SpringerBriefs in Psychology For further volumes: http://www.springer.com/series/10143 Salvatore R Maddi Hardiness Turning Stressful Circumstances into Resilient Growth 13 Salvatore R Maddi Department of Psychology and Social Behaviour University of California Irvine, CA USA ISSN 2192-8363 ISBN 978-94-007-5221-4 DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-5222-1 ISSN 2192-8371 (electronic) ISBN 978-94-007-5222-1 (eBook) Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London Library of Congress Control Number: 2012946181 © The Author(s) 2013 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) This book is dedicated to Deborah M Khoshaba, my beloved wife and esteemed colleague, without whom things would be very hard for me Preface My parents were poor immigrants from Sicily, who came to the United States for freedom and opportunity shortly after World War I They worked at odd jobs, and had four children As their only son, I was regarded by them as the hope of the family They encouraged me to try hard to get an education, and to find some career that was honorable In contrast to the other children of immigrants in my classes, I immersed myself in learning and growing thereby So, my teachers also saw me as the hope of my family, and supported my efforts, encouraging me to continue schooling With the help of scholarships, I completed my BA and MA at Brooklyn College, in New York, and my Ph.D at Harvard, in Cambridge Stepby-step, I found myself pursuing an academic career, first at the University of Chicago, and then at the University of California, Irvine vii Contents The Importance of Resiliency in Daily Living The Naturally Stressful Nature of the Personal Development Process We Live in the Centuries of Change The Ongoing Need for Thriving Under Stress References Personal Hardiness as the Basis for Resilience Hardiness as the Pathway to Resilience The Longitudinal Study of Stress at Illinois Bell Telephone Hardiness Helps Turn Stresses into Growth Opportunities References 10 13 16 Thirty Years of Hardiness Validational Research and Practice Hardiness Emerges as a Distinctive Pattern of Attitudes and Strategies Hardiness Improves Health Under Stress Hardiness Improves Performance and Conduct Under Stress The Relative Effectiveness of Hardiness and Other Individual Characteristics Where Does Hardiness Come From? References 19 Hardiness Assessment and Training The Development and Effectiveness of Hardiness Assessment The Initial Development of Hardiness Training The First Hardy Coping Step is Situational Reconstruction The Second Hardy Coping Step is Focusing The Third Hardy Coping Step is Compensatory Self-Improvement The Previous Steps Lead to Formulating and Carrying out an Action Plan The Effectiveness of the Initial Form of Hardiness Training The Further Development of the HardiTraining Program 29 29 31 32 33 34 19 21 22 24 25 26 35 37 37 ix x Contents The Effectiveness of the HardiTraining Program Becoming a Certified Hardiness Trainer References 38 40 41 Raising Hardy Children The Hardy Attitudes Supportive Early Interactions Build the Hardy Attitude of Commitment Early Environments Permitting Mastery Build the Hardy Attitude of Control Ongoing Changes Construed as Richness Build the Hardy Attitude of Challenge The Hardy Strategies Parents Need to Emphasize Problem-Solving Coping Parents Need to Emphasize Supportive Social Interactions Parents Need to Emphasize Taking Care of Oneself In all this, Parents Need to Admire, Respect, and Love Their Young References 43 44 Applying Hardiness to Teaching and Counseling Teaching Hardiness in Schools Obtaining the School’s Approval for the Hardiness Course Effectiveness of the Hardiness Training Course on Students Teaching Hardiness in Counseling Conformism and Existential Sickness Specifics of Hardiness Counseling Case Examples from Hardiness Counseling References 53 53 54 55 56 57 58 60 62 Hardiness as a Relationship and Work Facilitator The Changing Nature of Relationships and Work Situations The Importance of Learning Through Failures as Well as Successes Deepening Significant Relationships into Intimacy Engaging in Fulfilling Work by Learning all the Time Neither Relationships Nor Work Settings Need Last Forever References 65 65 66 67 68 68 69 How Hardiness Facilitates Functioning in Military and Safety Roles The Special Importance of Hardiness Relevant Hardiness Research How Military and Safety Personnel Need to Function in Times of Terrorism References 44 45 46 47 48 49 49 50 51 71 72 74 78 78 Contents xi The Importance of Hardy Organizations How Organizations Thrive in Turbulent Times Through Hardiness Culture, Climate, Structure, and Personnel of Hardy Organizations What are the Advantages of Hardi Organizations? What are the Disadvantages of Organizations that are not Hardy? Can Hardi Organizations Be Built Simply Through a “Greening Effect”? Assessing and Developing the Hardiness of Organizations References 79 80 80 82 83 10 The Psychology of Possibility 87 84 84 85 Chapter The Importance of Resiliency in Daily Living Abstract Life is by its nature a changing, and therefore stressful, phenomenon One source of stress is the ongoing developmental process that starts with birth, and continues until death The other source of stress is megatrends imposed by circumstances beyond our control, especially in our changing times Together, these ongoing stresses need to be turned to advantage by what we learn in dealing with, rather than denying and avoiding them Fully engaging in this resilient process is facilitated by personality hardiness Keywords Developmental stresses • Stressful megatrends • Future-oriented decisions • Resiliency • Personality hardiness Lately, there has been increasing emphasis on resilience under stressful circumstances, along with the attempt to understand why some people are more resilient than others (e.g., Bonanno 2004; Maddi 1998, 2005) Most of the resiliency emphasis has been on not losing one’s performance and health, despite the stresses There has also been some attention paid to the phenomenon of not just surviving, but also thriving under stress A particular example of this is personality hardiness, which has emerged as a pattern of learned attitudes and skills that helps in turning stressful circumstances from potential disasters into growth opportunities that not only merely maintain, but also enhance performance and health (cf., Maddi 2002, 2005) This book follows along this path The first step in this process, which is covered in this chapter, is to consider the inherently stressful nature of living he Naturally Stressful Nature of the Personal Development T Process Due to their continually