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Social Psychology Fou rth  E d i ti on Fourth Edition Social Psychology Thomas Gilovich Cornell University Dacher Keltner University of California, Berkeley Serena Chen University of California, Berkeley Richard E. Nisbett University of Michigan n W. W. Norton & Company • New York • London W. W. Norton & Company has been independent since its founding in 1923, when William Warder Norton and Mary D. Herter Norton first published lectures delivered at the People’s Institute, the adult education division of New York City’s Cooper Union The firm soon expanded its program beyond the Institute, publishing books by celebrated academics from America and abroad By midcentury, the two major pillars of Norton’s publishing p ­ rogram—​ ­trade books and college ­texts—​­were firmly established In the 1950s, the Norton family transferred control of the company to its employees, and t­ oday—​­with a staff of four hundred and a comparable number of trade, college, and professional titles published each y­ ear—​­W. W. Norton & Company stands as the largest and oldest publishing house owned wholly by its employees Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2011, 2006 by W W Norton & Company, Inc All rights reserved Printed in Canada Editor: Sheri Snavely Project Editor: Rachel Mayer Developmental ditor: Betsy Dilernia Assistant Editor: Scott Sugarman Managing Editor, College: Marian Johnson Managing Editor, College Digital Media: Kim Yi Production Manager: Sean Mintus Media Editor: Patrick Shriner Associate Media Editor: Stefani Wallace Media Project Editor: Penelope Lin Assistant Media Editor: George Phipps Marketing Manager, Psychology: Lauren Winkler Design Director: Rubina Yeh Photo Editor: Nelson Colon Permissions Manager: Megan Jackson Composition: Jouve Manufacturing: Transcontinental Interglobe, Inc Permission to use copyrighted material is included beginning on page ­C-​­1 ISBN 978-0-393-93896-8 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10110-0017 wwnorton.com W. W. Norton & Company Ltd., Castle House, 75/76 Wells Street, London W1T 3QT 1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  0 We dedicate this book to Karen, Ilana, and Rebecca Dashiff Gilovich Mollie McNeil and Natalie and Serafina ­Keltner-​­McNeil Sebastian and Stella ­Chen-​­McDermott Sarah Nisbett ABOUT THE AUTHORS THOMAS GILOVICH is Professor of Psychology and C­ o-​­Director of the Center for Behavioral Economics and Decision Research at Cornell University He has taught social psychology for over 30 years and is the recipient of the Russell Distinguished Teaching Award at Cornell His research focuses on judgment, decision making, and w ­ ell-​­being He is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and a fellow of the American Psychological Society, the American Psychological Association, the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, the Society of Experimental Social Psychology, and the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry DACHER KELTNER is Thomas and Ruth Ann Hornaday Professor of Psychology and the Director of the Greater Good Science Center at the University of California, Berkeley He has taught social psychology for the past 18 years and is the recipient of the Distinguished Teaching Award for Letters and Sciences His research focuses on the prosocial emotions (such as love, sympathy, and gratitude), morality, and power Other awards include the Western Psychological Association’s award for outstanding contribution to research, the Positive Psychology Prize for excellence in research, and the Ed and Carol Diener m ­ id-​­career award for research excellence in Social Psychology He is a fellow of the American Psychological Association, the American Psychological Society, and the Society for Personality and Social Psychology In 2008, the Utne Reader listed Dacher as one of the 50 visionaries changing the world SERENA CHEN is Professor of Psychology and the Marian E. and Daniel E. Kosh- land, Jr. Distinguished Chair for Innovative Teaching and Research at the University of California, Berkeley She has taught social psychology for the past 18 years and is the recipient of the Distinguished Teaching Award from Berkeley’s Social Science Division Her research focuses on the social bases of the self and identity, and on the intrapersonal and interpersonal consequences of social power and other ­hierarchy-​­related dimensions (e.g., social class, income inequality) She is a fellow of the Society of Personality and Social Psychology, American Psychological Association, and the Association for Psychological Science, as well as the recipient of the Early Career Award from the International Society for Self and Identity The Association for Psychological Science also identified her as a Rising Star RICHARD  E.  NISBETT is Theodore M. Newcomb Distinguished University Professor of Psychology at the University of Michigan and Research Professor at Michigan’s Institute for Social Research He has taught courses in social psychology, cultural psychology, cognitive psychology, and evolutionary psychology His research focuses on how people reason and how reasoning can be improved He also studies how people from different cultures think, perceive, feel, and act in different ways He is the recipient of the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award of the American Psychological Association and the William James Fellow Award of the American Psychological Society and is a member of the National Academy of Sciences and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences vi Contents in Brief Chapter 1   An Invitation to Social Psychology   Chapter 2   The Methods of Social Psychology   41 Chapter 3   The Social Self   67 Chapter 4   Social Cognition: Thinking about People and Situations   109 Chapter 5   Social Attribution: Explaining Behavior   155 Chapter 6   Emotion  195 Chapter 7   Attitudes, Behavior, and Rationalization   229 Chapter 8   Persuasion  267 Chapter 9   Social Influence  303 Chapter 10   Relationships and Attraction   347 Chapter 11   Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination   395 Chapter 12   Groups  445 Chapter 13   Aggression  487 Chapter 14   Altruism and Cooperation   523 Application Module   Social Psychology and Health   556 Application Module   Social Psychology and Personal Finance   568 Application Module   Social Psychology and Education   584 Application Module   Social Psychology and the Law   600 vii Preface A FRESH PERSPECTIVE IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Social psychology illuminates and clarifies the nature of human beings and their social world It is a science that offers novel insights into the foundations of moral sentiments, the origins of violence, and the reasons people fall in love It provides basic tools for understanding how people persuade one another, why people trust and cooperate with each other, and how people rationalize their undesirable actions Social psychology offers scientifically grounded answers to questions human beings have been thinking about since we started to reflect on who we are: Are we rational creatures? How can we find happiness? What is the proper relationship of the individual to the larger society? How are we shaped by the culture in which we are raised? After decades of collective experience teaching social psychology, we decided at the turn of the t­ wenty-​­first century to put pen to paper (or fingers to keyboard) and write our own vision of this fascinating discipline It was an ideal time to so Many new developments in the field were reshaping social psychology Exciting new research had revealed how different kinds of ­culture—​­country of origin, regional culture, social c­ lass—​­shape human thought, feeling, and action Evolutionary theory was helping to guide how social psychologists study things such as homicide, morality, and cooperation Social psychologists were making inroads into the study of the brain Specific areas of interest to u ­ s—​­judgment and decision making, emotion, altruism, and ­well-​­being—​­had emerged as ­well-​ ­defined areas of investigation that were producing important insights about human behavior The lure of writing a textbook, and the challenge in doing so, was to capture all of these new developments and integrate them with the timeless classics of social psychology that make it such a captivating discipline It’s a bit shocking to us to think that this is the fourth edition of the text; it seems like just yesterday when we first got together in Berkeley, California, to map out what an informative survey of social