A closer look at plant reproduction, growth, and ecology m anderson (britannica, 2012)

Published in 2012 by Britannica Educational Publishing (a trademark of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.) in association with Rosen Educational Services, LLC 29 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010 Copyright © 2012 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, and the Thistle logo are registered trademarks of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc All rights reserved Rosen Educational Services materials copyright © 2012 Rosen Educational Services, LLC All rights reserved Distributed exclusively by Rosen Educational Services For a listing of additional Britannica Educational Publishing titles, call toll free (800) 237-9932 First Edition Britannica Educational Publishing Michael I Levy: Executive Editor, Encyclopædia Britannica J.E Luebering: Director, Core Reference Group, Encyclopædia Britannica Adam Augustyn: Assistant Manager, Encyclopædia Britannica Anthony L Green: Editor, Compton’s by Britannica Michael Anderson: Senior Editor, Compton’s by Britannica Sherman Hollar: Associate Editor, Compton’s by Britannica Marilyn L Barton: Senior Coordinator, Production Control Steven Bosco: Director, Editorial Technologies Lisa S Braucher: Senior Producer and Data Editor Yvette Charboneau: Senior Copy Editor Kathy Nakamura: Manager, Media Acquisition Rosen Educational Services Jeanne Nagle: Senior Editor Nelson Sá: Art Director Cindy Reiman: Photography Manager Karen Huang: Photo Researcher Matthew Cauli: Designer, Cover Design Introduction by Jeanne Nagle Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A closer look at plant reproduction, growth, and ecology / edited by Michael Anderson.—1st ed p cm.—(Introduction to biology) “In association with Britannica Educational Publishing, Rosen Educational Services.” Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-61530-579-7 (eBook) Plants—Reproduction—Juvenile literature Growth (Plants)—Juvenile literature Plant ecology—Juvenile literature I Anderson, Michael, 1972QK825.C53 2012 581.3—dc22 2011008271 Cover and interior background images Shutterstock.com C ON TE N TS IntroductIon chapter 1 M Methods of plant reproductIon 10 chapter 2 p plant GGrowth and developMent 22 chapter 3 I IInfluences on plant Growth 39 chapter 4 p plant ecolo coloGy 50 74 75 78 81 83 conclusIon Glossary for More InforMatIon BIBlIoGraphy Index INTRODUCTION I n many ways, plants are like any other living organism A plant is born, grows, develops, reproduces, and, like animals and humans, plays a vital role in sustaining the environment in which it lives Yet there are also a number of life processes that set plants apart from other living things As this book details, the habits and survival methods of plant life on Earth range from the simply curious to the truly remarkable Consider the ways in which plants reproduce Some plants are created by the joining of one parent plant’s male sex cells and another’s female sex cells Humans and most animals also reproduce in this way Yet there are other methods of plant reproduction that don’t depend upon two parents, or even sex cells, for that matter Leaves and stems—whether they break off on their own, are cut on purpose, or naturally grow underground (in the case of tubers and bulbs)—are capable of sprouting roots and “giving birth” to a new, independent plant All living things depend on water for their survival This is especially true of plants The role of water in the life of a plant is a lot like that of blood in humans and animals; water carries nutrients and other molecules IntroductIon that keep plants alive There is no organ like a heart, though, to move water through a plant’s system Instead, plants rely on transpiration and diffusion Transpiration is the process that allows water to reach all the cells throughout a plant Plants constantly lose water by “sweating” through tiny openings in their leaves This causes lower water concentrations in leaf cells The plant responds by drawing water from the soil into the roots and then up the stem to the leaves Once water reaches a cell, it is drawn into the cell through diffusion The interiors of plant cells have high levels of salt and sugars In diffusion, water molecules move from where they are plentiful, outside cell membranes, to where they are in short supply, inside the cells No discussion of plant life would be complete without mention of photosynthesis This is the process by which plants use sunlight, carbon dioxide, water, and minerals to create their own food Photosynthesis also