changing, unpredictable, and demanding processes, the developmental stages are an ongoing stressful phenomenon for us all (Frankl 1963; Maddi 2004; May et al 1958) The developmental process begins with our being pushed out of our mother’s womb, and forced to begin breathing and S R Maddi, Hardiness, SpringerBriefs in Psychology, DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-5222-1_1, © The Author(s) 2013 The Special Importance of Hardiness 73 killing people excessively, rather than just arresting them, even if this is difficult In these examples, it is not enough to be told that those killed deserved it because of their behavior And, while firefighters not actively kill others, they may respond to fires in an insensitive, unthinking manner that may put themselves, and their colleagues in danger unnecessarily The complexity and subtlety of military and safety roles needs to be recognized clearly, and learned from, if the personnel involved are to be at their best Hardy Attitudes will help soldiers, police, and firefighters stay involved when stresses mount (Commitment), keep trying to influence outcomes (Control), and try to learn from the complexities and changes so as to perform even better (Challenge) And, the Hardy Attitudes will also provide the motivation to the hard work involved in Hardy (problem-solving) Coping with stressful circumstances, Hardy (socially-supportive) Interactions with significant others, and Hardy (beneficial) Self-Care under pressure The higher their Hardiness, the more will the military and safety personnel be able to see the bigger picture, and function at that level The bigger picture has to with their jobs including the protection of others in the relatively infrequent times requiring that, but also using the larger components of down time to develop themselves and their relationships with fellow employees, and finding ways to remain close to family members with whom they cannot spend as much time as would make that easier Especially important in effectively protecting the others the military and safety personnel represent, will be Hardy (problem-solving) Coping In this, the soldiers, police, and firefighters will be not just reacting automatically, but also reflecting on the situations, and figuring out the best way to proceed in the overall goal of dealing with dangers in order to best protect those who are employing them I not mean in this that the military and safety personnel should fail to follow the orders of their superiors Rather, it is important for the superiors to figure out what is really going on, and what is the best thing to Then, the superiors need to explain this to their subordinates In this interactive process, the subordinates, who have also observed what is going on, should be able to raise questions and make additional suggestions, as this ongoing process is the most likely to lead to the most-effective strategies to follow It is not enough for superiors to just keep imposing old plans on their subordinates, without thinking them through with regard to what is now going on Nor is it enough for subordinates to just follow the orders, without discussing their relevance to whatever now seems to be going on There needs to be an ongoing dialogue, so that the team can function best in what it does In this process, supervisors will be bringing the best out of their subordinates, and the subordinates will be more fully committed to their supervisors Important for soldiers, police, and firefighters in the attempt to make something meaningful out of the relatively large amount of empty time they spend at work when not dealing with dangers, will be not only Hardy (problem-solving) Coping, but Hardy (socially-supportive) Interactions, and Hardy (beneficial) Self-Care as well The down time needs to be seen as a bigger picture, namely, an opportunity to grow and develop, increase closeness with fellow workers, and overcome the 74 8 How Hardiness Facilitates Functioning in Military and Safety Roles separation from family members Personal growth and development may include such activities as taking on-line continuing education courses, through having one’s laptop in the facility where you and the others spend down time You can also spend some time reading and reflecting upon books, articles, and newspapers that keep you using your mind and learning what is happening in the world, and how that involves you This ongoing developmental process emphasizes Hardy Coping, and can also lead you to involve your fellow workers in what you are learning, and what they too may be learning In addition, you may well be able to use this interaction process to deepen your relationship with them You and they may have meaningful dialogues, and further express your and their beliefs, concerns, and hopes as growing individuals Also, you may well be able to include your family members in this ongoing developmental dialogue, through conversations not only in person (when that is possible), but by telephone and the internet (when you are not together) In this process, family members and you will feel closer, even when you literally cannot see or touch each other All of this emphasizes Hardy Social Support It is also important that this growth process involve Hardy (beneficial) SelfCare After all, if you are just sitting there (rather than growing and developing), during the extensive down time, you will become more and more bored This boredom, coupled with the thoughts in your mind that the dangerous part of your work may happen when you least expect it, will increase your desire for self-indulgence For what seems like the fun of it, you may indulge in excessive eating of sweet and fatty foods, and intake of alcohol and/or drugs You may also slip into excessive spending and gambling, either on your own or with your fellow workers, not only directly, but also through the internet and/or mail But, through Hardiness, you will be much more likely to engage in beneficial self-care, if you are also functioning in ways that increase your growth and development, and your closeness with fellow workers Instead of denying and avoiding the stressful and boring nature of your work, you will be using Hardiness to reach fulfillment and meaningfulness, as you grow and develop Relevant Hardiness Research In previous chapters, the research results concerning the relationship between Hardy Attitudes and Hardy Skills has been covered (cf Maddi 2002) These results show a consistent positive correlation between the total Hardy Attitudes score and scores on Hardy Coping, Hardy Social Support, and Hardy Self-Care The samples involved include college students and working adults