psychology should look like Our work on all four editions has been deeply rewarding Our fascination with the ix www.downloadslide.net evolution (continued ) emotions, universality, 199, 201 friendship and, 349 gender roles and, 25–26 group living and, 24–25, 446–47, 484 health and, 557–59 human emotional expression and, 22–24, 24 human universals, 22–24, 23 income inequality and aggression, 496–98, 497, 520 kin selection and, 542 language and, 24 naturalistic fallacy and, 26–27 natural selection, 22 neuroscience and, 27–28 parental investment, 25– 26, 28, 392, 510 physical attractiveness, 372–74 reciprocal altruism, 542–44, 543, 554 reconciliation, 517 relationships, 349–50 sex differences in mate preferences, 375–77, 378, 379–81, 392 social neuroscience and, 27–28 social rejection and, 496 stress response, 558 theory of mind, 24–25 threat defense system, 557 universals and, 22–24, 23 use in understanding situations, 35–36 evolutionary theory, 45 Evolution of Cooperation (Axelrod), 552 exchange relationships, 352, 353, 392 exercise, 564 expectations, schemas, 135 experiment, definition, 15 experimental research control condition, 53 definition, 49 dependent variables, 52, 53, 64 ethical concerns, 52 independent variables, 52, 54, 64 longitudinal studies, 52 natural experiments, 54–55 overview, 52–53 random assignment, 52–53 see also methods of social psychology; scientific method explanatory style attribution and, 158–61 controllability and attribution, 159–60 correlation with later physical health, 159, 159 definition, 158 explanatory style index, 158 gender and attribution style, 160–61 global/specific dimension, 158, 161 internal/external dimension, 158, 159, 161, 162 stable/unstable dimension, 158, 161 Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals, The (Darwin), 199, 212 extended families, 347–48 external validity in experiments, 55–57, 56, 60, 64 critical thinking about, 274 in economic games, 548 eyewitness testimony effect of misleading questions, 602, 603 eyewitness errors, 602, 604, 619 improving eyewitness identification ­procedures, 604 overview, 601–2 persistence of memory, 603–4 recovered memories, 600, 603–4 F face, definition, 102, 106 Facebook, 104, 105, 519, 525, 538 facial expressions blind and sighted individuals, 201, 204 SI-6  Subject Index cultural differences, 199, 201 Darwin on, 199, 201, 201 Mechanism of Human Facial Expression (Duchenne de Boulogne), 200 universality of, 22, 24, 201–4, 202 see also emotions Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR), 293 fairness/cheating moral domain, 216 family, origins of sense of self and, 72–74 fatalities, biased assessments of risk, 139–40 fear and persuasiveness, 280–81, 281 feedback, definition, 15 female infanticide, 506 Ferguson, Missouri protests, 396 field experiments, 56–57, 64 firsthand information, 114–16 Five Cs for effective tutoring, 587 flattery, 353 flirtation and nonverbal display, 209, 209 fluency, 141, 153, 363, 364 focal emotions, 205–6, 226 focalism, 221 food sharing, 22, 543 footbridge dilemma, 217 foot-in-the-door technique, 324–25, 325, 344 “forbidden toy” paradigm, 245–46, 246 Fore tribe (Papua New Guinea), 201–2, 202 “Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse,” 386–88 framing effects, 120–22, 152 audience characteristics and, 284 construal level theory, 123, 123, 284 definition, 120 loss aversion and, 572–73, 574, 574, 583 order effects, 119–20 positive and negative framing, 121–22 primacy effects, 120 recency effects, 120 spin framing, 120–21 temporal framing, 122–24 fraternity hazing, 243, 243 free speech and conformity, 315 French Revolution, 556 friendship diversity and, 361 emotions in, 207–13 evolution and, 349 How to Win Friends and Influence People (Carnegie), 353 limitation number of close friends, 350 proximity and, 359–63, 360, 365 similarity and, 365–67 Westgate West apartment friendship research, 360, 360–61 functional distance, 360–61, 392 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 27, 185, 217, 391, 546, 574, 574 fundamental attribution error, 13, 38 altruistic vs selfish response, 173–74, 174 automatic characterizations, 178–79 Castro essay experiment, 172, 173 cognition and attribution, 178–80 consequences of, 181 critical thinking about, 176 cultural differences, 186–87 definition, 12, 172, 192 derogation of victims, 177 dispositions and, 12, 178–79, 179 experimental demonstrations of, 172–74 Hurricane Katrina and, 176, 176 just world hypothesis, 177, 192 Milgram study of obedience, 171–72 motivational influences, 177 perception about advantage and disadvantage, 174–76, 175 perceptual salience, 177–78, 178 quiz-show competition, 174–75, 175 salience of people vs situations, 180–81, 186–87 salient situations, 180–81 see also causal attribution G gay marriage, gay rights, 320, 320 gays in the military, overturning of “don’t ask, don’t tell” and, gender aggression and, 509, 509–11, 520 attribution style and, 160–61 effect on conformity, 318–20 impact of physical attractiveness, 370, 376–77 nameism and, 401 sex differences in mate preferences, 375–77, 378, 379–81 stereotype threat and, 435, 435 gender roles cultural differences, 33, 34–35, 35 evolution and, 25–26 gender socialization, 33 lifetime monogramy, 34 parental investment and, 25–26, 28, 38 polyandry, 25, 35 polygyny, 25, 34 serial monogamy, 34 social self and, 80–81 universal aspects, 23 genocide aftermath of social upheavals, 340 Bosnia, 338, 396, 506 Cambodia, 338 Darfur (Sudan), 290, 305, 338, 487, 488, 506, 509 despotic leaders and, 468 reconciliation, 517, 518 Rwanda, 338, 342, 487, 488, 488, 501, 506, 509, 512, 513, 524, 545 Somalia, 396 step-to-step guide to genocide, 343 see also Holocaust Genovese, Kitty, murder, 530, 530, 531 gestalt psychology, 14–15 Giving Pledge, 538 globalization, 519 global warming heat and aggression, 490 international cooperation and, 519 persuasion and, 268, 284–85 rationalization and, 230 room temperature effect on global warming relief, 259 steps to control carbon emissions, 268 glucose, ego depletion and, 99, 100 Golden Gate Bridge, 364, 364 Golden Rule across cultures and religions, 539 Good Samaritan study with seminarians, 11–12, 12, 54, 530–31 gossip, 547, 554 Granville Market Letter, 115 gratitude, 223 Great Depression, 568 green spaces and aggression, 497, 498 grooming, reciprocity and, among mammals, 322 group living, evolution, 24–25, 446–47, 484 group polarization definition, 463, 484 in homogeneous groups, 464 in modern life, 465 persuasive arguments account, 463, 464, 484 risk and, 464–65, 465 risky shift, 461–62, 464, 465 social comparison interpretation account, 463–64, 484 groups, 445–85 being a member of a stigmatized group, 434–38, 443 definition, 447 www.downloadslide.net dehumanization and, 502 emergent properties of, 476, 476 emotion and knowing our place in, 211 evolution of group living, 446–47 group decision making, 456–65, 484 measuring attitudes about groups, 400, 402–4 nature and purpose of group living, 446–47 risky shift, 461–62, 464, 465 spotlight effect, 482, 482, 485 see also group polarization; groupthink; ­intergroup conflict; mob psychology; power; social facilitation groupthink Bay of Pigs decision making, 457, 459 in Bush administration, 458, 458 cultural differences, 460 definition, 457, 484 devil’s advocate role, 459 Janis’s groupthink hypothesis, 457, 459 Johnson administration and Vietnam war, 457 overview, 457 Pearl Harbor attack, 457 prevention, 459–60, 460 self-censorship, 458–59, 484 strong leaders and, 466–67 symptoms and sources of, 457–59 see also groups; social facilitation guilt compliance and, 327 moral judgment and, 215–16 shame-or guilt-prone cultures, 206 H Haath Se Haath Milaa (Hand in Hand Together), 593 Halloween, 479–80 halo effect, 369–70, 392 happiness, 219–25 affective forecasting, 220, 222, 226 age and, 207, 222 components of, 219 creativity and positive emotions, 220 cultivating, 223 determinants of pleasure, 224 effects of getting tenure, 220 effects of romantic breakups, 220, 221 environmental factors, 223 marriage and, 49–50, 50 meaning of, 219 meditation and, 225 money and, 222–23 Olympic medal winners, 167, 167 predicting happiness, 220–21, 226–27 pursuing, 221–24 recalling happy moments, 224–25 relationships and, 222 social influence network, 304, 304 sources of, 223–24 Harajuku-inspired fashion (Tokyo), 96 Harlow’s monkey “mother surrogates” research, 350, 350 hate crimes, 501 health construal and, 564–66 correlation with explanatory style, 159, 159 evolution and, 557–59 explanatory styles and, 158–59, 159, 161 favorable social self and, 104 heuristics in health and medicine, 148, 149–51 optimism, benefits of, 564–66 