benefits other living creatures, including humans For one thing, any organism that eats plants absorbs the nutrients that photosynthesis creates The benefits extend to other creatures that eat plant-eaters in what A closer look At PlAnt reProductIon, Growth, And ecoloGy Caption TK IntroductIon is known as a food chain Also as the result of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere Humans and many other living organisms need oxygen to live Plants also play an important part in developing ecosystems, or natural environments Dead leaves, stems, and roots of plants leave their nutrients in soil, which makes it richer The richer the soil, the more plants that are capable of growing there, and the more robust the ecosystem can become Animals typically don’t care much about vegetation except as a food source Likewise, people might overlook a blooming flower or a young tree as they go about their day But the truth is that the life of a plant is valuable and wondrous, worthy of careful consideration Lavender blooms at the foot of a tree in Provence, France Shutterstock.com C onClusion E very year in cold climates, the emergence of green sprouts from the soil is a sure sign that spring is on its way Because this process happens naturally, without our help, it is easy to take for granted In reality, however, the development of a plant from a seed to a sprout to a fully grown specimen—be it a redwood, a rosebush, or even just a weed—involves a complex series of processes such as respiration and photosynthesis Similarly, the ability of a plant to thrive depends on a number of interacting factors, including environmental elements such as the availability of sunlight and water, the plant’s adaptations to its environment, and its relationship to other living things in its ecosystem As sources of food and oxygen, plants are vital parts of nearly all terrestrial ecosystems and play an indispensable role in the existence in life on Earth Thus their reproduction and subsequent growth remain subjects of vital importance and interest to people everywhere 74 Glossary abscission The natural separation of flowers, fruit, or leaves from plants at a special separation layer cambium A thin layer of vascular-plant tissue that continuously generates new cells and is responsible for secondary plant growth cellulose A complex carbohydrate that is the main component of plant cell walls chlorophyll Any member of the most important class of pigments involved in photosynthesis chloroplast Structure within a green plant cell in which photosynthesis occurs cotyledon The first leaf, or one of the first pair or whorl of leaves, developed by the embryo of a seed plant cytoplasm The jellylike substance inside a cell that is made up of water, proteins, and other molecules endosperm A food-containing tissue in seed plants that nourishes the embryo epiphyte A plant that gets moisture and minerals from the air and rain and that usually grows on another plant gamete A mature sex cell that is capable of uniting with a gamete of the opposite sex to begin the formation of a new individual 75 A closer look At PlAnt reProductIon, Growth, And ecoloGy gametophyte The structure in certain plants that produces gametes for the sexual phase of the alternation of generations gemma An asexual reproductive body that becomes detached from the parent plant and can develop into a new plant germination The sprouting of a seed, spore, or other reproductive body meiosis The process by which a gamete, or sex cell, divides; the resulting cells have half the number of chromosomes photosynthesis The process by which green plants transform light energy into chemical energy pistil Female reproductive part of a flower sere A series of ecological communities formed in ecological succession sporophyte The structure in certain plants that produces spores for the nonsexual phase of the alternation of generations stamen Male reproductive part of a flower stigma The upper part of the pistil of a flower that receives the pollen grains and on which they start to grow stolon A stem that grows erect from the base of a plant and then curves over, touching the ground at the tip It produces new plants from buds at its tip or nodes 76 GlossAry stoma A tiny opening or pore in the top layer of a leaf or young stem transpiration A plant’s loss of water, mainly through the stomata of leaves tropisms Growth patterns wherein plants turn or grow toward or away from a stimulus such as light (the Sun) or moisture turgor Water pressure within a cell, which makes living plant tissue rigid xerophyte A plant that grows well in dry