Among working adults, some of the samples involved firefighters and soldiers The available research also shows a positive relationship between Hardiness and various measures of effective performance, such as creativity, grade-point-average, basketball performance, retention in school, and positive job evaluations (cf Maddi 2002) Also, hardiness is negatively related to stress-related health difficulties, such as Relevant Hardiness Research 75 anxiety, depression, anger, tension, lack of energy, and digestive and sleep problems (Maddi 1999; Maddi et al 2006) Of particular relevance to this chapter are some of these studies that were done on firefighters and soldiers In one study (Maddi et al 2007), Hardiness was measured in a sample of firefighters, and compared to their ongoing improvement notification points (INP) The higher the firefighter’s INP, the poorer is his/her performance As expected, this study showed a negative relationship between INP and Hardy Attitudes, Hardy Coping, and Hardy Social Support, showing the value of these expressions of Hardiness in extremely stressful occupations This pattern of results also appeared in a sample of firefighter cadets, who were tested for Hardiness scores just before their stressful four-and-a-half-month training program began Their Hardiness scores were compared to their INP scores at the end of training As expected, Hardiness and signs of inadequate performance tended to be negatively correlated There are also several studies showing similar results among samples of soldiers For example, Hardy Attitudes measured in soldiers who were about to undergo peace-keeping or combat missions abroad (Bartone 1999) showed that the lower the Hardy Attitudes were, the greater was the likelihood that life-threatening experiences, and the culture-shock of engagement abroad, would lead to such psychological breakdowns as depression disorders or post-traumatic stress disorders Bartone et al (1989) also studied a sample of military personnel whose task was to help the family members of soldiers who had been killed in battle overseas Hardiness helped these military personnel to perform their difficult supportive task effectively, and avoid being psychologically undermined in the process There are also studies of the role of Hardiness in military personnel going through the stressful training that prepares them for their difficult work Westman (1990) worked with a sample of Israeli soldiers who were selected to go through officer training school Hardiness levels were measured before the participants entered the training, and compared to their observations and performance throughout the training The higher the Hardiness levels, the greater was the tendency to perceive the training as stressful, but to graduate successfully nonetheless Needless to say, officer training school is intended to be stressful, in order to teach participants how to cope If your ability to see a stressful circumstance clearly is poor, because you are trying to deny and avoid, how can you cope with it effectively enough to find a solution? Also with the Israeli military, Florian et al (1995) found that Hardiness positively predicts mental health at the end of a 4-month combat training program Using path analysis, they found that mediating factors included Hardy Coping and Hardy Social Support, as interaction strategies Further, Bartone and Snook (1999) did a study of cadets at the U.S Military Academy (West Point) They found that the best predictor of transformational leadership behavior was Hardy Attitudes, measured early in the training process Transformational leadership involves bringing the best out of your subordinates, rather than just ordering them around These studies highlight the importance of Hardiness, as the existential courage and motivation to the hard work of turning stressful circumstances from potential disasters into growth opportunities A recent study by Maddi et al (2011) 76 8 How Hardiness Facilitates Functioning in Military and Safety Roles supports this conclusion This research also studied cadets at the U.S Military Academy (West Point) They were measured for Hardy Attitudes in the summer immediately prior to beginning their training program This training program is understandably stressful, taking into account the various hard things that officers in the U.S Army must in trying times Specifically, the training program involves not only heavy and challenging academic course loads, but also continual military and physical fitness training; formal sports; living up to a high standard of character and behavior (the Honor Code); having less than 5 h of sleep per night; having limited opportunities to go off post and visit home; being constantly evaluated as to academic, military, and physical fitness performance; knowing former cadets who have been killed or seriously wounded in action; knowing they must prepare themselves to lead soldiers in life-threatening situations shortly after graduation; and leading and developing less senior cadets By systematically exposing cadets to progressively more stressful and challenging training it is hoped that they will learn to use their cognitive, emotional, and physiological responses to advantage in stressful circumstances and hence perform more effectively when faced with real threats This study tested the expectation that the courage of cadets would help them transform these extensive stressful training circumstances to advantage, as shown by the effectiveness of their performance (Maddi et al 2011) The overall performance measure available at the end of the first year of training was the Cadet Performance Score (CPS), which is the cumulative weighted average of performance scores in physical fitness, academic, and military courses The physical fitness, academic, and military scores showed statistically significant correlations with the total CPS score of 0.569, 0.936, and 0.809, respectively Two measures of courage were included as independent variables in this study The cadets took these tests in the summer preceding their entrance into the training program One measure was Grit, which is a 17 item questionnaire involving an unswerving, sustained pursuit of a given interest or goal (Duckworth and Quinn 2009) The items are answered on a 5-point Likert scale from one (Not like me at all) to five (Very much like me) The emphasis of this measure is on a long-term perseverance despite setbacks and distractions Items cover the two highly empirically-related factors of Consistency of Interests, and Perseverance of Effort, which has led to the total Grit score to be utilized as an index of courage Examples of test items are “I