How animals think and feel an introduction to non human psychology

How Animals Think and Feel How Animals Think and Feel An Introduction to Non-Human Psychology Ken Cheng Copyright © 2016 by ABC-CLIO, LLC All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publisher Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Cheng, Ken, author Title: How animals think and feel : an introduction to non-human psychology / Ken Cheng Description: Santa Barbara, California : Greenwood, 2016 | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2016034919 (print) | LCCN 2016035224 (ebook) | ISBN 9781440837142 (hardcopy : alk paper) | ISBN 9781440837159 (eBook) Subjects: LCSH: Animal psychology | Animal behavior Classification: LCC QL785 C443 2016 (print) | LCC QL785 (ebook) | DDC 591.5—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016034919 ISBN: 978-1-4408-3714-2 EISBN: 978-1-4408-3715-9 20 19 18 17 16 This book is also available as an eBook Greenwood An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC ABC-CLIO, LLC 130 Cremona Drive, P.O Box 1911 Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911 www.abc-clio.com This book is printed on acid-free paper Manufactured in the United States of America Dedicated to my family—Danielle, Tia, and Max Contents Preface Chapter 1—Introduction Evolution Scientific Study of Animal Behavior Tinbergen’s Four Whys PART I: ANIMAL COGNITION Chapter 2—Sensory and Perceptual Processes Transduction Range of Sensory Worlds Perceptual Organization Perceptual Processes Conclusion Chapter 3—Basic Learning Why Learn? Nonassociative Learning Associative Learning: Classical Conditioning Associative Learning: Operant Conditioning Latent Learning The Misbehavior of Animals: Constraints on Learning Conclusion Chapter 4—Spatial Cognition and Behavior Path Integration Terrestrial Landmarks Geometry Some Neurobiology of Spatial Cognition Cognitive Map Debate: Do Insects Use Cognitive Maps? Global Navigation Conclusion Chapter 5—Timing Circadian Clocks Arranging Behaviors in Circadian Time Interval Timing Multiple Oscillators for Timing Conclusion Chapter 6—Numerical Cognition Analog Magnitude System: Approximate Counts Object-Tracking System: One, Two, Three, Too Many Training Animals to Count Conclusion Chapter 7—Emotions Emotions and Motivation Emotions in Comparative Perspective What about Emotions in Invertebrate Animals? Emotions, Consciousness, and Ethics Conclusion Chapter 8—Animal Communication Signals and Cues Wide Range of Signals Functions of Signals Attention Signals Camouflage Signals Identity Signals Mimicry Aggressive Mimicry Signals of Quality: Sexual Selection at Work Alarm Calls: Warning Signals Debate: How Important Is the Actual Information Conveyed through Animal Communication? Cognitive Processes in Communication Conclusion Chapter 9—Complex Cognition Physical Cognition Episodic-Like Memory Prospective Cognition Metacognition Debate: Do Animals Have Metacognition? Self-Recognition: The Mirror Test Social Learning Theory of Mind Conclusion PART II: CASE STUDIES OF SELECTED ANIMALS Chapter 10—Honeybees Eusocial Lifestyle Honeybee Cognition Colony Collapse: A Multifaceted Syndrome Conclusion Chapter 11—Jumping Spiders Best Arthropod Eyes Myrmarachne: Ant-Mimicking Jumping Spiders Portia: Stalker Playing Mind Games Conclusion Chapter 12—Cephalopods Coleoid Nervous Systems: Embodied Intelligence Learning in Cephalopods Play in Octopuses Skin Coloration: Masters of Disguise Conclusion Chapter 13—Corvids Clark’s Nutcrackers New Caledonian Crows Western Scrub Jays Conclusion Chapter 14—Parrots Kea Alex the African Grey Parrot Conclusion Chapter 15—Dolphins Numerical Sense Tool Use Culture Planning and Prospective Cognition Cooperation and Altruism Imitation Artificial “Language” Conclusion Chapter 16—Dogs WEIRD Human and WHOC Dogs Domestication of the Dog: Coevolution of Uncertain Origin Canid Play and Wild Justice Sensitivity to Humans Word Learning in Two Dogs: A Record for Nonprimates Conclusion Chapter 17—Great Apes Primates and Great Apes: Some Basic Biology Manual Skills and Clever Foraging Brain and Intelligence in Primates Nim, Kanzi, and Ape Language Nim Kanzi Conclusion Chapter 18—What about Humans? Brief Summary What about Humans? Debate: What Is Special about Humans? Glossary References and Other Interesting Materials About the Author and Contributors Index Preface What the nervous systems of animals let them makes the greatest show on the planet This book is about the minds of animals Most of it concerns nonhuman animals and what they are capable of, with the last short chapter reflecting on the rise of humans and what might have made this species come to dominate this planet The book is written as an introductory reference source for those with no knowledge of the fields featured: a large chunk of comparative cognition, but also behavioral ecology, evolutionary biology, neuroscience, perception, developmental psychology, anthropology, and philosophy While the descriptions have been kept simple, the book has not shied away from some key ideas that could be highly complex The reader will come across topics