Q Chapter Leadership Is Developed through Education and Experience “Leadership and learning are indispensable to each other.” ~John F Kennedy The Action-Observation-Reflection Model Leadership development is enhanced when the experience involves three different processes: Action Observation Reflection McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-3 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved The Spiral of Experience Figure 3-1 McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-4 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Colin Powell and the A-O-R Model Action Powell’s multiple calls for the parachutists to check their lines Observation Powell’s shocked realization of the potentially fatal accident that would have occurred had he not double-checked the static lines Reflection The lesson that Powell drew from the experience: “Always check the small things.” McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-5 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved The Key Role of Perception in the Spiral of Experience Experience is not just a matter of what events happen to you; it also depends on how you perceive those events Perception affects all three phases of the actionobservation-reflection model People actively shape and construct their experiences McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-6 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Perception and Observation Observation and perception both deal with attending to events around us We are selective in what we attend to and what we, in turn, perceive Perceptual sets can influence any of our senses, and they are the tendency or bias to perceive one thing and not another Factors that can trigger a perceptual set: Feelings Needs Prior experience Expectations McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-7 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Perception and Observation (continued) Stereotypes about genders, race, etc., represent powerful impediments to learning since they function as filters which distort one’s observational abilities We all have biases, although we are usually unaware of them We only become aware of our perceptual sets when we spend time reflecting about the content of a leadership training program or a particular leadership situation McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-8 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Perception and Reflection Reflection deals with how we interpret our observations Perception is inherently an interpretive, or a meaning-making, activity Attributions are the explanations we develop for the behaviors or actions we attend to The tendency to overestimate the dispositional causes of behavior and underestimate the environmental causes when others fail is called the fundamental attribution error McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-9 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Perception and Reflection (continued) Self-serving bias is the tendency to make external attributions for one’s own failures, yet make internal attributions for one’s successes Actor/observer difference refers to the fact that people who are observing an action are much more likely than the actor to make the fundamental attribution error Reflection also involves higher functions like evaluation and judgment, not just perception and attribution McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-10 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Single and Double-Loop Learning Single-loop learners seek relatively little feedback that may significantly confront their fundamental ideas or actions Individuals learn only about subjects within the “comfort zone” of their belief systems Double-loop learning involves a willingness to confront one’s own views and an invitation to others to so, too Openness to information and power sharing with others can lead to better recognition and definition of problems, improved communication, and increased decision-making effectiveness McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-14 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Thinking Frames and Multiple Perspectives Thinking Frames refer to the tactics and the strategies people use to organize their thinking and to construe the meaning of events The development of multiple perspectives may be one of the greatest contributions a formal course in leadership can make to a leader’s development One key to leadership success is having a variety of tools to choose from and knowing when and where to use them McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-15 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Leadership Development through Experience Factors that make any given experience potent in fostering managerial growth: The people you work with The characteristics of the task itself People who become leaders in any field tend to first stand out by virtue of their technical proficiency Leaders emerge or are selected for leadership roles on the basis of their competence or proficiency in their primary role requirements McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-16 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Changing Requirements for Success Figure 3-3 McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-17 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved The People You Work With A boss can be a powerful catalyst for growth Working with others who have different backgrounds, perspectives, or agendas can often be a growth experience Working with problem subordinates can stimulate managerial growth Both mentors and mentorees benefit from having the relationship Having a mentor can result in more career opportunities for the mentoree McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-18 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Developmental Tasks Leadership development can be enhanced if the environment one works in is changing, dynamic, uncontrollable, and unpredictable Projects involving strategic planning and projections into an uncertain future can be challenging intellectually and can contribute to a leader’s development The best development opportunities are those that stretch individuals and allow them to test themselves against new and difficult tasks The risk of possible failure is a strong incentive for managers to learn McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-19 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Developmental Opportunities Organizations may not provide the same development opportunities for all their members There is a striking difference between large and small organizations in the opportunities they offer The sheer size and impersonal nature of some organizations does not provide the soil in which a young person’s leadership can grow McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-20 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Making the Most of Your Leadership Experiences: Learning to Learn from Experience The learning events and developmental experiences that punctuate one’s life are usually stressful Being able to go against the grain of one’s personal historical success requires an unwavering commitment to learning and a relentless willingness to let go of the fear of failure and the unknown To be successful, learning must continue throughout life, beyond the completion of one’s formal education McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-21 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Anatomy of a Learning Experience Figure 3-4 McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-22 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Leadership Development through Education and Training Research has shown that: Education level or academic performance in college was positively related to future managerial success Educational programs generally have a positive effect on leadership development Formal education and training programs can help one become a better leader The content of different leadership programs varies considerably, depending on the target audience McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-23 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved University Courses in Leadership Spitzberg (1987) estimated that over 500 colleges or universities offer some type of leadership training program The topics covered in most leadership courses include how personality traits, cognitive abilities, values, behaviors, motivation, group dynamics, communication, situational factors, and different theories of leadership can all be used to describe the leadership process Some courses provide individualized feedback through: Case studies Role Playing Simulations Games McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-24 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Leadership Training Programs There are numerous leadership training programs aimed particularly toward leaders and supervisors in industry or public service: Lectures Case studies Role-playing exercises to improve leadership skills Programs for midlevel managers often focus on: Improving interpersonal communication Oral-communication Written communication Tips on time management, planning and goal-setting McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-25 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Leadership Training Programs (continued) Leadership development in the 21st century must occur in more lifelike situations and contexts Leadership programs for senior executives and CEOs tend to focus on strategic planning, public relations, and interpersonal skills The best way to guarantee that a leadership program will be useful to you or your organization is to adopt a systematic approach to leadership training McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-26 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Building Your Leadership Self-Image Leadership develops through experience and formal education Not everyone wants to be a leader or believes he/she can be Some people believe that even if they want to be leaders, they may not have what it takes Experiment and take a few risks with different leadership roles McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-27 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Summary One way to get more out of your leadership courses and experiences is through the application of the action-observation-reflection model Be aware of the role perception plays in leadership development Education and experience can contribute to your development as a leader by enhancing your ability to reflect on and analyze leadership situations Successful leaders are those who have “an extraordinary tenacity in extracting something worthwhile from their experience and in seeking experiences rich in opportunities for growth.” McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3-28 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved ... Frames refer to the tactics and the strategies people use to organize their thinking and to construe the meaning of events The development of multiple perspectives may be one of the greatest contributions... way to get more out of your leadership courses and experiences is through the application of the action-observation-reflection model Be aware of the role perception plays in leadership development... realization of the potentially fatal accident that would have occurred had he not double-checked the static lines Reflection The lesson that Powell drew from the experience: “Always check the small