aim to be the best in the world at what I do”, “I have overcome setbacks to conquer an important challenge”, “I am ambitious”, and “I finish whatever I begin.” This scale has shown adequate reliability and validity across a variety of achievement realms requiring sustained and focused application of capability over time In our study, the internal consistency reliability of the total Grit score for the sample of cadets was 0.77 (p = 0.01) The other indicator of courage included in this study was Hardiness, as measured by the Personal Views Survey, III-R (PVS III-R) This 18 item questionnaire (Maddi et al 2006) includes six items for each of the three empiricallyrelated Cs of Commitment, Control, and Challenge Specifically, these three Relevant Hardiness Research 77 empirically-related factors of Hardiness are: Commitment—active engagement or involvement in activities of life (vs alienation), Control—belief that you can influence events of your experience (vs powerlessness), and Challenge—perception of stresses and changes as natural opportunities for development (vs threat) All of the PVS III-R items are answered on a 4-point Likert scale of (Not at all true) to three (Completely true) Examples of items are: for Commitment—“I often wake up eager to take up life wherever it left off” (positive indicator), and “It’s hard to imagine anyone getting excited about working” (negative indicator); for Control—“When I make plans, I’m certain I can make them work” (positive indicator), and “Most of what happens in life is just meant to be”; and for Challenge—“Changes in routine provoke me to learn” (positive indicator), and “I am not equipped to handle the unexpected problems of life” (negative indicator) In this study, the internal consistency reliability estimate for total Hardiness was 0.713 A third independent variable also included in this study was the whole candidate score (WCS) This is a weighted composite of high school indictors of academic performance (Grade-Point-Average, high school rank, and Scholastic Aptitude Test scores), leadership potential (extracurricular activities including being school officers, scouting, and faculty appraisals), and physical fitness (assessment on standardized physical exercises) This WCS is used in conjunction with other information in the decision as to whether or not to admit an applicant to the US Military Academy WCS has been shown in previous studies to the primary predictor for West Point cadet academic, military, and physical performance In analyzing the results of this study, binary logistical regression analyses were relied upon to determine the effectiveness of WCS, Grit, and Hardiness on subsequent performance Whatever intercorrelations there were among these three variables were controlled for in this type of regression analysis Clearly, WCS was the major predictor of performance, as measured by the CPS at the end of the first academic year This is not surprising, as performance is the best predictor of performance, especially when high school performance is the major basis for admitting applicants to the U.S Military Academy But, Hardiness made an additional, statistically-significant contribution to the prediction of CPS In contrast, Grit had no role in predicting CPS This pattern of results is consistent with the emphasis we have been putting on the importance of Hardiness in the performance of military personnel After all, Hardiness is existential courage, which involves recognizing and accepting that life is by its nature stressful, and seeing the ongoing changes as an opportunity to learn and grow in wisdom and effectiveness In contrast, Grit emphasizes insisting on goals you already have, and not changing despite the changing world Although this may be regarded as a kind of courage, it is not existential enough to facilitate growing and developing in a manner that leads toward more and more effective performance Rather, it is the existential courage of Hardiness that leads to resilience and effectiveness in complex, changing environments 78 8 How Hardiness Facilitates Functioning in Military and Safety Roles ow Military and Safety Personnel Need to Function H in Times of Terrorism As if the work and family lives of military and safety personnel were not complex and stressful enough, we are now in a time of terrorism The days when wars were fought exclusively on battlefields are over These days, there is an increase in secretive acts of aggression, such as fires, explosions, and contaminations, perpetrated against ordinary citizens, involving unexpected attacks on buildings, shopping malls, church ceremonies, offices, roadsides, and the like These attacks are often carried out by enemies who appear to be ordinary people, so that no one will know what they are about In all this, it becomes almost impossible to know clearly who is winning, and who is losing This emphasis on terrorism is changing dramatically what not only military personnel, but also firefighters and police need to to maintain peace, protect their allies, and defeat the enemies This is all the more reason for Hardiness as an important personal characteristic that will enhance the performance of the people we all depend on to keep the peace and defeat the enemy What is needed, as an addition to traditional skills and knowledge, is the existential courage to learn from unexpectedly disastrous situations, so as to anticipate and avoid such disasters in the future, and become sensitive to those who are bringing them about References Bartone, P T (1999) Hardiness protects against war-related stress in army reserve forces Consulting Psychology Journal, 51, 72–82 Bartone, P T., & Snook, S A (1999) Cognitive and personality factors predict leader development in U.S Army cadets Paper presented at 35th International Applied Military Psychology Symposium, May, Florence, Italy Bartone, P T., Ursano, R J, Wright, K M., & Ingraham, L H (1989) the impact of a military air disaster on the health of assistance workers: A prospective study Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 177, 317–328 Florian, V., Milkulincer, M., & Taubman, O (1995) Does hardiness contribute to mental health during a stressful real life situation? The roles of appraisal and coping Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 687–695 Maddi, S R (1999) The personality construct of hardiness, I: Effect on experiencing, coping, and strain Consulting Psychology Journal, 51, 83–94 Maddi, S R (2002) The story of hardiness: Twenty years of theorizing, research, and practice Consulting Psychology Journal, 54, 173–185 Maddi, S R., Harvey, R H., Khoshaba, D M., Lu, J H., Persico, M., & Brow, M (2006) The