such as the perception of polarized light (Chapters and 4), principal-components analysis (Chapters 12 and 17), and embodied cognition (Chapters 12 and 16) And while the book serves as a reference source, the writing style was steered away from the straight-and-narrow, cut-and-dried toward the lively and colorful, often not shying away from big words An introductory chapter (1) sets out evolutionary theory, crucial to the consideration of any aspects of behavior Chapter also lays out a brief history of the relevant fields of scientific study, in order to set the stage for the show to come The two halves of the book then present a range of topics of animal thinking (Part I) and highlights on particular groups of animals (Part II) Part I starts off with the sensory world, the world from which animals get the information for everything that may be labeled “thinking” (Chapter 2) The ubiquitous phenomenon of learning is featured next, including both basic and more complex learning (Chapter 3) The next three chapters concern fundamental dimensions of experience that many animals process: space (Chapter 4), time (Chapter 5), and number (Chapter 6) A range of lab studies are described, along with naturalistic observations All the knowledge of the world is useless from an evolutionary standpoint unless one does something with it What to depends on one’s motivations; and emotions fuel motivations Animal emotions are spotlighted in Chapter in a comparative perspective Chapter describes the intricacies of the world of animal communication, offering a definition of signal, showcasing the wide range of signals, and explaining some of the functions of animal signals Part I concludes with a potpourri of complex cognition, including planning, social learning, and cognition about the minds of others Part II brings on nine chapters on a diverse range of animals with “star” characteristics Although the list is biased toward those animals more closely related to humans, three groups of invertebrate animals take the stage Honeybees (Chapter 10) are perhaps the world’s economically most important insect Worker bees can an amazing lot of things with tiny brains Jumping spiders ( Chapter 11) have some of the best invertebrate eyes, which they use in active hunting They stalk like miniature tigers of the undergrowth, and like honeybees, they accomplish much with tiny brains Cephalopods (Chapter 12), on the other hand, have some of the biggest nervous systems among invertebrate animals These mollusks include squids, cuttlefish, and octopuses Among the fascinating behaviors highlighted, they display patterns on their skins, controlled by their nervous systems, and they play Two groups of birds with large brains relative to their body sizes then enter on stage Corvids Path integration—A navigational process in which the traveler keeps track of the straight-line distance and direction to the starting point during the journey, so that the vector indicates the approximate distance and direction to the starting point Peak procedure—An experimental method for studying interval timing in which a signal indicates the start of each trial and then the first response after a set time has elapsed is rewarded; occasionally on a test, the signal will stay on for a long duration without a reward being delivered Pheromone—A chemical signal produced by an animal, often emitted to attract potential mates Photoreception—The process of converting a part of the spectrum of electromagnetic energy, commonly called “light,” into nervous signals; responsible for vision in animals Phylogeny—Evolutionary origins; or in a lineage of organisms, a “tree” indicating how the various species are evolutionarily related to one another Place cells—Neurons in the hippocampus of rodents and other animals that fire the most when the rodent is at one place, or sometimes a number of places, in the environment Polarized light—The systematic scattering of light reaching Earth, caused by the atmosphere Primary reinforcer—An intrinsically rewarding stimulus or event, such as food to a hungry animal or water to a thirsty animal Priming—The phenomenon in which prior exposure to a stimulus makes the detection of related stimuli easier or quicker Proximate explanations—Causal explanations of behavior addressing mechanisms and development of behavior Punishment—In operant conditioning, an outcome for an operant that is aversive and reduces the behavior on which it is contingent Reinforcement—In operant conditioning, an outcome for an operant that is desired and increases the behavior on which it is contingent (the term has a different meaning in evolutionary biology) Reinforcement contingency—The rules governing the consequences for a behavior (operant) in operant conditioning; positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment are common forms of reinforcement contingencies Reproductive fitness—Term in evolutionary biology referring to how well an organism propagates its genes into the next generation Resource holding potential—In the context of male–male contests, the ability of one male to fight off others and hold on to