perceived control benefits, 565–66, 566, 567 power and, 561–62 smoking and risk, 293 social connection, benefits of, 562–64, 563, 567 socioeconomic status and, 559–62, 560, 567 see also stress heat and aggression, 489–91, 490, 520 Heridas de Amor (Wounds of Love), 594 heuristics availability heuristic, 137–41, 148–51, 153 base-rate information, 143, 144, 153 biased assessments of risk, 139–40, 140 biased estimates of contributions to joint projects, 140–41, 141 definitions, 137 ease of retrieval distinguished from amount retrieved, 138–39 fluency, 141, 153 in health and medicine, 148, 149–51 heuristic route to persuasion, 269, 277 illusory correlations, 149–51, 153 inside vs outside perspective, 144–45 intuition and, 135–36, 136 mistaken judgment and, 136, 136 planning fallacy, 146–47, 153 predictions by Americans and East Asians, 147 representativeness heuristic, 137, 141–51, 153 resemblance between cause and effect, 147–48 see also social cognition heuristic-systematic model of persuasion, 269, 275, 277, 300 see also elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion; persuasion hindsight bias, 43 hippocampus, 558 HIV/AIDs, 269, 276, 278, 279, 565, 566, 593, 594 Holocaust, 338 concentration camps, 195 deportations in freight trains, 342 ineffective resistance of German soldiers, 340 Jewish genocide, 514 rescues of Jews by civilians, 327, 529–30 role of social influence, 305, 332, 338 step-by-step guide to genocide, 343 see also genocide; World War II homicide culture of honor and, 46 declining murder rates, 518 income inequality and, 498 vs suicide rates, 139 homophily, 304 homosexuality armed forces and, changing attitudes toward, 4, cultural differences, 35 decriminalization of, in U.S., “typical” gay man stereotype, 237–38 Hong Kong causal attribution, 187–88 Umbrella Movement, 237 honor, culture of see culture of honor hostile aggression, 488, 520 hostile media phenomenon, 293 How of Happiness, The (Lyubormirsky), 564 How to Win Friends and Influence People ­(Carnegie), 353 human universals see universals Hurricane Katrina, fundamental attribution error and, 176, 176 Hutus, 487, 488, 488, 501, 513, 518, 524, 545 hypocrisy, 316 hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, 557, 558, 558, 559, 561, 562, 563, 564, 566 hypothalamus, stress and, 558 hypotheses definition, 44 testing, 43, 45 I IBM employees, individualism and collectivism among, 31–33, 32 “Ice Bucket Challenge,” 268 ideal emotions, 206–7 ideal self, 97, 98, 106 identifiable victim effect, 278–80, 279, 280, 300 identity cues and self-verification, 96, 96 ideological distortions, 117 ideomotor action, 307–8, 309 ideomotor mimicry, 21 illusory correlations, 149–51, 153, 421–24, 422 illustrators, 209 immune neglect, 220–21, 227 Implicit Association Test (IAT), 232, 402, 402–3, 442 implicit attitude measures, 232–33, 264 impression management, 102 incest, 24 inclusive fitness, 508, 542 income inequality, aggression and, 496–98, 497, 520 incompetence, double curse of, 95 incremental theory of intelligence, 586, 587–88, 597 independent cultures, 38 causal attribution, 185–86 definition, 29 emotion expression, 206, 207 independent self-construal, 77–78, 78, 81, 82 independent vs interdependent cultures, 29 on the job, 31 persuasion and, 281, 282 self-esteem and, 88 sleeping arrangements of children, 358 independent variables, 52, 54, 59, 64 India-Pakistan arms race, 545 individualistic cultures see independent cultures individuation, 481–83, 482, 485 see also deindividuation; self-awareness theory; spotlight effect induced compliance attitude change and, 242, 244, 244–45, 248–49, 264 definition, 242 effect of reward or coercion amount, 244 extinguishing undesired behavior, 245–46 see also compliance infantile facial features, personality ratings, 112, 113 information available for social cognition, 110–18 confirmation bias and, 124–26 different reactions to positive and negative information, 117–18 encoding in memory, 129 framing effects and, 120–22 ideological distortions, 117 mistakes as source of, 116–17 order effects, 119–20 pluralistic ignorance, 114–15 retrieval from memory, 129 temporal framing and, 122–24 see also schemas informational social influence, 321, 344 anonymity, effect of, 316 Asch’s conformity experiment, 312 cultural differences, 317–18, 318 definition, 311 effects of uncertainty and ambiguity, 311 expertise, effect of, 317, 317 expertise and status, 316–17 group size effect, 314, 315 group unanimity and, 314–15, 315 internalization and, 316 jury deliberations, 609 Sherif ’s conformity experiment, 309–11 see also normative social influence; social influence Information Sciences, Inc (ISI), 155, 156 informed consent, 62, 64, 65 ingroup favoritism minimal group paradigm, 411–12 in modern racism, 399 Subject Index SI-7 www.downloadslide.net ingroup favoritism (continued ) preserving cultural identity or way of life, 398 Robbers Cave experiment, 408 social identity theory and, 412, 413 injunctive norms, 331 Instagram, 525 institutional review boards (IRBs), 62, 63, 65, 339 instrumental aggression, 488, 520 integration, in the military, 408–9, 409 intelligence, nature of, 586–88, 597 interaction dynamics approach, with married couples, 386–87 interdependent cultures, 38 causal attribution, 185–86 definition, 29 emotion expression, 206, 207 focal emotions in, 205–6 on the job, 31 persuasion and, 281, 282 physical attractiveness and, 369 self-esteem levels, 88–89 sleeping arrangements of children, 358 social context and, 190 “Who Am I” test, 78 in the workplace, 31–33 intergroup conflict automatic and controlled processing of ­stereotypes and prejudice, 427–33 basking in reflected glory, 413–14, 414 being a member of a stigmatized group, 434–38, 443 benevolent racism and sexism, 400, 442 characterizing intergroup bias, 397–404, 398 competition and, in Robers Cave experiment, 406, 406–7 complex vs simplistic reasoning and rhetoric, 515–16 dehumanization and, 513 illusory correlations, 421–24 measuring attitudes about groups, 400, 402–4 minimal group paradigm, 411–12 misperception and, 513–15 modern racism, 398–400, 442 moral violence and, 514, 514 outgroup homogeneity effect, 420–21 peacemaking and, 440, 440, 520 reactive devaluation and, 515 realistic group conflict theory, 405 reconciliation and, 516–18, 517, 518 reducing stereotypes, prejudice, and ­discrimination, 438–41 reducing through superordinate goals, 407–8 self-esteem and boosting ingroup status, 413 self-esteem and derogating outgroups, 414–16, 415 simplistic reasoning and rhetoric, 515–16, 516 social identity theory, 412–16 see also cognitive perspective on prejudice and discrimination; discrimination; economic perspective on prejudice and discrimination; groups; motivational perspective on prejudice and discrimination; prejudice; stereotypes intergroup emotion theory, 215 internalization, definition, 316 internal validity in experiments, 57, 60, 64, 274 Internet, 519 intersex attraction, 375, 392 interventions, 60–61 interviews, fallibility of, 181, 181 intimacy in romantic relationships, 383 intraparietal sulcus, 574 intrasex competition, 375, 392 introspection, 69, 70, 236–37 intuition, 135–36, 136, 152 see also heuristics Inuit of Alaska, 503, 504, 525 SI-8  Subject Index investment model of commitment, 383–85, 384 Israelis, 396, 404, 440, 440 J Janis’s groupthink hypothesis, 457, 459 Japan and Japanese cognitive dissonance, 250–51, 264 context and causal attribution, 184–85 gender and the social self, 80 groupthink, 460 Harajuku-inspired fashion, 96 self-esteem and everyday experiences, 89 “jigsaw” classrooms, 410 joint projects, biased estimates of contributions to, 140–41, 141 Judas Priest rock band, 274 juries Apodaca, Cooper, and Madden v Oregon, 610 Ballew v Georgia, 610 compensatory awards, 611, 612–13, 619 confessions and, 604–5 damage awards in civil trials, 611–13, 619 death-qualified juries, 608–9 Johnson v Louisiana, 610 jury decision rule, 610–11 jury deliberation, 609–13 jury selection, 607–8 jury size, 609–10 Liebeck v McDonald’s Restaurants, 612–13 Lockhart v McCree, 609 peremptory challenges, 608 punitive awards, 611–12, 612 scientific jury selection, 608, 619 voir dire, 607, 619 Williams v Florida, 610 Witherspoon v Illinois, 609 just desserts motive, 613–14, 614, 615 justice, anger and restoration of, 198 just world hypothesis, 177, 192 K Kanizsa triangle, 14, 14 kin selection, 542, 554 Kirsten and Jack’s relationship, 207–8, 210, 212 knowledge, resistance and, 296–97 Korea and Koreans consensus information and, 187 fundamental attribution error and, 186–87 halo effect, 369 interdependent culture, 30 on malleability of personality, 189 Korean War, 268 L ladder