(Advances in agronomy 104) donald l sparks (eds ) advances in agronomy academic press (2009)

V O LU M E O N E ADVANCES H U N D R E D IN AGRONOMY F O U R ADVANCES IN AGRONOMY Advisory Board PAUL M BERTSCH RONALD L PHILLIPS University of Kentucky University of Minnesota KATE M SCOW LARRY P WILDING University of California, Davis Texas A&M University Emeritus Advisory Board Members JOHN S BOYER KENNETH J FREY University of Delaware Iowa State University EUGENE J KAMPRATH MARTIN ALEXANDER North Carolina State University Cornell University Prepared in cooperation with the American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, and Soil Science Society of America Book and Multimedia Publishing Committee DAVID D BALTENSPERGER, CHAIR LISA K AL-AMOODI CRAIG A ROBERTS WARREN A DICK MARY C SAVIN HARI B KRISHNAN APRIL L ULERY SALLY D LOGSDON V O LU M E O N E ADVANCES H U N D R E D F O U R IN AGRONOMY EDITED BY DONALD L SPARKS Department of Plant and Soil Sciences University of Delaware Newark, Delaware, USA AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, USA 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA 32 Jamestown Road, London, NW1 7BY, UK Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands First edition 2009 Copyright # 2009 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333; email: permissions@elsevier.com Alternatively you can submit your request online by visiting the Elsevier web site at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, and selecting Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material Notice No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made ISBN: 978-0-12-374820-1 ISSN: 0065-2113 (series) For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at elsevierdirect.com Printed and bound in USA 09 10 11 12 10 CONTENTS Contributors Preface Advances in Assessing Bioavailability of Metal(Loid)s in Contaminated Soils vii ix Kirk G Scheckel, Rufus L Chaney, Nicholas T Basta, and James A Ryan Introduction Metal Risks in Soil Biological Metal Uptake Metal Extractability to Predict Availability Metal Chemistry Understanding Metal Bioavailability, Bioaccessibility, and Speciation Conclusions Acknowledgments References Nitrogen in Rainfed and Irrigated Cropping Systems in the Mediterranean Region 12 16 22 28 41 43 43 53 John Ryan, Hayriye Ibrikci, Rolf Sommer, and Ann McNeill Introduction Mediterranean Agroecosystems Perspective on Nitrogen in Agriculture Fertilizer use Trends in the Mediterranean Region Response of Rainfed Crops to Nitrogen Fertilizer Assessing Soil Nitrogen Status for Crop Yields Nitrogen Fixation Under Mediterranean Dryland Conditions Potential Losses of Nitrogen in Dryland Cropping Integrated Cropping Systems: Implications for Nitrogen 10 Nitrogen in Supplemental Irrigation Systems 11 Nitrogen Tracer use in Rainfed Cropping Systems 12 Modeling of Nitrogen in Rainfed Cropping Systems 13 Future Perspective Acknowledgments References 55 57 63 66 68 80 85 92 95 105 107 113 120 121 121 v vi Contents Biogeochemical Processes Controlling the Fate and Transport of Arsenic: Implications for South and Southeast Asia 137 Scott Fendorf and Benjamin D Kocar Introduction Arsenic Aqueous Chemistry Arsenic Surface and Solid Phases Desorption of Arsenic in Soils and Sediments Biogeochemical Processes Processes Controlling Arsenic Concentrations in South(east) Asia Summary and Conclusions Acknowledgments References Inorganic and Organic Constituents and Contaminants of Biosolids: Implications for Land Application 138 139 139 146 149 154 157 158 158 165 R J Haynes, G Murtaza, and R Naidu Introduction Sewage Treatment Processes Composition of Biosolids Nutrient Content and Release Heavy Metal Contaminants Organic Contaminants Synthesis and Conclusions References Index 166 168 169 175 182 208 234 237 269 CONTRIBUTORS Numbers in Parentheses indicate the pages on which the authors’ contributions begin Nicholas T Basta (1) School of Environment and Natural Resources, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA Rufus L Chaney (1) USDA-ARS, Environmental Management and Byproduct Utilization Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, USA Scott Fendorf (137) Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA R J Haynes (165) School of Land, Crop and Food Sciences/CRC CARE, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia Hayriye Ibrikci (53) Soil Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, C ¸ ukurova University, Balcali, Adana, Turkey Benjamin D Kocar (137) Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA Ann McNeill (53) Adelaide University, Roseworthy Campus, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia G Murtaza (165) Centre for Environmental Risk Assessment and Remediation, Division of Information Technology, Engineering and the Environment, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes Campus, South Australia, Australia and Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan R Naidu (165) CRC CARE, Salisbury, South Australia, Australia James A Ryan (1) USEPA, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA John Ryan (53) International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Aleppo, Syria vii viii Contributors Kirk G Scheckel (1) USEPA, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA Rolf Sommer (53) International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Aleppo, Syria PREFACE Volume 104 contains four outstanding reviews on timely topics that will be of interest to plant, soil, and environmental scientists Chapter is a comprehensive review on frontiers in assessing the bioavailability of metal (loids) in contaminated soils Topics that are covered include metal risks in soils, biological metal uptake, metal chemistry, metal extractability and prediction of availability, and advances in understanding metal bioavailability, bioaccessibility, and speciation Chapter discusses nitrogen in rainfed and irrigated cropping systems in the region including Mediterranean agroecosystems, fertilizer use trends, response of rainfed crops to nitrogen fertilizer, nitrogen fixation under Mediterranean dryland conditions, and modeling of nitrogen in rainfed cropping systems Chapter covers the biogeochemical processes that impact the fate and transport of arsenic with specific emphasis on South and Southeast Asia Processes that are critical include ion displacement, desorption, reduction of arsenate to arsenite, and reductive dissolution of Fe- and Mn-(hydr)oxides Chapter provides a thorough treatment on inorganic and organic contaminants in biosolids and impacts on application to land Discussions on sewage sludge treatment processes, nutrient content and release, heavy metal contaminants, and organic contaminants are provided The authors are congratulated on their first-rate reviews DONALD L SPARKS Newark, Delaware, USA ix C H A P T E R O N E Advances in Assessing Bioavailability of Metal(Loid)s in Contaminated Soils Kirk G Scheckel,* Rufus L Chaney,† Nicholas T Basta,‡ and James A Ryan§,1 Contents 7 11 12 12 13 14 16 16 Introduction Metal Risks in Soil 2.1 Bioavailability and soil element risks 2.2 Phytotoxicity risks from soil elements 2.3 Risks to soil organisms Biological Metal Uptake 3.1 Risks through soil ingestion 3.2 How much soil children ingest? 3.3 Food-chain transfer and risks Metal Extractability to Predict Availability 4.1 In vitro bioaccessibility 4.2 Common soil extractions to predict risk of phytotoxicity or food-chain risk Metal Chemistry 5.1 Metal equilibrium in soils 5.2 Metal speciation in soils Understanding Metal Bioavailability, Bioaccessibility, and Speciation 6.1 Lead 6.2 Arsenic Conclusions Acknowledgments References * { { } 21 22 22 25 28 28 35 41 43 43 USEPA, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA USDA-ARS, Environmental Management and Byproduct Utilization Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, USA School of Environment and Natural Resources, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA USEPA, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA Retired Advances in Agronomy, Volume 104 ISSN 0065-2113, DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2113(09)04001-2 # 2009 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved Inorganic and Organic Constituents 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Biochem 40, 1003–1009 Zorpas, A A., Inglezakis, V J., and Loizidou, M (2008) Heavy metals fractionation before, during and after composting of sewage sludge with natural zeolite Waste Manage 28, 2054–2060 Index A Agricultural production systems SIMultor (APSIM) legume–cereal rotations systems, 115 SOILN module, 114 water-use efficiency (WUE) and N-use efficiency (NUE) assesment, 115–116 wheat–chickpea rotation trial, 116 Arsenic (As) aqueous chemistry, 139 bioavailability assessment chemical forms, 37–39 factors, 36–37 modification, 39 reliable relative bioavailability (RBA), 40–41 risk assessment, 39–40 soil, 35–36 biogeochemical processes arsenic desorption, anaerobiosis, 150–154 microbial arsenate reduction, 149–150 concentrations controlling processes, South (east) Asia biogeochemical and hydrologic process, 156 microbial reduction of, 155 oxidative weathering, 154 reductive release of, 155–156 desorption, soils and sediments comparative desorption, 147–149 displacement and mobilization, 146–147 oxidative dissolution, 146 pollution and hazardous concentrations, 138–139 surface and solid phases adsorption envelopes, As(V) and As(III), 143–144 arsenate precipitation, 145 arsenite vs arsenate, 142–145 humic substances adsorption, 142 retention of, 139–142 sulfidogenesis, 145–146 B Barley-based rotation trials, 104 Biodegradation branched hydrocarbon chains, 209 brominated flame retardants, 222 chlorobenzenes (CBs), 215 chlorophenols, 218 dioxin, 220 estrogenic organics, 225 linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS), 224 phthalic acid esters (PAEs), 211–212 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), 223 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 216 Biogeochemical processes arsenic desorption, anaerobiosis, 