valuable resources such as territory Rotational error—An error in a spatial memory task in a geometrically ambiguous shape, such as a rectangle, in which the correct location is confused with its geometric equivalent; in a rectangle, the point located at 180° rotation from the correct location through the center of the rectangle Runaway selection—An explanation for intersexual selection, in which any heritable trait favored by females is selected because it produces “sexy sons” S+ and S– —Types of discriminative stimuli in operant conditioning; S+ indicates the presence of some reinforcement contingency, while S– indicates the absence of that contingency Search image—A phenomenon in which the most frequently encountered type of stimulus, typically prey of some kind, is easiest to detect; not necessarily a literal visual image Secondary reinforcer—An outcome that is rewarding because of its prior association with a primary reinforcer Sensitization—A form of nonassociative learning in which an unrelated event leads to an increase in responding to some stimulus Sensory homunculus—A map of the somatosensory cortex indicating the part of the body from which each part of this sensory cortex receives sensory information Sensory neuron—A type of neuron that receives sensory information, converting physical energy into action potentials or nervous impulses; also called receptors Sexual selection—Driving force for adaptive evolution in which traits that give animals an advantage when it comes to reproduction— in fighting off rivals or attracting mates—are favored Sign stimulus—A stimulus that reliably elicits a suite of instinctive behavior Signal—Behavior or morphology that has been selected in the course of evolution to affect another animal’s behavior Skinner, B F (1904–1990) —American psychologist famous for his behaviorist approach and for advancing the study of operant conditioning Smokescreen tactic—An animal using events, sometimes of the animal’s own making, in order to disguise the animal’s movements; an example is moving on a spider’s web while it is being swayed by the wind to decrease the chance that the web’s resident would detect the movement Social brain hypothesis—The hypothesis that brain size increased in vertebrate animals (such as primates) in order to deal with social relationships and the complexities that such relationships pose Spatial frequency—In visual stimuli, the extent of space over which changes in luminance take place; high spatial frequencies mean that light/dark changes take place over small extents, representing fine details, while low spatial frequencies mean that light/dark changes take place only over a large scale, representing broad outlines Spontaneous recovery—The reemergence of a behavior after extinction training in classical conditioning and operant conditioning after a passage of time without further training Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)—A structure containing what is thought of as the master circadian clock in mammals Tachycardia—A rise in heart rate Taste-aversion learning—A form of classical conditioning in which an animal avoids a food that the animal has previously associated with sickness Tinbergen, Nikolaas (Niko, 1907–1988)—Dutch biologist credited as one of the founders of ethology, the biological study of behavior; one of the winners of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1973 Transduction—Conversion of physical energy into nervous signals to be processed by sensory and perceptual systems True navigation—The ability to travel to a global-scale destination even after displacement, perhaps by accessing some cues that tell an animal where approximately it is on Earth, like having a rough GPS measure of current location and using the information for navigation Ultimate explanations—Functional and evolutionary explanations of behavior dealing with the adaptive benefits of the behavior and its evolutionary history Umwelt—Subjective perceptual world, depending on the senses possessed by an animal and the range of stimuli to which the sense organs are sensitive to; from German Unconditioned response—A response to a biologically important stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus, in the context of classical conditioning Unconditioned stimulus—A biologically important stimulus that reliably elicits a response, the unconditioned response, in the context of classical conditioning Wallace, Alfred Russel (1823–1913) —British naturalist who, along with Charles Darwin, proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection Weber’s law—A psychophysical principle for quantities (durations, weights, lengths, etc.) in which pairs of measures of equal ratios are equally discriminable; for example, units versus units is equally discriminable as units versus units Working memory—Memory that keeps current information for a task; a working memory task is one in which the memory that is required differs on each trial Zeitgeber—A cue, such as light onset, that helps to set a circadian clock and entrain circadian rhythm in an animal; from German, meaning “time giver” References and Other Interesting Materials Books and Journal Articles Abbott, A., and E Callaway 2014 “Prize for place cells.” Nature 514: 153 Bailey, R E., and J A Gillapsy, Jr 2005 “Operant Psychology Goes to the Fair: Marian and Keller Breland in the Popular Press, 1947– 1966.” The Behavior Analyst 28: 143–159 Barnes, C M., and C L Drake 2015 “Prioritizing Sleep Health: Public Health Policy Recommendations.