conditions 77 For More i nForMation Botanical Research Institute of Texas 1700 University Drive Fort Worth, Texas 76107 (817) 332-4441 Web site: http://www.brit.org The Botanical Research Institute of Texas is dedicated to increasing public understanding of plants through its research projects, extensive library of publications, and educational programs Botanical Society of America 4475 Castleman Avenue St Louis, MO 63110 (314) 577-9566 Web site: http://www.botany.org The Botanical Society of America is a clearinghouse of research on plants and related organisms, conducted by professionals, academics, and educators in the botanical field The organization also offers publications and outreach programs Center for Plant Conservation PO Box 299 St Louis, MO 63166 (314) 577-9450 Web site: http://www.centerforplant conservation.org 78 for More InforMAtIon The Center for Plant Conservation is made up of more than 30 botanical institutions that are dedicated to conserving plants native to the United States through research and restoration efforts Native Plant Society of British Columbia (NPSBC) 1917 West 4th Avenue, Suite 195 Vancouver, BC V6J 1M7 Canada (604) 831-5069 Web site: http://www.npsbc.org The NPSBC is centered on the study of plants native to British Columbia Member events include field trips, workshops, and presentations by guest speakers Torrey Botanical Society PO Box 7065 Lawrence, KS 66044 (800) 627-0326 Web site: http://www.torreybotanical.org Established in 1867, the Torrey Botanical Society encourages interest in botany through professional publications, lectures, and hands-on field trips in the New York tri-state area 79 A closer look At PlAnt reProductIon, Growth, And ecoloGy University of British Columbia Botanical Garden and Centre for Plant Research 6804 SW Marine Drive Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4 Canada (604) 822-3928 Web site: http://www.ubcbotanicalgarden.org The living plant collection at the UBC Botanical Garden provides researchers at its associated Centre for Plant Research with material for their world-class studies in such areas as evolution and biodiversity Web Sites Due to the changing nature of Internet links, Rosen Educational Services has developed an online list of Web sites related to the subject of this book This site is updated regularly Please use this link to access the list: http://www.rosenlinks.com/biol/prge 80 B iBlioGraphy Angier, Bradford Field Guide to Medicinal Wild Plants (Stackpole, 2000) Baker, Margaret Discovering the Folklore of Plants, 3rd ed (Shire, 1996) Barbour, M.G., and others Terrestrial Plant Ecology, 3rd ed (Benjamin Cummings, 1999) Bold, H.C., and others Morphology of Plants and Fungi, 5th ed (Harper, 1987) Cork, Barbara Mysteries and Marvels of Plant Life (EDC, 1989) Dowden, A.O From Flower to Fruit (Ticknor & Fields, 1994) Elliott, Douglas Wild Roots (Healing Arts, 1995) Freethy, Ron From Agar to Zenry: A Book of Plant Uses, Names and Folklore (Longwood, 1985) Howell, Laura, and others World of Plants (Scholastic, 2003) Huxley, Anthony Green Inheritance: The WWF Book of Plants (Univ of Calif Press, 2005) Huxley, Anthony Plant and Planet (Penguin, 1987) Janulewicz, Mike Plants (Gloucester Press, 1984) Mabey, Richard Oak and Company (Greenwillow, 1983) 81 A closer look At PlAnt reProductIon, Growth, And ecoloGy Margulis, Lynn, and others Diversity of Life: The Illustrated Guide to the Five Kingdoms (Jones and Bartlett, 1999) Pringle, Laurence Being a Plant (Crowell, 1983) Rahn, J.E Plants That Changed History; More Plants That Changed History (Macmillan, 1982; 1985) Raven, P.H., and others Biology of Plants, 7th ed (Freeman, 2005) Salisbury, F.B., and Ross, C.W Plant Physiology, 4th ed (Wadsworth, 1992) Selsam, M.E The Plants We Eat, rev ed (Morrow, 1981) Scott, Jane Botany in the Field: An Introduction to Plant Communities for the Amateur Naturalist (Prentice, 1984) Spellenberg, Richard National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Wildflowers: Western Region (Knopf, 2004) Thieret, J.W., and others National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Wildflowers: Eastern Region (Knopf, 2004) 82 i ndex A bacteria, 51, 63 berry plants, 11, 13 biennials, 67–69 birds, 59 bracts, 73 buds and budding, 13, 42, 45, 67, 69, 73 bulbs, 12 carnivores, 50 cell development and growth, 13, 18, 29, 30, 31, 39–40, 44, 45 cell membranes, 30 cellulose, 37 chlorophyll, 34, 35, 69–71 chloroplasts, 34, 36 coconuts, 23 cold climates, 26, 62, 69 competition, 56–59 conifers, 16–18, 53 cooperation and mutualism, 59, 63 corms, 12 corn, 20 cotyledons, 22, 23, 26 