measure, 561, 561 Lamerala of Indonesia, 551, 551 language, evolution and, 24–25 law and social psychology, 600–619 see also courtroom events and procedures; criminal justice system; pretrial events Lawrence v Texas, leaders, characteristics of, 466–67 leadership, 465–74, 484 see also groups; power learning, definition, 15 legal system see criminal justice system liberals, moral foundations theory and, 217–19, 218 Lie to Me, 279 Likert scale, 232, 264 Literary Digest, 47 Lockhart v McCree, 609 longitudinal studies, 52, 357, 495 “looking-glass self,” 72 loose cultures, tight cultures vs., 317–18, 318 loss aversion definition, 572, 583 framing effects, 572–73 neural underpinnings of, 574, 574 overview, 571–72 reactions to outright losses or forgone gains, 572–73 risk aversion, 573, 583 risk seeking, 573, 583 sunk cost fallacy and, 573, 575, 583 Lou Gehrig’s disease, 268 love brain and, 391 companionate love, 392 compassionate love, 392 nonverbal signs of romantic love, 383 oxytocin and, 208, 210, 210 passionate love, 392 types of, 381–82 see also romantic relationships loyalty/betrayal moral domain, 216 lying, 279 M Machiguenga of Peru, 551, 551 Mad Men, 510 Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 media coverage, 118 malleability, in the social self, 76 mammals, reciprocity and grooming among, 322, 322 marijuana, legalization arguments, 294 marketing cigarette advertising, 60 message characteristics, 277–82 spin framing in, 120–21 subliminal advertising, 274, 274 marriage arranged marriages, 390–91 cultural differences, 381, 382, 390–91, 392 divorce frequency, 385 “Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse,” 386–88 gay marriage, 390 happiness and, 49–50, 50 marital dissatisfaction, 385–88 marriage benefit, 351 marriage equality, support for, predictors of divorce, 386 Mbuti Pygmies, 507, 507 measurement validity, 58, 60, 64 Mechanism of Human Facial Expression, The (Duchenne de Boulogne), 200 media agenda control, 292 aggression and media violence, 491–93, 496, 520 bias, 293 body image problems of women and, 371, 371–72 conceptions of social reality and, 291–92 consumer advertising effectiveness, 289–90, 290 effects of bad-news bias, 118 focus on bad news in entertainment, 117 hostile media phenomenon, 293 illusory correlations, 423 media saturation, 288–89 persuasion and, 288–93 political advertising effectiveness, 290, 291 public service announcements, 291, 291 third-person effect, 289 violence in movies and television, 491, 491–92, 520 violent TV, children and later violence, 493, 520 weak affects on attitudes and behaviors, 295–96 medial prefrontal cortex, 74, 79, 534 meditation, 225, 564 memoirs, 67, 68 memory encoding of information, 129 eyewitness testimony, 603–4 www.downloadslide.net first- and third-person perspectives, 183 as inference, not infallible record, 602, 603 persistence of, 603–4 recovered memories, 600, 603–4 retrieval of information, 129 schemas and retrieval of, 129 self-knowledge storage in, 71, 72 self-reference effect, 70 mental accounting, 576–77, 578, 583 mentalizing network, 27 mere exposure effect, 361–63, 362, 363, 365, 392 mere presence, testing for, 452–54 message characteristics and persuasion, 277–82 culture, 281–82 definition, 277 fear, 280–81 message quality, 278 vividness, 278–80 metacognition defined, 285 persuasion and, 285–86, 300 metaphors, embodied, 259 methods of social psychology, 41–65 applied science, 60–61 archival research, 46, 64 basic science, 60–61 convenience sampling, 47, 47 correlational research, 49–52, 64 debriefing, 57, 63 deception research, 62 dependent variables, 52, 64 ethical concerns, 62–63 experimental research, 49, 52–55, 64 external validity in experiments, 55–57 field experiments, 56–57 hypotheses, formation from theory, 44–45 hypotheses, testing, 45 independent variables, 52, 64 informed consent, 62 institutional review boards (IRBs), 62, 63 internal validity in experiments, 57 measurement validity, 58 observational research, 45–46 participant observation, 45, 64 predicting results of social psychology studies, 43, 44 random sampling, 47, 47, 64 reliability, 58 replication, 61 statistical significance, 59 statistics, social science methodology, and critical thinking, 594–96, 597 surveys, 46–49, 64 see also scientific method Mexico City Olympics (1968), Black Power, 209 Microsoft, 155, 156 Middle East, 396 Middlemarch (Eliot), 200 Milgram study of obedience, 332, 333–42, 344, 530 awareness of learner’s suffering, 10–11, 334, 335, 340 Burger’s near replication of experiment, 339, 339–40 construal and, 14–15 effects of legitimacy of experiment, 338, 340, 341 ethical concerns, 62, 335 exceptionalist explanation, 337–38 experimenter-absent version of experiment, 336 explanations and interpretations of results, 11 external validity, 55 forces for terminating participation, 335 fundamental attribution error, 171–72 ineffective and indecisive disobedience, 10, 338, 340 moral imperative to stop suffering, 335, 340 motivating forces affecting participants, 335 normalist explanation, 338 normative social influence, 335, 344 opposing forces, 334–35 parallels to Nazi Germany, 11, 338, 342 power of social situations, 9–11, 10 procedure, 323–34 proximity version of experiment, 335, 336 release of participants from responsibility, 340–42, 344 remote-feedback version of experiment, 335, 336 role of construal, 14–15 setup of experiments, 333–34 step-by-step involvement, 342 touch-proximity version of experiment, 335, 335, 336 tuning in the learner, 335–36, 336 tuning out the experimenter, 336–37, 337 tuning out victims with military technologies, 335–36, 336 variations in experiment, 336, 341 voice-feedback version of experiment, 335, 336 see also obedience; social influence military, integration of, 408–9, 409 mimicry see automatic mimicry minimal group paradigm, 411–12, 412, 442 misperceptions in intergroup conflict, 513–15 mistaken judgment, intuitive processing and, 136 mob psychology deindividuation, definition, 476 deindividuation in warfare, 478–79, 479 emergent properties of groups, 476, 476 empirical tests of deindividuation model, 476–80, 477 group mind, 475–76 at Halloween, 479–80 impulsivity and, 477, 478, 479, 481 rioting after Dan White sentencing, San ­Francisco, 474–75, 475 rioting after Super Bowl win, San Francisco, 475 suicide baiting, 478, 479 Zimbardo’s model of deindividuation, ­overview, 476–77 see also groups Modern Family, 347, 348, 348 modern racism, definition, 399, 442 Modern Racism Scale, 403 monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene, 489 monogamy, 34 Montreal 1976 Olympics, 146, 146 mood maintenance, 326, 344 moods, emotions vs., 197 moral foundations theory, 216, 217–18, 218, 226 mortality salience nationalism and, 262, 262–63 presidential candidates and, 263, 263 Mortal Kombat, 494 motivated confirmation bias, 126–27 motivation, persuasion and role of, 270–73 motivational perspective on prejudice and discrimination basking in reflected glory, 417–18, 418 evaluation of, 416–17 ingroup favoritism, 413 minimal group paradigm, 411–12, 412, 442 overview, 397, 411 self-esteem and boosting ingroup status, 413 self-esteem and denigrating outgroups, 414–16, 415 social identity theory, 412–16, 413, 442 see also discrimination; prejudice Müller-Lyer illusion, 309–10, 310 musical preference, repeated exposure and, 363, 363 mutual funds, 581, 583 My Fair Lady, 585 N “naïve realism,” 14 narcissism, self-esteem and, 90 narrated self, 69 narratives happiness and, 224–25 self-narratives, 69, 71 social self narratives, 69 vivid persuasive messages, 288–89 women diagnosed with breast cancer, 565 nationalism, mortality salience and, 262, 262–63 natural experiments, 54–55, 350 naturalistic fallacy, 26–27 natural selection, 22, 38, 45, 508, 541 Nazi Germany concentration camps, 488 dehumanization, 501, 501 deportations in freight trains, 342, 343 Hitler, 8, 11, 283 persuasion and effect of mood, 283, 283 Polish occupation, 340 situational and social influence, 8–9 step-to-step guide to genocide, 343 negative experiences, pain prediction and, 224–25 negative framing, positive framing vs., 121–22 negative mood, compliance and, 327–28 negative state relief hypothesis, 327, 327, 344 neuroscience age and, 27 amygdala and attitudes, 233 amygdala and emotions, 391 amygdala and IAT response, 403 amygdala and stress, 557 amygdala and threats, 557 anterior cingulate and pain, 496 attitudes and motor cortex activation, 231 cooperation, 546 culture and the social self in the brain, 79 evolution and, 27–28 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 27, 185, 217, 391, 546, 574, 574 meditation effects, 225 moral brain, 217 orbitofrontal