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 10: 733–737 Bekoff, M., and J Pierce 2009 Wild Justice: The Moral Lives of Animals Chicago: University of Chicago Press Breland, K., and M Breland 1961 “The Misbehavior of Organisms.” American Psychologist 16: 681–684 Burghardt, G M 2015 “Play in Fishes, Frogs and Reptiles.” Current Biology 25: R9–R10 Byrne, R W 2016 Evolving Insight Oxford: Oxford Univ Press Dacke, M 2014 “Q & A.” Current Biology 24: R546–R547 Darwin, C 1859 The Origin of Species London: John Murray Darwin, C 1871 The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex London: John Murray Diamond, J 1999 Guns, Germs, and Steel New York: W.W Norton Gallup, Jr., G G 1970 “Chimpanzees: Self-Recognition.” Science 167: 86–87 Gillapsy, Jr., J A 2002 “Marian Breland Bailey (1920–2001) [obituary].” American Psychologist 57: 292–293 Gregg, J 2013 Are Dolphins Really Smart? Oxford: Oxford Univ Press Hauser, M D., S Carey, and L B Hauser 2000 “Spontaneous Number Representation in Semi-Free-Ranging Rhesus Monkeys.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological Sciences 267: 829–833 Hulse, S H., H Fowler, and W H Honig, eds 1978 Cognitive Processes in Animal Behaviour Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Jablonka, E., and M Lamb 2014 Evolution in Four Dimensions 2nd ed Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Jacobs, I F., and M Osvath 2015 “The String-Pulling Paradigm in Comparative Psychology.” Journal of Comparative Psychology 129: 89–120 Krebs, J R., N B Davies, and S West 2012 An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology 4th ed Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell Kruuk, H 2004 Niko’s Nature: The Life of Niko Tinbergen and His Science of Animal Behaviour Oxford: Oxford Univ Press O’Keefe, J., and J Dostrovsky 1971 “The Hippocampus as a Spatial Map Preliminary Evidence from Unit Activity in the FreelyMoving Rat.” Brain Research 34: 171–175 O’Keefe, J., and L Nadel 1978 The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map Oxford: Oxford Univ Press http://www.cognitivemap.net/HCMpdf/HCMComplete.pdf Pepperberg, I M 2008 Alex and Me New York: HarperCollins Shettleworth, S J 1998 Cognition, Evolution, and Behavior Oxford: Oxford Univ Press Shettleworth, S J 2010a “Clever Animals and Killjoy Explanations in Comparative Psychology.” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 14: 477–481 Shettleworth, S J 2010b Cognition, Evolution, and Behavior 2nd ed Oxford: Oxford Univ Press Shettleworth, S J 2010c “Q & A.” Current Biology 20: R910–R911 Shettleworth, S J 2012 Fundamentals of Comparative Cognition Oxford: Oxford Univ Press Skinner, B F 1948 Walden Two Indianapolis: Hackett Skinner, B F 1971 Beyond Freedom and Dignity New York: Knopf Terrace, H S 1979 Nim: A Chimpanzee Who Learned Sign Language New York: Knopf Terrace, H S., L A Petitto, R J Sanders, and T G Bever 1979 “Can an Ape Create a Sentence?” Science 206: 891–902 Tinbergen, Niko 1963 “On Aims and Methods in Ethology.” Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 20: 410–433 Von Frisch, K 1953 The Dancing Bees Translated by D Ilse New York: Harcourt, Brace & World Web-Based Materials, Including Videos The Action Potential A short tutorial YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7EyhsOewnH4 Animal Behavior Society Website http://www.animalbehaviorsociety.org/web/index.php Association for Psychological Science Inside the psychologist’s studio: Paul http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/video/inside-the-psychologists-studio-paul-ekman.html Ekman Video: Bailey, B., and M Breland-Bailey 2009 Patient Like the Chipmunks IQ Zoo Extract YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=Egm_98WbE4s Bar Tailed Godwit Alaskan bird makes longest nonstop flight ever measured Dave Hansford explains in National Geographic News http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/09/070913-longest-flight.html Berridge, K 2003 Affective Neuroscience & Biopsychology Lab Video: http://www.lsa.umich.edu/psych/research&labs/berridge/VideoIndex.htm Bird Tango YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y_MnwNyX0Ds Bolas Spider Catching Prey YouTube (1 minute): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wl120RuhQYg Cambridge Animal Alphabet Website http://www.cam.ac.uk/subjects/cambridge-animal-alphabet The Captured Thought Website https://claytonwilkins.wordpress.com/ Carotenoids and Human Skin Color BBC News story http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/edinburgh_and_east/8362465.stm Carribean Primate Research Center Website http://cprc.rcm.upr.edu/?q=cayodesc Cephalopod Behavior Videos of camouflage and more at Roger Hanlon’s Website