF SOLID WASTE Enhancing Sustainability. .. Biological Treatment of Solid Waste: Enhancing Sustainability A deep analysis of a whole Food Supply Chain (FSC) system can highlight the fact that the production of waste material (organic waste. .. 6 Biological Treatment of Solid Waste: Enhancing Sustainability food is wasted in the industrialized world than in developing countries (Gustavsson et al., 2011) TABLE 1: Average annual food waste