cortex, 546 periaqueductal grey and sympathy, 199 personal distress at other’s pain, 525–26, 526 prefrontal cortex, 27 romantic love, 391 self-views and reflected self-appraisals, 72–74, 106 social neuroscience, 27–28 social rejection and pain response, 496 strength of negative and positive stimuli, 233 stress-related brain regions, 557–58 temporal-parietal junction and perspective taking, 74 ventral striatum and rewards, 391 see also brain No Country for Old Men, 512, 512 nonconscious attitudes, 232–33 nonconscious processing functions of, 21 types of, 19–21 normal distribution: bell curve, 58, 58 normative social influence, 312, 312–13, 321 anonymity, effect of, 316 Asch’s conformity experiment, 311–14 in bulimia, 313 definition, 312 group size effect, 314 in jury deliberations, 609 Milgram study of obedience, 335, 344 status, effect of, 316–17 see also informational social influence; social influence norm-based appeals, effective, 328–31 norm of reciprocity, 322, 323, 324, 344 Subject Index SI-9 www.downloadslide.net nucleus accumbens, cooperation and, 546 nursing home patients, personal control study, 565–66, 566 O obedience definition, 305, 344 ineffective and indecisive disobedience, 10, 340 overview, 333 see also Milgram study of obedience; social influence obesity, 370 objectivist view of beauty, 364 observational research, 45–46, 350 Olympic medalists and counterfactual thinking, 167, 167 online social networking sites, online self and, 104–5, 106 optimism, benefits of perceived control and, 564–66, 567 Oracle, 538 orbicularis oculi muscle, 200 orbitofrontal cortex, 546 order effects, 119–20 Organization Man, The (Whyte), 360 Origin of Species (Darwin), 22 ought self, 97, 98, 106 outgroup homogeneity effect, 420–21, 442 Outliers (Gladwell), 155 overjustification effect, 256–57, 257 oxytocin commitment and, 208, 210, 210 cortisol and, 564 social connections and, 563 P pair bonding, 208 paired distinctiveness, 422–24, 423, 442 Pakistan-India arms race, 545 Palestinians, 396, 404, 440, 440 palio competition, concrete and abstract ­construals during, 426–27, 427 parental investment, 25–26, 28, 38, 375–76, 392, 508, 510 participant, definition, 15 participant observation, 45, 64 passion in romantic relationships, 382–83 Pay It Forward (movie), 549 payroll deduction plan, 581–82, 583 peacemaking, conflict and, 512–19 peak moments, 224 Pearl Harbor attack, 457 perception, emotions and influence on, 213–14, 214, 219 perceptual fluency, 364 performance-contingent rewards, 257 peripheral route to persuasion, 269–70, 270, 271, 273, 275, 300 personal distress motive in altruism, 525–26, 527, 528 personal financial planning, 568–82, 583 see also behavioral economics personality “Big Five” personality dimensions, 189 inferring from physical appearance, 111–14, 113 personality psychology, persuasion, 267–301 ability and, 270–73 attentional biases and resistance, 293–95 attitude inoculation, 297–98, 301 audience age and, 283–84, 300 audience characteristics, 282–85 audience size and diversity and, 284–85, 300 celebrity endorsements and, 275 central (systematic) route, 269, 271, 273, 275, 300 SI-10  Subject Index certainty, 277 changes in attitude certainty, 298–99 consumer advertising, 289–90 culture and, 281–82 dual-process approaches to, 268–73, 270, 300 embodiment and confidence, 287–88, 288 fear and, 280–81, 281 global warming, 268, 284–85 heuristic-systematic model, 269–70 identifiable victim effect, 278–80, 279 knowledge and resistance, 296–97 lying as persuasion, 279 media and, 288–92, 300 message characteristics, 277–82 message quality and, 278 message targeting to particular cultures, 281–82 message vividness and, 278–80, 300 metacognition and, 285–86, 300 mood and, 283 motivation and ability, 270–73 need for cognition and, 282–83 peripheral (heuristic) route, 269, 271, 273, 275, 300 political advertising, 290, 291 previous commitments and resistance, 295–96 public service announcements, 291, 291 resistance to, 268, 293–99, 300–301 self-validation hypothesis and, 286–87, 300 sleeper effect, 276–77, 300 source attractiveness and, 275–76 source credibility and, 276–77, 287 subliminal cues, 274, 274 third-person effect, 289, 300 thought polarization hypothesis, 296, 301 see also attitudes; elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion Petrified Forest National Park, 331, 331 PGA Tournament Golf, 494 physical appearance, inferring personality from, 111–14, 113 physical attractiveness, 367–74 attraction and, overview, 367–68 of average faces, 373, 373–74 bilateral symmetry and, 364, 374 biology and, 374, 379–81, 380 body weight, 371, 371–72 evolutionary theory, 372–74 gender and, 370, 376–77 halo effect, 369–70, 392 impact of, 368 reproductive fitness, 372, 374, 510 universality of, 370, 372 pituitary gland, stress, HPA axis, and, 558 planning fallacy, 146, 146–47, 153 playfulness in romantic relationships, 389, 389–90, 391 pleasure, recollections of, 224 pluralistic ignorance, 114–15, 152, 329, 330, 534, 534–36 poker face, 207, 207 political advertising, effectiveness of, 290, 291 political conservatism, 217–19 polyandry, 25, 35 polygyny, 25, 34 positive emotions, 564 positive framing, negative framing vs., 121–22 positive illusions about the self, 93–94 positive mood, compliance and, 325–27, 326 possible selves, 97–98 power accountability, and, 471 antisocial behavior and, 472–73 approach/inhibition theory, 468–69, 484 definition, 467 disinhibition of high-power people, 470–71, 473–74, 484 effect on social perception, 469 elements of, 467–68 health and, 561–62 influence on behavior, 468–74 inhibition of low-power people, 471–72 intimidation and, 467 leadership and, 465–74, 484 Machiavelli on, 466 overview, 465–66 postures and poses of power, 472, 472 reduced empathy with power, 469, 469–70 teasing and, 473 see also groups Pravda, 276 precarious manhood hypothesis, 511, 520 predicting research results, 44 predictions East and West, 147 prefrontal cortex, 27 prejudice attributional ambiguity and, 434–35 automatic and controlled processing and, 18, 427–33, 433 being a member of a stigmatized group, 434–38, 443 benevolent racism and sexism, 400, 442 definition, 398, 442 economic perspective on prejudice and discrimination, 404–9 Implicit Association Test (IAT), 402, 402–3, 442 measuring attitudes about groups, 400, 402–4 modern racism, 398–400, 442 motivational perspective on, 411–17 priming and implicit prejudice, 403–4, 404, 442 reducing, 439–41, 443 self-esteem and boosting ingroup status, 413 self-esteem and denigrating outgroups, 414–16, 415 self-esteem and racial prejudice, 415–16, 416 theoretical perspectives, 396–97, 442 see also cognitive perspective on prejudice and discrimination; stereotypes prescriptive (injunctive) norms, 331, 331, 344 pretrial events eyewitness testimony, 601–4 false confessions, 604–6 juries and confessions, 606–7 police interrogation procedures, 604–6 see also courtroom events and procedures; criminal justice system prevention focus, 98, 106 previous commitments, resistance and, 295–96 Pride and Prejudice (Austen), 376 primacy effects, 120, 152 primary appraisal stage, 197 prime, definition, 131 priming, 131, 131–32, 152 cultures, 187–88, 188 definition, 131, 404 implicit prejudice, 403–4, 404, 430, 442 power, 470 in prisoner’s dilemma game, 547 religion and altruism, 540, 540 schemas, 133, 134 subliminal, 134–35 weapons and aggression, 518 primogeniture, 35 Prince, The (Machiavelli), 466 principle of serviceable habits, 199 Principles of Psychology, The (James), 68 prisoner’s dilemma game competitive player, 548–49 construal, 547–49, 549–50 cooperative players, 545, 545–46 defecting strategy, 545, 554 economics majors as players, 550 overview, 545 priming, 547 reputation of players, 547 www.downloadslide.net tit-for-tat strategy, 552–53, 554 “Wall Street” game, 549–50 see also cooperation prisons Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse, 9, 6, 6–7, cultural differences, 614–15, 615 kinship-like ties formed by prisoners, 350 Zimbardo prison study, 6–7 procedural justice, 617, 619 projective tests, 149 promotion focus, 98, 106 prosocial behavior, sense of being watched and, 541, 541 Protestants, dispositional attributions, 188, 190 proximity anticipation of interactions, 361 friendship, 359–63, 360, 365 functional distance, 360–61 mere exposure effect, 361–63, 362, 363, 365 proximity version of Milgram experiment, 335, 336 studies of attraction and, 360–61 touch-proximity version of Milgram experiment, 335, 335, 336 Westgate West apartment houses, 360, 360–61 pseudo-recognition test, 452 pseudoscience, 148 psycholinguists, 110 psychological immune system, 221 psychological stress, 