http://www.mbl.edu/bell/currentfaculty/hanlon/videos/ Chaser the Border Collie Website http://www.chaserthebordercollie.com/ Clark’s Nutcracker The bird’s ecological role YouTube (2.5 minutes): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vrK6w3WPvWA Comparative Cognition Society Website http://www.comparativecognition.org/ Chimpanzee Gestures BBC news with video http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-28095749 Circadian Rhythm: How Your Brain’s Internal Clock Works Some quick information about human circadian rhythm YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jFfAbMbrZrA Crow Causal Understanding of Water Displacement by a Crow YouTube (3.5 minutes): https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=ZerUbHmuY04 Crow Crow Intelligence: Multi-Step Tool Action Test YouTube (3 minutes): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JY8-gP3Sw_8 Dacke, Marie 2012 Science standup: Infotaining plug for neuroethology YouTube (8.5 minutes): https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=ZEmPcD7JTME Defaunation News story from Stanford University’s Website http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2014/pr-sixth-mass-extinction-072414.html Desert Ant We’ve Been Looking at Ant Intelligence the Wrong Way Neuroethologist Antoine Wystrach explains in The Conversation Web article: http://theconversation.com/weve-been-looking-at-ant-intelligence-the-wrong-way-17619 Desert Ant What Ants Can Teach Robots Neuroethologist Patrick Schultheiss explains in The Conversation http://theconversation.com/what-ants-can-teach-robots-131 Dogs Clever Dog Lab, University of Vienna Website http://www.cleverdoglab.at/www.cleverdoglab.at/index356f.html?id=3&L=1 Dogs Delayed Imitation Publisher’s news release http://www.springer.com/about+springer/media/springer+select?SGWID=0-11001-61428548-0 Dogs Dog scientist Brian Hare’s Website http://brianhare.net/duke-canine-cognition-center-2/ Dogs Media links at dog scientist Monique Udell’s Website http://www.moniqueudell.com/MoniqueUdell/Media.html Dogs Menace of Stray Dogs in India News article http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/07/world/asia/india-stray-dogs-are-amenace.html?_r=0 Dolphin Conservation Whale and Dolphin Conservation Website whales.org Dolphin Imitation Some of their cleverest behaviors Vimeo (3 minutes): https://vimeo.com/112851595 Dolphin Intelligence: Self-Recognition Mirror Test YouTube (1 minute): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hHBfp6QC-MY Electric Fish Website with information http://people.virginia.edu/~mk3u/mk_lab/electric_fish_E.htm Elephant Self-Recognition in Mirror Short video story YouTube (6 minutes): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-EjukzL-bJc Gorilla Gestural Communication Dr Joanne Tanner’s Website has materials and videos http://www.gorillagestures.info/index.htm HIREC (Human-Induced Rapid Environmental Change) From Professor Andy Sih’s Website https://sihlab.wordpress.com/hirec/ Honeybee: Colony Collapse Disorder U.S Environmental Protection Agency Website http://www.epa.gov/pollinatorprotection/colony-collapse-disorder Honeybee Waggle Dance Note that what the video claims about the “energy hypothesis” is now known to be wrong YouTube (7.5 minutes): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bFDGPgXtK-U Jacky Dragon Displays A collection of videos from Dr Richard Peters’ lab (under the “Video” link) http://richard.eriophora.com.au/multimedia.html Jumping Spiders Links at Dr Ximena Nelson’s Website http://ximenanelson.weebly.com/media-interest.html Kanzi: Comprehension Test YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Dhc2zePJFE Kea, with David Attenborough Wild birds solving problems, including the tube problem YouTube (2.5 minutes): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bxoCuRuHlt8 Lizard Dewlap Displays BBC Motion Gallery http://www.gettyimages.com.au/videos/lizard-dewlap? collections=bba,bbr,bbe&phrase=lizard%20dewlap&sort=best&excludenudity=true Lyrebird Imitations, with David Attenborough YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VjE0Kdfos4Y Magpie: Mirror Test YouTube (1 minute): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zjl49P_EAw8 Moser, E., and M.-B Moser Reactions to winning Nobel Prize YouTube (2.5 minutes): https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=bY_9gjEECOo Myrmarachne, Ant-Mimicking Jumping Spiders Short clip showing males and females Vimeo: https://vimeo.com/114879187 Nautilus Learning Video featuring Dr Jennifer Basil YouTube (4.5 minutes): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PIheRYcm6sI New Caledonian Crow Shaping Tool YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UDg0AKfM8EY Nim: Project Nim Movie trailer, featuring Herb Terrace and Laura Petitto YouTube (2.5 minutes): https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=yxQap9AAPOs Octopus Behavior Videos at Professor Binyamin Hochner’s Website http://octopus.huji.ac.il/site/films/films.php Octopus Camouflage Short clip from Roger Hanlon showing astounding crypticity YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=q8xJ13pAZNw