personality construct of hardiness, III: Relationships with repression, innovativeness, authoritarianism, and performance Journal of Personality, 74, 575–598 Maddi, S R., Harvey, R H., Resurreccion, R., Giatras, C D., & Raganold, S (2007) Hardiness as a performance enhancer in firefighters International Journal of Fire Service Leadership and Management, 1(2), 3–9 Maddi, S R., Matthews, M D., Kelly, D R.,, Villarreal, B., & White, M (2011) The role of hardiness and grit in predicting performance and retention in USMA cadets Military Psychology, submitted Westman, M (1990) The relationship between stress and performance: The moderating effect of hardiness Human Performance, 3, 141–155 Chapter The Importance of Hardy Organizations Abstract This chapter emphasizes hardiness at the organizational level This is especially important in our changing times, in which it has become more difficult for organizations to turn adversity into opportunity, fulfill obligations to customers, and keep the best personnel Discussed is how organizations need hardiness in their culture, climate, structure, and personnel The advantage of this is that hardy organizations will not become complacent and bureaucratic, as will organizations low in hardiness Also discussed is how organizations can assess and develop their hardiness Keywords Hardy organizations • Megatrends of change • Organizational culture • Climate • Structure • And personnel • Cooperation • Credibility • Creativity • Bureaucracy • Assessing organizational hardiness • Improving organizational hardiness Up to this point, the emphasis has been on the importance of Hardiness at the individual level But, organizations also need to be Hardy, if they are to survive and thrive in ongoing stressful circumstances After all, organizations have goals that need to be met if they are to be successful, by competing effectively with other organizations, turning potential adversity into growth opportunities, fulfilling their obligations to customers, and keeping their best personnel on board Added to these ongoing, developmental stresses that organizations undergo are other megatrends that will add further complications Indeed, the waning years of the twentieth century, and the beginning of the twenty first century have been characterized by some severe megatrends Examples are (1) our breathtakingly fast transition from an industrial, through a service, to an information society, (2) the collapse of the Soviet Union and its influence on the US defense industry, (3) the worldwide globalization, redistribution of wealth, and increased competition with the US, (4) the insistent trend toward civil rights and equality of opportunity for US minorities, (5) the growth of terroristic attacks on the US and their influence on the US defense industry, (6) the effects of global warming on pressures to improve clean energy use, and (7) the dramatic, continuing economic downturn and its ongoing effects on organizations and personnel S R Maddi, Hardiness, SpringerBriefs in Psychology, DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-5222-1_9, © The Author(s) 2013 79 80 9 The Importance of Hardy Organizations ow Organizations Thrive in Turbulent Times Through H Hardiness The trickle-down effect of these megatrends has dramatically effected organizations and the people who work in them As companies downsize, merge, redirect their goals, go bankrupt, or otherwise reorganize, they get continually redefined Organizations cannot rest on their laurels, needing instead to anticipate rapidly changing markers in order to stay a step ahead of the competition, and continue to function well Organization members are called upon to work harder and continue to develop new skills, as rapidly advancing technologies are fueled by competition In addition to increasing job stress, the megatrends are also fueling an increase in the social, familial, and economic stresses felt by people, as they work harder to make ends meet For many people, the workplace is becoming a hostile environment, in which they not feel valued, protected, or even recognized This combination of the organization’s disregard for employees, and their resulting disloyalty, is fueling a general increase in stress leaves, and lawsuits concerning workman’s compensation, discrimination, harassment, and wrongful termination What is needed to counteract this unfortunate trend is the development of the work place as a healthy learning environment, in which employees feel respected, understood, and facilitated, and therefore respond with maximum effort, loyalty, and enthusiasm, regardless of how long they work at that organization The bottom line is that organizations and the people who comprise them must accept and anticipate the rising tide of stressful changes that is taking place, and discover how to turn them to advantage with vigor and enthusiasm, rather than be debilitated, outmaneuvered, or left behind Certainly, Hardi Individuals will be good at this But, in short, there is also a need for Hardi Organizations ulture, Climate, Structure, and Personnel of Hardy C Organizations Hardi Organizations have a characteristic culture, climate, structure, and workforce (Maddi et al 1999) The culture of an organization is formed from its values The values of a Hardi Organization are isomorphic with the attitudes of individual Hardiness Specifically, the Hardy Attitudes of commitment, control, and challenge at the individual level correspond to the Hardy Values of cooperation, credibility, and creativity at the organizational level When individuals with a strong sense of commitment interact together, that effort goes in the direction of valuing cooperation, as that which expresses their group involvement If the individuals are also control oriented, as a group they value being credible, as that signifies taking responsibility for their actions And, if the individuals are also challenge oriented, as a group they value creativity, as an expression of the search for innovative problem solutions to stressful changes affecting them all Culture, Climate, Structure, and Personnel of Hardy Organizations 81 Together, these three Cs forming the values of a Hardi Organization extend to its target environment, mission statement, and work force As to the target environment, Hardi Organizations assume that it is the nature of physical and social conditions to change continuously, and that addressing this represents worthwhile evolutionary progress As to a mission statement, Hardi Organizations see that their way of excelling is based on anticipating the direction of relevant environmental and social changes, and turning them to advantage by helping