557, 567 psychopaths and psychopathologies, 512, 512 public self and self-presentation, 102, 102 public service announcements (PSAs), 291, 291 punishment attributional account of, 614–16 death penalty, 608, 609, 616 deterrence motive, 614 just desserts motive, 613–14, 614 overview, 613 sympathy, effect on judgment, 615 punitive awards in civil trials, 611, 612, 612, 619 purity/degradation moral domain, 216 “Pygmalion in the Classroom,” 584–86, 597 Pygmalion in the Classroom (Rosenthal and Jacobson), 585 R racism Attitudes toward Blacks Scale, 399–400, 430 benevolent, 400, 442 modern, 398–400, 442 Modern Racism Scale, 403 racial bias in criminal justice system, 616, 619 see also civil rights and race relations; ­discrimination; prejudice; stereotypes random assignment, 52–53 random sampling, 47, 47, 64 rape, dehumanization and, 502 rape-prone cultures, 473, 506–7, 520 rationalization after making decisions, 240, 241 dissonance reduction, 241 global warming and, 230 before making decisions, 239–41, 240, 242, 244–45 sweet lemons rationalization, 241–42 see also balance theory; cognitive dissonance theory rational system and reason, 135–36, 136, 152 reactance theory, 332 reactive devaluation, 515 realistic group conflict theory, 405, 443 reason, rational system and, 135–36, 136, 152 receiver characteristics, 282–85 recency effects, 120, 152 reciprocal concessions (door-in-the-face) ­technique, 323–24, 344 reciprocity among animals, 322, 543 door-in-the-face (reciprocal concessions) technique, 323–24 norm of reciprocity, 322, 324 reciprocal altruism, 542–44, 543, 554 recovered memories, 600, 603–4 reflected self-appraisals, 72–74, 106 reflection and self-enhancement, 92–93 regression effect, 145 regression fallacy, 145 regression to the mean, 58–59, 60, 64 regulators, 209 related disciplines compared with social ­psychology, relational self, 349–50, 352–54 relationships biology and the need to belong, 349–50 communal and exchange relationships, 352–53, 392 communal relationships, 352 effect of past on current interactions, 357–59 equity theory, 354, 359 evidence for the need to belong, 350–51 evolutionary basis, 354 exchange relationships, 352 extended families, 347–48, 348 human health risks without relationships, 351 importance of, 349–51 longitudinal studies, 348–49, 357 relational self, 340–50, 352–54 research methods and challenges, 348–49 reward framework for relationships, 353–54 sense of self and, 349–51 social exchange theory, 352, 392 universality of, 349, 351 see also attachment; attraction; romantic relationships relativity theory, 45 reliability, 58, 60, 64 religion, altruism and, 539, 539–41, 540 replication, 61, 64 representativeness heuristic, 141–48, 151, 153 base-rate information and, 143, 144, 153 definition, 142 in health and medicine, 148, 149–51 inside vs outside perspective, 144–45 planning fallacy, 146–47, 153 predictions by Americans and East Asians, 147 pseudoscience, 148 regression effect, 145 resemblance between cause and effect, 147–48 resemblance between members and categories, 143–45 use of, overview, 141–43 see also heuristics reproductive fitness, 372, 374, 392 Republicans, marriage equality and, reputation, 547, 548, 554 research methods see methods of social psychology response latency, 232, 264 restorative justice, 518 retirement plan, channel factors and, 13 retributive justice see punishment retrieval, 129 reverse causation, definition, 49 rewards in induced compliance, 244 overjustification effect, 256–57, 257 performance-contingent rewards, 257 reward framework for relationships, 353–54 romantic relationships, 384 social exchange theory and, 353–54 social rewards motive in altruism, 525 task-contingent rewards, 257 ventral striatum and, 391 rhesus monkey “mother surrogates” research, 350, 350 rhetoric conflict and complexity of, 516, 516 simplistic reasoning and, 515–16, 516 risk, biased assessment of, 139–40, 140 risk aversion, 464, 573, 583 risk seeking, 464, 465, 573, 583 risky shift, 461–62, 464, 465 Robbers Cave experiment, 409 competition and intergroup conflict, 406, 406–7 cooperation in, 407 ingroup solidarity and, 411 “jigsaw” classroom and, 410 overview, 405–6 reducing intergroup conflict through ­superordinate goals, 407–8, 442 romantic relationships, 381–91, 392 attitudes and, 236 blame, 388, 391, 392 capitalizing on the good, 389, 389, 392 commitment, 384–85 companionate love, 382 contempt in, 387, 388, 388, 391, 392 creating stronger romantic bonds, 388–90 criticism in, 387, 388, 391, 392 cultural differences in marriage, 390–91, 392 defensiveness in, 387, 388, 391, 392 effects of romantic breakups on happiness, 220, 221 evolution, 349 forgiveness, 385 “Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse,” 386–88 illusions and idealization in, 390 intimacy in, 383 investment model of commitment, 383–85, 384, 392 marital dissatisfaction, 385–88, 392 measuring commitment determinants in, 384–85, 385 measuring relationship satisfaction, 387 nonverbal signs of romantic love, 383 passionate, 382–83 playfulness in, 389, 389–90, 391, 392 predictors of divorce, 386 satisfaction, 384 stonewalling, 387, 388, 391, 392 universal features, 391 see also attraction; relationships Rorschach inkblots, 149–50 rumination, 558, 559, 567 Rusbult’s investment model, 384, 385 Rwanda altruism, 524, 524 dehumanization, 501 genocide, 342, 396, 487, 488, 488, 513, 545 ideological distortion, 342 rapes, 506, 509 reconciliation, 512–13, 517, 518 Ryan White CARE Act, 278, 279 S same-sex marriage, 320 legalization of, 396 support for, Sandy Hook Elementary School shootings, 496 scatterplots and correlations, 50, 50–51 schemas, 128–35 activation, consciousness of, 133–35 activation, recent, 132 activation, subliminal, 134–35 activation and behavior, 132, 133, 134 activation by expectation, 135 chronic accessibility, 133, 133 in construal, 15–17, 16, 129–30 definition, 16 Subject Index SI-11 www.downloadslide.net schemas (continued ) encoding of information and, 129 expectations, 135 frequent activation of, 132–33 influence on attention, 128–29 influence on behavior, 130, 130–32 influence on memory, 129 innate vs learned knowledge, 133 misleading similarities, 133 priming, 131, 131–32 retrieval of information and, 129 stereotypes and, 131, 131–32 top-down processes, 127–35 use in persuasion, 17 see also social cognition scientific jury selection, 608, 619 scientific method Albert Einstein on, 43 attitude inoculation, 297–98, 298 comparison and self-esteem, 68 correlations and, 51 counterfactual thinking by Olympic medalists, 167, 167 distinctiveness and illusory correlation, 423–24 empathy and altruism, 524, 524 health benefits of social connection, 569 honor experiments, 54 induced compliance and attitude change, 244 mental accounting, 578 normative social influence, 312 power of situation and helping, 12 seeking confirming information, 126 social facilitation on simple and complex tasks, 451 universality of facial expressions, 202 see also experimental research; methods of social psychology secondhand information, 116–18 see also eyewitness testimony secular trends, 480 secure attachment style, 355, 356, 356, 357, 358 Seeds of Peace, 440, 440 selective attention, 294, 295 selective evaluation, 294, 295, 295 self-adaptors, 209 self-affirmation, 91–92, 249–50 self-affirmation theory, 91–92 self-assessment, accurate, cognitive barrier to, 95 self-awareness theory, 481, 485 see also individuation; spotlight effect self-censorship, 458–59, 484 self-concept gender and self-concept, 80–81 independent vs interdependent societies, 29, 29–31 “Who Am I” test, 78 working self-concept, 75, 76, 354–55 self-control, 97, 98, 99, 99, 100, 101 self-defeating behavior, 104 self-definition, 77 self-discrepancy theory, 97–98, 106 self-distancing, 559, 567 self-enhancement adaptive value of positive illusions, 93–94 affirmations, 91 better-than-average affect, 91 comparison and reflecting, 92–93 definition, 90 integrating self-verification perspective with, 96–97 self-evaluation maintenance (SEM) model, 92 self-serving construals, 91 well-being and, 93–94 self-esteem, 84–90 boosting ingroup status and, 413 California self-esteem task force, 84, 85 comparison and reflection processes, 68 SI-12  Subject Index contingencies of self worth, 86–87, 90 culture and, 87–90, 88, 90 denigrating outgroups and, 414–16, 415 downward social comparisons and, 83, 84 elevating, 86 forces driving self-evaluation, 89–90 gender differences, 86 good or bad outcomes of high self-esteem, 89–90 mortality salience, 263 narcissism and, 90 racial prejudice and, 426 self-esteem movement, 84–85 self-esteem scale, 85 self-evaluation maintenance model (SEM), 92 