O’Keefe, J 2014 Speech at banquet for Nobel Prize YouTube (6 minutes): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=el3_wTT3X3k Orangutan Behaviors Website with links about pantomiming and tool use http://orangutan.ca/scienceandresearch.html Peacock Tail Displays BBC Motion Gallery http://www.gettyimages.com.au/videos/peacock-tail-display? collections=bba,bbr,bbe&phrase=peacock%20tail%20display&sort=best&excludenudity=true Portia Hunting behaviors BBC Motion Gallery http://www.gettyimages.com.au/videos/portia? collections=bba,bbr,bbe&phrase=Portia&sort=best&excludenudity=true Rambert Dance Company Website http://www.rambert.org.uk/ Raven Politics Short story at the University of Vienna’s Website http://medienportal.univie.ac.at/presse/aktuellepressemeldungen/detailansicht/artikel/divide-and-rule-raven-politics/ Sage Grouse Strut Display Short clip of multimodal signal in this bird YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m0M8pZnNlnI Scrub Jay Nicky Clayton explains some of their cognition YouTube (3 minutes): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mmpUoGKyyto Sea Turtle Orientation and Navigation of Sea Turtles, from Dr Kenneth Lohmann’s Website http://www.unc.edu/depts/oceanweb/turtles/ Synapse: How Neurotransmission Works Tutorial YouTube (90 seconds): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p5zFgT4aofA Tinbergen, N Nobel Prize presentation and lecture http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1973/tinbergenlecture.html Tolman, E C Biography http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/tolman.htm About the Author and Contributors Author Ken Cheng, PhD, is Professor of Biological Sciences at Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia He has published more than 100 scientific papers on comparative cognition and neuroethology He is a Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science and is currently an editor of the journal Animal Cognition Cheng holds a master’s degree in Education from Harvard University and a doctorate in Psychology from the University of Pennsylvania Contributors Michael J Beran, PhD, is Associate Professor of Psychology at Georgia State University in Atlanta, Georgia, and Associate Director of the Language Research Center at Georgia State His published works include the edited volume Foundations of Metacognition He has served as president of the Southern Society for Philosophy and Psychology and has served on the editorial boards of journals such as Cognition, Journal of Comparative Psychology, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Learning and Cognition, and Animal Cognition His research interests include metacognition, self-control, numerical cognition, prospective cognition, and the psychology of judgment and decision-making processes Richard W Byrne , PhD, is Research Professor in Psychology at the University of St Andrews, Scotland, and a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh He is author of The Thinking Ape (Oxford University Press, 1995), which was awarded the British Psychology Society’s book prize in 1997, and Evolving Insight (Oxford University Press, 2016); he is also coeditor, with Andrew Whiten, of Machiavellian Intelligence: Social Expertise and the Evolution of Intellect in Monkeys, Apes, and Humans (Oxford University Press, 1988) and Machiavellian Intelligence II: Extensions and Evaluations (Cambridge University Press, 1997) After attaining a first degree in Natural Sciences, Byrne went on to earn a PhD in Human Memory and Planning, both at the University of Cambridge At St Andrews, his research has centered on understanding the evolution of cognition, adding the evidence from observation of animals in their natural surroundings to the more familiar data from captive studies; this has involved fieldwork on baboons, chimpanzees, gorillas, and African elephants Paul R Graham, DPhil, is a Reader in Biology at the University of Sussex, U.K His research interests include spatial cognition and biorobotics Graham has studied ant navigation for over 15 years Using lab and field experiments as well as computational and robotic modeling, he has investigated the elegant and economical strategies that are implemented by small-brained navigators Eva Jablonka has an MSc in Microbiology and a PhD in Genetics; her postdoctoral studies were in the Philosophy of Science and Developmental Genetics She is currently a professor in the Cohn Institute for the History and Philosophy of Science and Ideas, Tel Aviv University (TAU), and a member of the Sagol School of Neuroscience at TAU Her main interest is the understanding of evolution, especially evolution that is driven by nongenetic hereditary variations She is coauthor, with Marion J Lamb, of Epigenetic Inheritance and Evolution: The Lamarckian Dimension (Oxford University Press, 1995); coauthor, with Eytan Avital, of Animal Traditions: Behavioural Inheritance in Evolution (Cambridge University Press, 2000); and coauthor, again with Marion J Lamb, of Evolution in Four Dimensions: Genetic Epigenetic, Behavioral and Symbolic Variation in the History of Life (MIT