to bring the change about, and improving overall living in that process As to the workforce, Hardi Organizations recognize it as the major asset in achieving the changeoriented mission, and believe in both facilitating and rewarding employees for their behaviors that help fulfill this mission Consistent with the values of the Hardi Organization, its climate will involve “walking the talk” in a manner that forms a healthy learning environment, in which employees are expected to work together for the common good in turning ongoing changes into growth opportunities Characteristically, employees will be valued for energetically committing to working with changes (rather than distancing from them), struggling for control over these changes (rather than sinking into powerlessness), and regarding their ensuing experiences as a developmental challenge (rather than a threat to stability) The emphasis of organization members will be on perspective and understanding, and using what is learned thereby to take decisive actions (rather than denying, catastrophizing, or avoiding problems) In interacting with each other, Hardi Organization members will both want for themselves and the others assistance and encouragement (rather than overprotection or competition), thereby functioning as a team rather than merely self-interested individuals When a Hardi Organization member exhibits the various behaviors mentioned here, the others will applaud that and use it as a model for their own advancement The structure of a Hardi Organization will facilitate the values, mission, and climate already identified In most instances, a matrix management approach will be taken, in which teams devoted to change-oriented projects will have a significant decision-making role Although each team will, of course, have a leader, strategic decisions will tend to be reached through mutual discussion influenced by the relevant expertise of team members Once reached, these decisions will be reviewed by an executive committee concerned with financial, legal, and social implications of the decision, but thoroughly committed to the HardiOrganization’s values and mission statement The results of these reviews will be shared with the relevant teams, and may be appealed for further review This structure is very different from the more traditional, pyramidal model, in which there are many levels of leadership, which encourages bureaucracy As to the makeup of personnel, the Hardi Organization will be comprised of an increasingly high proportion of Hardi Individuals This is insured because the usual functions of hiring and firing, promotions, gainsharing, member benefits, and job training will reflect the ongoing culture, climate, and structure of the HardiOrganization Despite the continually changing work environment, Hardi Individuals will not wish to leave employment at the Hardi Organizations that 82 9 The Importance of Hardy Organizations understand and value them But, if they are forced to leave by company reorganizations, these Hardi Individuals will not go away mad, and will continue their proactive, innovative ways in other jobs Indeed, they will be regarded as a valuable commodity by other Hardi Organizations What are the Advantages of Hardi Organizations? Especially these days, the distinct advantage of Hardi Organizations is that, in tumultuously changing times, they will be especially effective in getting to the head of the pack and staying there In other words, they will not only become, but also remain, the leaders As to becoming leaders, Hardi Organizations will be sensitive to the present and future needs of their existing and potential clients, astute in evaluating the ways in which rival organizations are trying to meet these client needs, and both flexible and incisive in utilizing these data in formulating and refining their own strategies on an ongoing basis When these Hardi Organizations become leaders, they will remain in that role because their success will not lull them into complacency Their belief in the inevitability of change and its value, expressed in every part of their culture, climate, structure, and personnel, will keep them anticipating the future and developing the products and services to turn it to advantage In short, Hardi Organizations will defy the accepted belief that is the nature of even the most successful organizations to go through an early period of rapid growth, which then tapers off, and may even be followed by a decline This tapering off of growth often coincides with a replacement of early entrepreneurial spirit by increasing bureaucratization, as the organization shifts from its vigorous, lean youth into a stable, comfortable maturity In contrast, the maturity of Hardi Organizations continues the entrepreneurial vigor and excitement of their youth This continued vigor stems from the important fact that Hardi Organizations are not solely motivated by financial security Although not indifferent to financial issues, they are especially energized and excited by the conviction that continually participating in ongoing change is of potential environmental and social value This stance is not dulled by becoming a leader and being financially successful, as Hardi Organizations view change as continual and needing to be continually addressed Clear examples of Hardi Organizations are Apple and Microsoft, both of which were founded on a sense of the future as primarily about information, communication, and virtual reality Their young, entrepreneurial founders were out of the loop, uninvolved with the political and financial pillars of the country, and more influenced by the pursuit of ideas and effectiveness than standard products and profits Structurally, these companies evolved a matrix management pattern, and the prevailing climate emphasized imaginativeness, initiative, and risk-taking for individuals, and assistance and encouragement among teams Many of the employees appear to have the attitudes and skills comprising hardiness They have been a major success story of recent times, having proactively tutored a generation of folks on the power of computers and cyberspace Having handily overcome What are the Advantages of Hardi Organizations? 