self-improvement efforts vs self-esteem, 84 self-serving construals, 91 self-verification, 94–97 situationism, 74–76 social acceptance and, 87 sociometer hypothesis, 87 state self-esteem, 85–86, 90 terror management theory, 262 trait self-esteem, 85, 90, 106 see also self-concept; self-enhancement; social self self-evaluation, motives driving, 90–97, 106 self-evaluation maintenance (SEM) model, 92, 93 self-fulfilling prophecies, 115–16, 116, 152, 425, 585, 586 self-handicapping, 103–4, 105, 106 self-insight, lack of, 69–70 self-knowledge accuracy of, 69–70 distinctiveness and the sense of self, 75–76, 76 family and other socialization agents, 72–74 gender and self-concept, 50–51 independent self-construal, 77 interdependent self-construal, 77 malleability and stability of the self, 76 narratives about social self, 69 organization of, 71–72 origins of, 68–69 prefrontal cortex and, 74, 79 reflected self-appraisals, 69–70 self-discrepancy theory, 97–98, 106 self-schemas, 71–72, 106 self-verification theory, 94–97 social comparison theory, 81, 83–84 social me and, 68 “Who Am I” test, 78 working self-concept, 75, 76, 354–55 see also self-concept self-monitoring, 103, 103, 105, 106 self-narratives, 69, 71 self-perception theory, 264 definition, 252 embodied cognition and emotion, 255–59, 260 inferring our own attitudes, 252 overjustification effect, 256–57, 257 reconciling with dissonance theory, 254–55, 260 testing for arousal, 252–54, 253 see also attitudes; cognitive dissonance theory self-presentation, 101–3, 102, 104–5, 106 self-regulation automatic self-control strategies, 100, 101 definition, 97 ego depletion, 98–100 possible selves, 97–98 prevention focus, 98 promotion focus, 98 self-discrepancy theory, 97–98 self-handicapping, 103–4 self-monitoring, 103, 103 self-schemas, 71–72, 106 self-selection, 49, 64, 349, 350, 387, 388, 388 self-serving attributional bias, 92, 169–71, 170, 184, 192 self-serving construals, 91 self-understanding, 28–31, 69 self-validation hypothesis, 286–87, 287–88, 288, 300 self-verification identity cues and, 96, 96 integrating self-enhancement perspective with, 96–97 self-verification theory, 94–97 seminarians as Good Samaritans, 11–12, 12, 54 serial monogamy, 34 sexism benevolent, 400 nameism and, 401 sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), 291 sexual orientation, cost of concealment, 437–38, 443 sexual trafficking, 506 sexual violence, cultural differences, 506–7 shame, 206 Sherif ’s conformity experiment, 309–11, 310 see also Asch’s conformity experiment Shia Muslims, 396 siblings in different cultures, 351 social self and, 72, 73, 73 Sierra Club, 498 signaling intentions, 201 similarity attraction and, overview, 365 complementarity vs., 367 of couples, 366 explanation for increased attraction, 366–67 studies on attraction and, 365–67 Sistine Chapel, 541 situational attribution, 163 situations aggression, situational determinants, 488–98, 520 altruism, situational determinants, 530–34 competition, situational determinants, 546 cooperation, situational determinants, 546–47 cultural differences and, 35–36 evolution and, 35–36 explaining behavior with social psychology, 6–7 fundamental attribution error, 12 lateness and helping behaviors of seminarians, 11–12, 12 Milgram experiemnt and social situations, 9–11, 10 power to affect behavior, 8–9 salience of people vs situations, 177–78 situationism and the social self, 74–76 social connection and health, 562–64, 567 social self and, 74–76 working self-concept, 75, 76, 354–55 60 Minutes, 338 60 Minutes II, skill acquisition, 19 Skype, 519 Slave Market with Disappearing Bust of Voltaire (Dali), 15 slavery, 320 sleeper effect, 276–77, 300 Slim Shady LP, The (Eminem), 67 smiles, felt or false, 200, 200 smiling muscle (zygomaticus major), 364 smoking anti-smoking persuasion and advertising, 280–81, 281 arguing against self-interest, 278 attitude inoculation and, 297–98 health risks, 293 resistance to anti-smoking efforts, 293 www.downloadslide.net social influence network, 304 Surgeon General’s Report on Smoking and Health, 293 snap judgments accuracy, 112–14 consensus opinion prediction, 111 dominance assessment of faces, 112, 112 facial trait judgments, effect of time constraints, 111, 111 inferring personality from appearance, 111–12 trustworthiness assessment of faces, 111–12, 112 social acceptance, self-esteem and, 87 social attribution see causal attribution social class altruism and, 538–39, 539, 554, 560 attribution and, 188–1889 causal attribution and, 193 definition, 188 health and, 559–62, 560, 567 independence vs interdependence, 34 ladder measure, 561, 561 social fears of working-class students, 592 social self and, 82, 82–83 see also socioeconomic status (SES) social cognition bad-news bias, 118 bottom-up processes, 127, 152 confirmation bias, 124–26 definition, 110 emotions and moral judgment, 215–19 emotions influence perception, 213–14 emotions vs reason in decision making, 215 facial trait judgments, effect of time constraints, 111, 111 footbridge dilemma, 217 framing effects in, 120–22, 152 Haidt’s two-system theory of moral judgment, 216–17 how information is presented, 119–24 ideological distortions, 117 inferring personality from physical appearance, 111–14 information available for, 110–19, 152 misleading firsthand information, 115–16 misleading secondhand information, 116–18 motivated confirmation bias, 126–27 order effects in, 119–20 overview, 109–10 pluralistic ignorance, 114–15 primacy effects, 120, 152 recency effects, 120, 152 response to infantile features, 112, 113 snap judgments, 112–14 studying, 110, 152 temporal framing in, 122–23 top-down processes, 127–35, 152 trolley dilemma, 217 trustworthiness assessment of faces, 111–12, 112 see also heuristics; schemas social comparisons, 106 social comparison theory, 81, 83–84 social connection, benefits of, 562–64, 563, 567 social context aspects of self that are distinctive in, 75–76 aspects of self that are relevant in, 74–75 social Darwinist movement, 26 social exchange theory, 353 social facilitation coacting and, 450–51 definition, 448, 484 distraction-conflict theory, 454, 484 dominant responses, 449, 455 early research, 447–48 evaluation apprehension, 451–54, 453, 484 mere presence effect, 450–51, 451, 484 overview, 447 practical applications, 455 role distance and, 455 social loafing and, 455–56, 456, 484 Zajonc’s model of social facilitation, 448–50, 449 see also groups social fears and academic achievement, 591–93, 597 social hierarchies, 465–66 social identity theory, 412–16, 413, 442 social influence, 303–45 bulimia and, 313 definition, 205 informational, and Sherif ’s conformity experiment, 309–11, 310 networks, 303, 304 normative, 312, 312–13, 321, 344 overview, 303–5 resisting, 305, 332, 332 tattoos and, 303, 304 see also compliance; conformity; informational social influence; Milgram study of obedience; normative social influence; obedience social intuitionist model of moral judgment, 216, 226 socialization agents, 72–74, 81 social learning theory, 597 social loafing, 455–56, 456, 484 social me, 68 social neuroscience, 27–28 social psychology, general characterizing, 5–8 comparison with related disciplines, critical thinking and, 36–37, 39 definition, 5, 38 explaining behavior with social psychology, 6–7 see also methods of social psychology social psychology research, value of, 42–43, 64 social reality, media and conceptions of, 291–92 social rejection and aggression, 494, 496, 496, 520 social relations, cultural differences in, 28–31 social rewards motive in altruism, 525 social self, 67–107 actual self, 97, 98 automatic self-control strategies, 100, 101 construals and the self, 68, 77–78 cultural differences, 76–80, 79, 80 culture and, 76–80 distinctiveness and sense of self, 75–76, 76 dramaturgic perspective on, 102 ego depletion, 98–100 face, 102–3 gender and, 80–81 health risks and, 104 ideal self, 97, 98 individual self, 67 introspection, 69 malleability and stability of, 76 narratives about social self, 69 nature of the social self, 68–69 online presence, 104–5, 106 ought self, 97, 98 possible selves, 97–98 presenting self online, 104–5 prevention focus, 98, 106 promotion focus, 98, 106 protecting others’ face, 102–3 reflected self-appraisals, 72–73 self-construal and gender, 80–81 self-control, 97 self-discrepancy theory, 97–98, 106 self-enhancement, 90–94 self-handicapping, 103–4, 106 self-monitoring, 103, 103, 106 self-presentation, 101–3, 102, 106 self-regulation, 97, 106 sibling dynamics, 72, 73, 73 situationism and, 74–76 social class and, 82, 82–83 social comparison theory, 81, 83–84 working self-concept, 75, 76 see also self-esteem; self-knowledge