Press, 2005) Her most recent book, coedited with Snait B Gissis, is Transformations of Lamarckism: From Subtle Fluids to Molecular Biology (MIT Press, 2011) The Evolution of the Sensitive Soul, with Simona Ginsburg, is under contract with MIT Press Marion Lamb was a Senior Lecturer in Biology at Birkbeck College, University of London, until her retirement During that time, her laboratory research was concerned mainly with various aspects of the biology and genetics of ageing, using Drosophila as a research tool Her theoretical work is focused on evolutionary biology, especially the role of epigenetic inheritance, and on the history of ideas about heredity She published the The Biology of Ageing (Blackie, Glasgow, 1977); Epigenetic Inheritance and Evolution: The Lamarckian Dimension, with Eva Jablonka (Oxford University Press, 1995); and Evolution in Four Dimensions: Genetic, Epigenetic, Behavioral, and Symbolic Variation in the History of Life, again with Eva Jablonka (MIT Press, 2005) Mike E Le Pelley, PhD, is a Senior Lecturer in Psychology at UNSW Australia, in Sydney, Australia In addition to writing many journal articles, he has coedited the book Attention and Associative Learning: From Brain to Behavior He currently sits on the editorial boards of the Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, the Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Learning and Cognition, and the Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Le Pelley holds a doctorate in Experimental Psychology from the University of Cambridge, U.K His research interests focus on the cognitive processes underlying learning and attention Nora S Newcombe, PhD, is Laura H Carnell Professor of Psychology at Temple University in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Her published works include Making Space: The Development of Spatial Representation and Reasoning, with Janellen Huttenlocher (MIT Press, 2000) and numerous empirical and theoretical articles She has received the William James Fellow Award from the Association for Psychological Science and the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award from the Society for Research in Child Development She has also served as the editor of Journal of Experimental Psychology: General Newcombe holds a doctorate in Psychology from Harvard University Her research interests include spatial cognition, spatial development, and episodic memory Randolf Menzel, PhD, is Professor Emeritus of Zoology at the Freie Universität Berlin He has published numerous research articles on learning, memory, color vision, navigation, and communication in honeybees, and he has coedited books on Animal Thinking (MIT Press, 2011) and Invertebrate Learning and Memory (Academic Press, 2013) Menzel holds a doctorate in Color Learning in Bees His research interests include the search for the neural basis of learning and memory in insects Drew Rendall, PhD, is Professor of Biology at the University of New Brunswick, in Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada He holds a PhD from the University of California, Davis, and he did postdoctoral training at the University of Pennsylvania He does comparative research, primarily in naturalistic field settings, on the behavioral, anatomical, perceptual, and cognitive processes involved in animal vocal communication He has worked with a variety of species, including baboons, tree squirrels, songbirds, domestic dogs, and humans Peter J Richerson, PhD, is Distinguished Professor Emeritus in the Department of Environmental Science and Policy at the University of California, Davis His research focuses on the processes of cultural evolution His book with Robert Boyd, Culture and the Evolutionary Process (University of Chicago Press, 1985), applied the mathematical tools used by organic evolutionists to study a number of basic problems in human cultural evolution His recent books with Boyd include Not by Genes Alone: How Culture Transformed Human Evolution (University of Chicago Press, 2006), which is an introduction to cultural evolution aimed at a broad audience, and The Origins and Evolution of Cultures (Oxford University Press, 2005), a compendium of Boyd and Richerson’s more important papers and book chapters His recent publications used theoretical models to try to understand some of the main events in human evolution, such as the evolution of the advanced capacity for imitation (and hence cumulative cultural evolution) in humans, the origins of tribal and larger-scale cooperation, and the origins of agriculture He and his colleagues also investigate cultural evolution in laboratory microsocieties Carolynn (K-lynn) L Smith, PhD, is a visiting academic at Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia Her published works include “Referential Signals: A Window into Animal Minds” in ABC-CLIO’s Animal Communication, Volume 3, and invited papers in the journals Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology and Animal Behaviour She was the joint recipient, with Professor Chris Evans, of the 2010 Australian Museum Eureka Prize Smith holds a doctorate in Biology from