83 the prevailing giant IBM, which was too much of a traditional bureaucracy to be flexible and proactive, Microsoft and Apple have risen to the top of the heap sufficiently to bring concerns that they may be monopolies That concern notwithstanding, these two companies are moving on with ideas and initiatives quite beyond the desktop, such as the auto PC, which combines a CD player, radio, and computer Beyond this, the companies have ideas about how to use computer and information technology to improve and integrate the internet, televisions, cellphones, pads, toasters, poker machines, airport web terminals, and even washing machines These companies are a long way from merely determining what people know they want, and passively selling that to them Rather, the companies are educating us all as to how computer and information technology can transform our lives With this hardy approach, the money has just rolled in hat are the Disadvantages of Organizations W that are not Hardy? It is nonhardy organizations that tend to emphasize the values, mission statements, structure, climate, and personnel that have been common in less turbulent times In that past, successful organizations became authoritarian in values, bureaucratic in climate, hierarchical in structure, and unconcerned with the hardiness of their employees In easier times, when the US was overwhelmingly better off and more powerful than other countries, and there were no dramatic technological advances and economic volatility, these nonhardy organizations could manage to become large, stable, and complacent They were lulled by financial success into a belief that their supremacy would never end, that their current products and services were the best to be found, and that their decision makers were infallible It is precisely these kinds of organizations that prompted the theorizing about a growth cycle, of rapid early development followed by an inevitable tapering off and eventual decline, as being natural and inevitable But, it is not natural and inevitable just because it happened frequently Indeed, as the megatrends of change mentioned before mounted in recent years, into a rising tide of environmental and social change that has been called “chaos” (Peters 1988),9 many of our sprawling, complacent organizations suffered even more severely than would have been expected by prevailing conceptualizations Let me be more specific about the characteristics of nonhardy organizations Such organizations are bureaucratic, authoritarian, and into maintaining stability In everyday activities, they expect subordinates to no more than follow the orders of their supervisors, and not encourage everyone to consider and reconsider what is going on, instead wanting them to just keep doing what they have been ordered to The structure of such non-hardy organizations is hierarchical (shaped like a pyramid), with many levels of authority transcending to a powerful, authoritarian CEO And, at the level of personnel, there is no emphasis, whatsoever, on hardy attitudes and skills in employees, and applicants being considered 84 9 The Importance of Hardy Organizations Such nonhardy organizations may function reasonably well in stable times As long as they have been lucky enough to come up with several patterns of functioning that have been somewhat successful, these patterns become all that the company does But, in changing times, this insistence on doing the same thing over and over, will undermine the organization’s success So, in our dramatically turbulent times, such companies need to change in the direction of becoming more hardy, in order to emphasize learning from stressful changes, and using them to advantage in developing new approaches How can this be done? an Hardi Organizations Be Built Simply Through C a “Greening Effect”? If virtually everyone in an organization were hardy, it would be difficult for that organization to be anything but hardy too But, our research indicates that only about one-third of working adults are reasonably hardy So, it is very unlikely, indeed accidental, for an organization not concerned about the importance of hardiness to become hardy just through the choices of employees that it makes And, even if the organization were lucky enough to unintentionally gain a majority of hardy employees over time, the decision-makers in that company would maintain the non-hardy commitments to stability and orderliness that had controlled their decision making all along This means that the proactive and questioning stance, interest in change, and even attempt to help others that characterizes the hardy members of an organization may make them seem like “upstarts” or “rabble rousers.” Hence, the “greening effect” is highly unlikely to turn a company into a hardy version of itself A more comprehensive approach must be taken to improve the functioning of companies in our turbulent times ssessing and Developing the Hardiness A of Organizations There needs to be an accepted plan carried out in order to increase the hardiness of an organization, as needed changes in this direction will not very likely happen by chance One aspect of this plan will utilize the procedures for assessing and training the hardiness of individuals that have already been discussed in earlier chapters The hardiness of employees can be assessed by having them go to our website (www.HardinessInstitute.com), and follow the instructions for taking the 65 item Hardi Survey III-R The comprehensive report of the results can be obtained by following the instructions for this Actually, if it appears better for the report to go to a supervisor or human resources person, this can be arranged Assessing and Developing the Hardiness of Organizations 85 through the Hardiness Institute It would appear best for employees at all levels of authority in the organization to be assessed for their hardiness Needless to say, this would include decision makers along with the others Among other results, the report will show whether the test-taker’s hardiness is at, above, or below the average based on the Hardiness Institute’s data base When a test-taker’s hardiness is below, or even only at the average, this indicates the value of having that person go through Hardi Training This course, which can be done at the person’s own pace, involves deepening hardy (problem solving) coping, hardy (socially supportive) interactions, and hardy (beneficial) self-care, all in the process of also deepening the hardy attitudes of commitment, control, and challenge As indicated earlier, our Hardi Training has been shown to increase hardiness in both working adults and college students (Maddi et al 1998, 2009) The procedure outlined above can be done without the aid of hardiness experts as consultants But, further consulting help may be quite useful for an organization attempting to change toward the hardiness ideal Indeed, we have a well-developed Hardy organization assessment and consulting procedure In this procedure, strategic interviews, added to representatively administered Hardy Workplace and Hardy Survey questionnaires, and refined by