social support scale, 562, 562 socioeconomic status (SES) academic achievement and, 419 in arranged marriages, 390–91 causal attribution and, 188–89, 193 construal and, 561, 561–62 definition, 386 divorce and, 386 health and, 559–62, 560, 567 ladder measure, 561, 561 see also social class sociology, sociometer hypothesis, 87 Somalia, 396 source characteristics and persuasion, 275–77 attractiveness, 275–76 certainty, 277 credibility, 276–77 source credibility, thought confidence and, 286–87, 287 South Africa divestment movement, 515 reconciliation, 517 Spanish Civil War, 195 Spanish Inquisition, 518 speed dating, 103 spin framing, 120–21 Sports Illustrated jinx, 145 spotlight effect, 482, 482, 485 see also self-awareness theory stability, in the social self, 76 Staten Island, New York protests, 396 state self-esteem, 85–86, 90, 106 statistical significance, 59, 60, 64 status anger and, 211 definition, 468 embarrassment and subordinate status, 204 hierarchies, 211 role negotiation within groups, 211 social influence and, 312 see also socioeconomic status (SES) stepfamilies and violence, 508–9, 509, 520 stereotypes, 38 attributional ambiguity and, 434–35 automatic and controlled processes, 19 bias in criminal justice system, 618, 619 categorization and, 430–31, 431 coining of term, 417 concrete vs abstract construal, 426–27 conservation of cognitive resources and, 417–18 construal and, 17, 17 construal processes and biased assessments, 419–25 definition, 397, 442 disconfirmation, 425 encoding of behaviors and, 428 expectations and biased information processing, 424 explaining away exceptions, 425–27, 426 facial features and criminal sentences, 432 illusory correlations, 421–24 ingroup similarity and outgroup difference assumptions, 420 outgroup homogeneity effect, 420–21, 442 of outgroups, 395–96, 396 physical attractiveness and social skills, 369–70 reducing, 438–39, 443 representativeness heuristic and, 142, 142, 143 schemas and, 131, 131–32 self-fulfilling prophecies, 425 Subject Index SI-13 www.downloadslide.net stereotypes (continued ) shared, 429 stereotype threat, 435, 435–37, 443, 589–91, 597 subtyping, 426, 427 system justification theory, 261 theoretical perspectives, 396–97, 442 “typical” gay man, 237–38 see also discrimination; prejudice stereotype threat, 435, 435–37, 443, 589–91, 597 stock market collapse in 2008, 568, 570 stonewalling in romantic relationships, 387, 388, 392 Strange Situation, 355, 355 stress biological responses to, 557–58 brain regions related to, 557–58, 558 cardiovascular arousal and, 556 chronic stress, 557, 558, 559 cortisol and, 537, 558, 558, 559 make sure matches under cortisol hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, 557, 558, 558, 559, 561, 562, 563, 564, 567 Marie Antoinette, 556, 557 marital conflict and, 385–86 neighborhoods and, 560, 560–61 participants in Milgram study, 334–35 psychological stress, 557, 567 rumination, 558, 559, 567 self-enhancement and, 94 self-esteem and, 94 short-term stress, 557, 558 social class and, 560–62 soothing effect of touch, 210–11 “tend-and-befriend” approach to, 563 tips for reducing stress, 564 see also health Stroop task, 470 subjective feelings, 226 subjectivist view of beauty, 364 subliminal stimuli, 134, 135, 274, 274 submission, 22 subtyping, 426, 427 sugar, ego depletion and, 99, 100 suicide, copycat, 492 suicide baiting, 478, 479 suicide vs homicide rates, 139 sunk cost fallacy, 573, 575, 583, 596 Sunni Muslims, 396 superordinate goals, 408 surveys, 46–49, 64 Swayamghuntha Temple, 541, 541 sweet lemons justification, 241 Swift Boat Veterans for Truth, 290 Sydney, Australia opera house, 146, 146 sympathy, 528 sympathy breakthroughs, 195, 196, 198–99 sympatia, 309 systematic route see central (systematic) route to persuasion system justification theory, 260–61, 261, 265 T Taoism, 147 Tao symbol, 147, 147 task-contingent rewards, 257 tattoos, 303, 304 Taxi Driver (movie), 491, 492 teasing and power, 473 telenovelas, 593–94, 594, 597 SI-14  Subject Index telomeres, 558 temporal framing, 122–24 temporal-parietal junction, perspective taking and, 74 tenure and happiness, 220 terrorist attacks on 9/11, 405, 518 terror management theory, 261–63, 265 certainty of death, 261 definition, 261 mortality salience, 262, 263 symbolic immortality, 261, 262 see also attitudes testosterone, 53, 489, 504, 510, 511 tetanus inoculations, channel factors and, 12–13 thalamus, 233 that’s-not-all technique, 324, 344 Thematic Apperception Test, 471 theory, definition, 44 theory of mind, 24–25, 38, 191 thinness and physical attractiveness, 371, 371–72 third-person effect, 289, 300 third variable, definition, 49 thought confidence self-validation hypothesis and, 286–87 source credibility and, 286–87, 287 thought experiment, 43 thought polarization hypothesis, 296, 301 threat defense system, 557 tight cultures, loose cultures vs., 317–18, 318 time-constrained trait judgments, ­correlations between uncostrained trait ­judgments and, 111 tit-for-tat strategy, 552–53, 554 token economy program, 256 top-down processes, 127, 152 see also schemas touch, emotion communicated through, 210, 210–11, 211 trait self-esteem, 85, 90, 106 TransAmerica building (San Francisco), 362 transcendentalists, 88, 498 trolley dilemma, 217 trustworthiness dimension, judgment of faces, 111–12, 112 tutoring effectiveness, Five Cs of, 587 Tutsis, 487, 488, 488, 501, 513, 518, 524, 526, 545 12 Angry Men (movie), 610 “Twinkie defense,” 474 two-system theory of moral judgment, 216–17 U Ukraine, 396 ultimatum game, 550–51, 551 Umbrella Movement, 237 unconscious processing see automatic processing unconstrained trait judgments, correlations between time-costrained trait judgments and, 111 United Way, 550 universals attractiveness, 370, 372 evolution and, 22–24, 23 facial expressions, 22, 24, 201–4, 202 gender roles, universal aspects, 23 reciprocity, 543 romantic relationships, 391 universal behaviors, reactions, and institutions, 23 upward social comparisons, 84 U.S Constitution, 88 Utku Inuit (Eskimos), lack of anger, 205 V validity coefficients, 58 value-expressive function of attitudes, 277 vampire bats, 543, 543 Ven Conmigo (Come With Me), 594 ventral caudate, cooperation and, 546 ventral striatum, 391 ventromedial/orbitofrontal cortex, cooperation and, 546 Venus before a Mirror (Rubens), 371 video games aggression and video game violence, 493–94, 520 Columbine High School shootings and, 493, 494, 494 Doom, 493 Mortal Kombat, 494 PGA Tournament Golf, 494 Vietnam War, 229–30, 230 violence, attitudes toward, 26 dueling tradition, 42 insult-related homicides, 53–54, 54, 504–5 job applicant with felony conviction, 41–42, 56–57 South vs Northern regions, 46, 47–49, 53, 53–54, 504–6, 505 survey questions, 48 violence on TV and fear of victimization, 118, 118 see also aggression; attitudes Virtuous Violence (Fiske and Rai), 514 visual perception, construal and, 14, 14–15, 15 voir dire, 607, 608, 619 volunteerism, 528–30, 529 voting, channel factors and, 13 W Way I Am, The (Eminem), 67, 68 well-being, self-enhancement and, 93–94 Westgate West apartment friendship research, 360, 360–61 whistleblowers, 332 white-collar crime, coconuts and, 481 “Who Am I” test, 78 Williams v Florida, 610 Witherspoon v Illinois, 609 Wizard of Oz, The, 137, 137, 138 woman suffrage, 320, 320 working self-concept, 75, 76, 354–55 workplace, individualism and collectivism in, 31–33, 32 World Trade Center terrorist attacks (2001), 290, 305 World War I conflict and complexity of rhetoric, 516, 516 cooperation between enemies, 544, 552 World War II ally formation with former enemies, 545 altruism, 529–30 Jewish genocide, 343, 514 Pearl Harbor attack, 457 see also Holocaust Y Yale School approach to persuasion, 275 Yanomami, 503, 504 yin and yang, 147 Z Zajonc’s model of social facilitation, 448–50, 449 Zelig (Woody Allen), 74, 75 Zimbardo prison study, 6–7 zygomaticus major muscle, 200 www.downloadslide.net www.downloadslide.net www.downloadslide.net www.downloadslide.net www.downloadslide.net www.downloadslide.net ...   Social Psychology and Health   556 Application Module   Social Psychology and Personal Finance   568 Application Module   Social Psychology and Education   584 Application Module   Social Psychology. .. to Social Psychology   Chapter 2   The Methods of Social Psychology   41 Chapter 3   The Social Self   67 Chapter 4   Social Cognition: Thinking about People and Situations   109 Chapter 5   Social. .. Situations  35 Social Psychology and Critical Thinking  36 Summary 38 | Think About It 39 xvii Chapter 2  The Methods of Social Psychology 41 The Value of Social Psychology Research  42 How Social Psychologists