150–154 microbial arsenate reduction, 149–150 Biological metal uptake children ingestion of, 13–14 food-chain transfer and risks, 14–16 soil ingestion risks, 12–13 Biosolids heavy metal contaminants animal ingestion, 207–208 definition, 182 extractable fractions, 185–187 plant response and metal uptake, 202–207 soil application, 187–202 total concentrations, 183–185 inorganic components ash content, 174–175 X-ray fluorescence analysis, 175 nutrient content and release calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg), 181 electrical conductivity (EC), soil, 182 micronutrients, 181–182 nitrogen (N), 175–179 pH change, soil, 182 phosphorus (P), 179–181 potassium (K), 181 organic contaminants branched hydrocarbon chains, 209 brominated flame retardants, 222–223 chlorobenzenes (CBs), 214–215 chlorophenols, 217–218 endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), 209–210 European union limits, 211 natural and synthetic hormones, 225–226 octonol–water partition coefficient (Kow), 209 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), 216–217 organotin compounds, 220–222 pharmaceuticals and personal care products, 225 269 270 Index Biosolids (cont.) phthalic acid esters (PAEs), 211–212 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 215–216 polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs)/ dibenzofurans (PCDFs), 218–220 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 213–214 potential transfer to groundwater, plants, and animals, 227–234 presence and level, 208–209 surfactants, 223–224 organic matter characterization, humic substances, 170–171 composition, 169–170 composting, 171 humification, 170 soil application, 171–174 water-soluble labile portion, 171 sewage treatment processes dewatering method, 169 primary and secondary treatment, 168 stabilization methods, 169 thickening, sludge, 168–169 C CERES-wheat crop simulation model, 116–117 Chlorobenzenes (CBs), 214–215 Chlorophenols, 217–218 Conservation/compost tillage trial, 104–105 E Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), 209–210 extractable fractions available and unavailable forms, 186–187 chemical speciation, 185–186 cocomposting method, 187 sequential fractionation schemes, 186 plant response and metal uptake accumulation of, 205–207 metal toxicity and tolerance, 202–205 phytotoxicity, 202 soil application biosolids property effect, 189–191 extraction methods of, 187–189 metal availability over time, 193–194 microbial/biochemical effects, 198–202 mobility and leaching of, 194–198 soil property effect, 191–193 total concentrations effluent source, 183 guidelines and regulations, 185 waste water treatment plants, 183–185 I Integrated cropping systems barley-based rotation trials, 104 conservation/compost tillage trial, 104–105 cropping systems productivity trial grain and straw yields and quality, 97–99 soil nitrogen dynamics, 99–100 soil organic matter, 100–101 water-use efficiency, 99 crop sequence effect, 95 grazing management rotation trial, 101–104 F L Fertilizers, nitrogen rainfed crops response genetic differences, crops, 79–80 Morocco and the Maghreb countries, 73–79 soil organic matter, 68–69 West Asian countries, 70–73 usage trend, 66–67 Food-chain transfer metals, 14–16 plants, organic chemicals leaves uptake, 231–232 rhizosphere activity, 232–233 root uptake and translocation, 228–231 Leaching, heavy metals, 194–198 Lead (Pb), bioavailability assessment absorption, 29 bioaccessibility, soil Pb, 34–35 blood level reduction, children, 29–30 soil/dust Pb chemical speciation, 30 chloropyromorphite (CP) formation, 33–34 feeding tests, 32–33 RBA assessment, 30–32 source, 28 G Grazing management rotation trial, 101–104 H Heavy metal contaminants, biosolids animal ingestion, 207–208 definition, 182 M Mediterranean agroecosystems climate rainfall sketch and intensity, 59–60 seasonal rains and temperature effect, 58 crops and farming systems agroecological condition, 62 barley production, 61–62 niche crops production, 62 wheat production, 61 271 Index fertilizer use trends, 66–67 integrated cropping systems barley-based rotation trials, 104 conservation/compost tillage trial, 104–105 cropping systems productivity trial, 96–101 crop sequence effect, 95 grazing management rotation trial, 101–104 land features, 60–61 nitrogen, 65–66 nitrogen fixation, dryland conditions food legumes, 86 pasture and forage legumes, 89–91 rhizobia, inoculation, and cultivar interactions, 86–89 rainfed crops response to genetic differences, crops, 79–80 Morocco and the Maghreb countries, 73–79 soil organic matter, 68–69 West Asian countries, 70–73 soil status assessment Cate–Nelson graphical method, 81 Kjeldahl method, 81 mineralization indices, 83–84 mineral N tests, 82 nitrate test, 81–82 plant analysis, 84–85 Metal(Loid)s, bioavailability assessment arsenic chemical forms, 37–39 factors affect, 36–37 modification, 39 reliable relative bioavailability (RBA), 40–41 risk assessment, 39–40 soil, 35–36 biological metal uptake children ingestion of, 13–14 food-chain transfer and risks, 