strategic, on-site observations of the ongoing activities, are used to evaluate existing levels of organizational hardiness in the organization A report based on the results of this comprehensive assessment procedure then becomes the basis for formulating a plan to modify the company’s culture, climate, structure, and personnel as needed, through a combined procedure of instituting changes and retraining those effected by them This plan builds on existing resources of hardiness within the company, and every effort is made through workshops, executive coaching procedures, and other communication means to consolidate support of decision makers for the proposed changes As the changes take place, individual employees are assessed for and trained in hardiness, so that the work force will more fully embrace the ongoing organizational changes For an organization to truly grow in hardiness, the comprehensiveness of the approach outlined here is crucial However daunting the complexity of this approach may seem, we feel that it is more than offset by its importance for organizational success Indeed, we see what we are doing as our contribution to the overall effort to meet the tumultuously changing twenty first century more than half-way References Maddi, S R (1998) Creating meaning through making decisions In P T P Wong & P.S Fry (Eds.), The human quest for meaning Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, pp 3–26 Maddi, S R., Harvey, R H., Khoshaba, Fazel, M., & Resurreccion, N (2009) Hardiness training facilitates performance in college Journal of Positive Psychology, 4, 566–577 Maddi, S R., Khoshaba, D M., & Pammenter, A (1999) The hardy organization: Success by turning change to advantage Consulting Psychology Journal, 51, 117–124 Peters, T (1988) Thriving on chaos New York: Alfred A Knopf Chapter 10 The Psychology of Possibility Abstract In our time of turbulent change, we need to emphasize the psychology of possibility, rather than complacent security We need to welcome change as an opportunity to grow and develop Keywords Turbulent change • Possibility • Complacency • Growth • Development We live in a time of major, continuous, and dramatic change, which emphasizes the importance of the psychology of possibility Perhaps more than ever before, we need to accept and welcome social, familial, institutional, organizational, and environmental changes, and meet them head on as developmental possibilities for us, rather than pretend that they not, or need not exist This psychology of possibility will certainly be aided by individuals who are strong in the pattern of attitudes and skills called hardiness, and organizations which have the values, climate, structure, and personnel consistent with hardiness What is important in these turbulent times is to learn from the ongoing changes, and use what is learned to organize them, and turn them into an ongoing direction that seems likely to improve things And, if this ongoing direction also needs to be changed, as other developments emerge, that too is engaged in and valued In this, individuals, organizations, and societies will be flexible, proactive, resilient, and learning all the time, seeing this process as what makes life fulfilling Although they will all be changing, this will not be seen as disruptive or threatening, and undermining competition will be transcended by the recognition that all are working toward enhancing the possibilities of living This positive involvement in growing through change is the cornerstone of hardiness Specifically, with hardiness, there will be a strong commitment to evolving goals of growth, and the involvement in the ongoing efforts to reach them There will also be a confident sense of the control necessary to reach these goals in a way that will be advantageous With this courage and motivation, individuals and organizations will engage in the hard work of turning changes from potential disasters into growth opportunities In this process, individuals and organizations will keep learning from their successes and failures alike, leading to a continual updating of priorities S R Maddi, Hardiness, SpringerBriefs in Psychology, DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-5222-1_10, © The Author(s) 2013 87 88 10 The Psychology of Possibility and goals, and the strategies for reaching them The work involved in all this growth process will feel fulfilling, rather than draining, with this sense of fulfillment being based less on security than on accomplishment Without hardiness at the individual and organizational levels, the ongoing changes in our world will be seen as threats to our security, rather than opportunities to grow and develop People and organizations low in hardiness emphasize the importance of remaining the same, relying on what they already know as the truth, and thereby seeing changes as dangerous threats to stability In all this, individuals and organizations will hope for a predictable, successful routine, as the best that life can give The boredom resulting from success in this approach will be considered just what life is all about And, failures resulting from not keeping up growth and development will be seen as just another sign of how unfortunately difficult it is to avoid stressful changes This certainly is not the psychology of possibility Clearly, our rapidly increasing rate of changes effecting individuals and societies will be better met through sufficient hardiness to turn the changes from potential disasters into growth opportunities This underscores the importance of our research-validated assessment and training procedures for hardiness at the individual and organizational levels These procedures can be used by individuals, for their own benefit They can also be used by parents to learn how to help their youngsters develop hardiness Also, hardiness assessment and training is available in consulting and counseling work with both individuals and organizations Especially important organizations are schools, businesses, churches, and military, firefighter, police, and political units ... SpringerBriefs in Psychology For further volumes: http://www .springer. com/series/10143 Salvatore R Maddi Hardiness Turning Stressful Circumstances into Resilient Growth 13 Salvatore R Maddi. .. predictor of leadership behavior over the 4-year training program was hardiness, measured early in the training process Further, it has been found that hardiness, measured in firefighter cadets before... entered training, and determined their observations and performance throughout the training The higher the hardiness, the greater was the tendency to perceive the training as stressful, but to graduate