cross-pollination, 19–20 cuticles, 32, 60 cuttings and slips, 12–13 cytokinins, 44 cytoplasm, 30, 34 C D cacti, 33–34, 60 cambium, 13, 39 carbohydrates, 37, 51 carbon cycle, 51 carbon dioxide, 36, 38, 50 desert habitats, 16, 28–29, 32, 33–34, 60–62 diffusion, 22, 29–31, 45 dioecious plants, 20 abscisic acid, 44 abscission, 45, 71 adaptations, 20, 33–34, 60–62 afterripening, 26 agricultural fields, 54, 56 alternation of generations, 14–16 animals, 50–51, 54, 63, 64–66, 67 asexual reproduction, 10–13 auxins, 42–44, 45 B 83 A closer look At PlAnt reProductIon, Growth, And ecoloGy disease, 45 dormancy, 26–27, 44, 45, 49, 60–61 drought, 26, 60, 62 forsythia, 13 frost damage, 62 fruit and fruit production, 13, 21, 42, 44, 45 fungi, 51 E G ecosystems, 50–56 eggs, 14, 19, 21 embryos, 21, 22, 23, 24 endosperm, 21, 23 energy, 36, 37, 38, 50 enzymes, 34, 48 epicotyl, 22 epiphytes, 59 gametes, 13, 14, 16 gametophytes, 16 gemmae, 10 generations, 14–16 geotropism, 44 germination, 10, 14, 18, 21, 22–29, 49, 56, 59, 61 gibberellins, 44 glucose, 36, 37–38 grafting, 13 grapevines, 13 grasses, 51, 53, 62 Great Lakes, 53 growth patterns and rates, 42–44, 45 growth regulators, 40, 41–45 F fats, 37 ferns, 14 fertilization, 19, 23 fertilizers, 31 fig trees, 58–59 fires, 29, 52, 56 flowering dogwood, 73 flowers and flowering, 12, 20, 21, 44, 47, 61, 66, 67, 71, 73 food and nutrition, 23, 24, 34, 37, 40, 41, 50, 60, 62–63, 67, 69 food chains, 50 forests, 27–28, 51, 53–54 H hardening, 69 hardiness, 20, 53 herbivores, 50 hickory, 73 hormones, 40, 41–45 84 Index horse chestnut, 73 hydrogen, 36 hydrophytes, 62 hypocotyls, 22, 25 N I O insectivorous plants, 64–66 insects, 21, 45, 64–66 ocotillo, 60 osmosis, 30 ovaries, 21 overwintering, 66–73 ovules, 18, 21 oxygen, 24–25, 34, 36, 37–38, 62 nitrogen, 51, 62–63, 64 nucleic acids, 37 L layering, 12–13 leaves, 10, 12, 31, 32, 34, 36, 38, 42, 44, 45, 59, 60, 61, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 71, 73 light, 22, 24, 34, 38, 42–44, 45–49, 53 P parasitic plants, 58–59 perennials, 69–73 photoperiodism, 45–49 photosynthesis, 22, 29, 34–37, 40, 50, 60, 62 phototropism, 42–44 phytochrome, 47–49 pigments and pigmentation, 36, 47–49, 71 pistils, 20, 21 pitcher plants, 64 plant establishment, 10, 11, 25, 26, 53–54, 56, 63 plumules, 22 polar nuclei, 21 pollen and pollination, 17–21 M meiosis, 14 meristem tissues, 39 microstroboli, 17 mineral cycles, 51 minerals, 31, 37, 41, 51, 56, 62, 64 mitosis, 39 monoecious plants, 20 mutualism and cooperation, 59–60, 63 85 A closer look At PlAnt reProductIon, Growth, And ecoloGy polymers, 36 potatoes, 12 proteins, 37, 51 sori, 14 Spanish moss, 59–60 sperm, 14, 17, 21 spores, 14 sporophyte, 14, 16 stamens, 20, 21 starch, 37 stems, 10, 11, 13, 34, 36, 38, 39, 42, 44, 45, 53, 60, 66, 67, 69 stigma, 20, 21 stolons, 11 stomata, 31, 36, 38 succession, 52–56, 63 succulent plants, 32, 33–34, 60 sucrose, 36 sugars, 30, 36–38 sumac, 73 sundew, 64 R radicles, 22, 25 rainfall, 28–29, 34, 59, 60, 61, 62, 69, 73 respiration, 22, 24, 36, 37–38 rhizomes, 12 ripening, 45 roots and root systems, 10, 12, 22, 25–26, 31, 32, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 42, 44, 53, 59, 60, 62, 63, 66, 67, 69 runners, 11, 12 S salts, 30 sand dunes, 53 seeds, 16–21, 22–29, 61–62 self-pollination, 19–20 seres, 54 sexual reproduction, 10, 13–21 shoots, 26, 39, 44 soil, 13, 25–26, 27–29, 31, 34, 36, 37, 51, 53, 56, 62, 63 soil moisture, 16, 24, 26, 28, 31, 67 T temperatures, 24–25, 26, 45, 62, 69 toxins, 59 transpiration, 31–34 trees and shrubs, 12, 20, 27–28, 32, 49, 53–54, 58–59, 63, 69–71, 73 tropical ecosystems, 71 tropisms, 42 tubers, 12 86 Index Went, Frits W., 42 wet habitats, 51, 62, 64 wilting, 31, 40 wind pollination, 20 turgor, 29, 31 twigs, 69, 71 V vascular plants, 10–11 vegetative reproduction, 10–11 Venus’s-flytrap, 64–66 X W Y water, 22, 24–25, 26, 28, 29–34, 36, 38, 40, 53, 54, 56, 60, 62 weeds and weed control, 12, 56–58 yellowing, 44 xerophytes, 60–61 xylem, 32, 36 Z zygotes, 13, 14, 16, 18, 21 87 ... the movement of water molecules from areas 29 A closer look At PlAnt reProductIon, Growth, And ecoloGy of high concentration (areas with many water molecules) to areas of low concentration (areas... decades 27 A closer look At PlAnt reProductIon, Growth, And ecoloGy Greenery and blossoms grow amid the charred remains of California scrubland after a fire Some plant seeds are awakened from... gametophyte is a heart-shaped plant less than 0.25 inches (0.6 cm) across and it produces male and female gametes When a male gamete unites with a female gamete, a zygote is formed that grows into a young