14–16 soil ingestion risks, 12–13 chemistry equilibrium, soil, 22–25 speciation in, 25–28 extractability, availability prediction chelation methods, 21–22 diffusive gradients in thinfilms method, 22 in vitro bioaccessibility, 16–21 lead (Pb) absorption, 29 bioaccessibility, soil Pb, 34–35 blood level reduction, children, 29–30 soil/dust Pb, 30–34 source, 28 soil risks bioavailability and soil element, 7–8 microbes and fauna toxicity, 11–12 phytotoxicity from, 8–11 Micellization, 224 N Neutron activation analysis (NAA), metal bioaccessibility, 17–18 Nitrogen (N) biosolids agronomic biosolids rate, 178–179 agronomic response, 177 ammonia volatilization, 177 mineralization, 176–177 fertilizer and rainfed crops response field responses, 69–79 genetic differences, crops, 79–80 soil organic matter, 68–69 fixation, mediterranean dryland conditions food legumes, 86 pasture and forage legumes, 89–91 rhizobia, inoculation, and cultivar interactions, 86–89 integrated cropping systems barley-based rotation trials, 104 conservation/compost tillage trial, 104–105 cropping systems productivity trial, 96–101 crop sequence effect, 95 grazing management rotation trial, 101–104 mediterranean region, 65–66 modelling systems APSIM usage, 115–116 arid environment models, 118–120 CERES-wheat model, 117 crop–soil simulation models, 114 CropSyst model, 118 root zone water quality model (RZWQM), 117 SOILN module, 114–115 potential losses, dryland cropping ammonia volatilization, 93–94 environmental concerns, 92 loss mechanisms, 92–93 urea fertilizers effect, 94–95 rainfed environments, 64–65 soil status assessment Cate–Nelson graphical method, 81 Kjeldahl method, 81 mineralization indices, 83–84 mineral N tests, 82 nitrate test, 81–82 plant analysis, 84–85 supplemental irrigation systems seasonal weather effect, 106 wastewater usage, 106–107 yeild responses, 105–106 tracer (15N), rainfed cropping systems N fixation estimation, grain legumes, 111–113 rotation effect implications, 110–111 wheat, cereal–legume rotation, 108–110 272 Index O Organic contaminants, biosolids branched hydrocarbon chains, 209 brominated flame retardants applications, 222 biodegradation, 223 source, 222–223 chlorobenzenes (CBs) concentrations in, 214–215 derivatives and applications, 214 land application, 215 chlorophenols atmospheric deposition, 218 pentachlorophenol (PCP), 217–218 endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), 209–210 European union limits, 211 natural and synthetic hormones, 225–226 octonol–water partition coefficient (Kow), 209 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), 216–217 organotin compounds biodegradation, 221 classes and apllication, 220 concentrations in, 221 source, 220–221 pharmaceuticals and personal care products, 225 phthalic acid esters (PAEs) applications, 211 microbial degradation, 211–212 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) applications, 215 atmospheric deposition and soil application, 216 polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs)/ dibenzofurans (PCDFs) biodegradation, 220 source, 219–220 toxicity, 219 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) land application, 214 source and lipophilicity, 213 potential transfer to groundwater, plants, and animals, 227–234 presence and level, 208–209 surfactants linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS), 223–224 micellization, 224 properties, 223 Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), 216–217 Organotin compounds, 220–222 P Phosphorus (P), biosolids phytoavailability, 180–181 soil accumulation, 180 surface runoff, 181 Phthalic acid esters (PAEs), 211–212 Phytotoxicity, metal effect Ni–Al layered double hydroxides (LDH), Ni-induced Fe deficiency symptoms, 10 precipitation and synchrotron XRF (S-XRF) analysis, 11 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 215–216 Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs)/ dibenzofurans (PCDFs), 218–220 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 213–214 R Reliable relative bioavailability (RBA) arsenic (As) (see Arsenic (As), bioavailability assessment) lead (Pb) (see Lead (Pb), bioavailability assessment) Root zone water quality model (RZWQM), 117 S Sewage treatment processes biosolids (see Biosolids) dewatering method, 169 primary and secondary treatment, 168 stabilization methods, 169 thickening, sludge, 168–169 Soil-N routine/module (SOILN), 114–115 Sulfidogenesis, 145–146 Surfactants, 223–224 ... may Advances in Assessing Bioavailability of Metal(Loid)s in Contaminated Soils form in Ni enriched soils, both Ni–Al layered double hydroxides (LDH) and Ni-silicates (Scheckel and Sparks, 200 1). .. sensitive plants (Li et al., 200 0) Unfortunately, others followed the toxicological approach to establish limits for soil Ni, by adding soluble Ni salts followed by immediate cropping, failing to... world (Kukier and Chaney, 2004; Siebielec et al., 200 7) McNear et al (200 7) examined the Advances in Assessing Bioavailability of Metal(Loid)s in Contaminated Soils 11 speciation of Ni in Welland