Macquarie University Her research interests include animal behavior, cognition, and communication —in particular, multimodal signaling—as well as animal ethics Index Action potential, 20 Aisner, Ran, 148–149 Alarm calls, 83, 106, 115–119, 121–127, 128 Alex the African grey parrot, 208–213, 219, 230; concept learning in, 210–211; impact of work on, 212–213; model/rival method in educating, 210; numerical cognition in, 92; photo of, 209; word learning in, 210–212 Analog magnitude system, 84–87, 90, 91, 92–94 Animal architecture, 139 Animal behavior, scientific study of, 7–11 Animal cognition, 9, 11 Animal ethics, 102–104, 220, 234, 248 Ant-mimicking spiders, 168, 170–172 Ants, 1, 170; compass in, 53–54; desert ant, 29, 158; eusociality in, 157, 158; landmark use in, 57, 70; odometry in, 29, 54; orientation walks in, 55; path integration in, 50–51, 53–54 Ape See Great apes Aplysia, habituation and sensitization in, 35–36 Audition, 20–21, 25 Autocommunication, 108 Basil, Jennifer, 180 Bee See Honeybee Behavioral ecology, 9–11, 118 Bekoff, Mark, 225–227, 234 Beran, Michael, 144–145 Bioluminescence, 108, 113 Bisection task, 77–79 Body senses, 22 Bolas spider, 166, 171, 173 Bonobo, 236, 237–238, 253; Kanzi, 219, 248–251; sensitivity to humans in, 228; trap-tube/table problem in, 134–135 See also Great apes Brain: in cephalopods, 176–177; development in hymenopterans, 158; in dolphins, 214, 219–220; evolution in humans, 239, 256, 258–260, 261; evolution of, 241–242; executive, 242; gray ceiling, 239; and intelligence in primates 241–243, 251; and learning, 33; neoteny and growth of, 184; in octopuses, 177–179; operating on rodent, 60; in primates, 237; stimulation of snail, 101–102 Breland, Keller and Marian, 45–46, 47, 48 Brown, Culum, 103, 135 Burghardt, Gordon, 183 Byrne, Richard (Dick), 239–241, 243–245, 252, 263–265 Cabanac, Michel, 98–101 Call, Josep, 228, 231 Capuchin monkey: general intelligence in, 243; manual skills in, 240; physical cognition in, 134; self-recognition (lack thereof) in, 148; theory of mind in, 152; tool use in, 135; trap-tube problem in, 134 Cayo Santiago, 88 Cephalopods, 176–193; in the deep seas, 193; learning in, 180–182; nervous system of, 176–180; pain in, 181 Chaser the border collie, 221, 231–233; distributed/spaced learning in, 232; reasoning by exclusion in, 233; testing of, 232–233 Chiao, Chuan-Chin, 186, 187–188, 190 Chicken: calls in, 116–117, 119, 121–124, 125; dancing (scratching) for food in, 45, 48; emotion in, 99; tidbitting in, 121–122, 123–124 Chimpanzee, 236, 237–238; cooperative hunting in, 218, 257; culture in 216; gestures in, 244; language learning in, 245–248; manual skills in, 240, 264–265; metacognition in, 144–145; Nim, 246–248; numerical cognition in, 92; personhood in, 253; prospective cognition in, 138–139; Santino, 138–139, self-recognition, 147; sensitivity to humans, 228; theory of mind in, 152–153; tool making and using, 215– 216, 217, 240, 252; trap-tube/table problem, 134–135 See also Great apes Chomsky, Noam, 246, 250, 251 Circadian timing, 72–76; and health, 74 Clark’s nutcracker, 59, 195–198; food storing in, 195–196; radial-maze task in, 197; and seed dispersal, 197–198; spatial memory in, 59, 196–197 Classical conditioning, 36–39, 44, 120, 121, 255; constraints, 48–49; in constraints on operant conditioning, 48; extinction in, 38–39; fear conditioning, 35, 37, 97; in nautiluses, 180; sexual conditioning, 38–39; taste aversion, 48, 97–98 Clayton, Nicola (Nicky), 136–138, 140, 202–203; dancing, 137 Clever Hans, 129–130 Cognition, 6, 8; comparative, 9, 11; embodied, 177–180; 187, 192–193; embodied, enacted, and extended, 234–235; in honeybees, 159– 163; metacognition, 141–147; numerical, 83–94, 215; physical, 131–135, 198–201; prospective, 138–141, 203, 216–217; social, 148– 153; spatial, 11, 50–70; theory of mind, 151–153, 202–203 Cognitive map, 8, 44, 60–61, 63–68, 138 Colony collapse in honeybees, 163–165 Communication, 106–128, 256, 264; audience effect in, 124–125; autocommunication, 108; cognitive processes in, 113, 124–127; in honeybees, 159–161; information in, 119–124 See also Signals Comparative psychology, 7–8, 9, 93, 130 Compass, 23, 52–54, 66, 69 Contests, 113–114 Cooperation, 217–218; in ants, 218; in dolphins, 217–218; in fish, 218; in honeybees, 158; in humans, 158–159, 257, 259, 265 Core knowledge, 93, 257 Corvids, 194–204 Counting 83, 91–92 See also Numerical cognition Coyote, 123–124, 225, 227 Crook, Robyn, 180–181 Cross, Fiona, 172 Crystal, Jonathon, 78, 81–82, 139, 143, 146, 147 Culture, 216; cumulative, 257–258, 261; in dolphins, 216, in humans, 257–258, 261–263, 265; Pan/Homo, 248, 250; in rats, 216 Cuttlefish, camouflage in, 112, 184–192; embodied cognition in, 187, 192–193; learning in, 181–182 Dacke, Marie, 24, 91 Darmaillacq, Anne-Sophie, 181–182 Darwin, Charles, 3–7, 95, 227; expression of emotions, 95, 96; life of, Descartes, René, 2–3 Development, 13, 13–14; of brains in hymenopterans, 158; in cuttlefish, 192; in dogs, 223–224, 230; in great apes, 237; in humans, 212, 247, 259, 261; of numerical cognition in infants, 90, 91; in primates, 237; of tool-making in New Caledonian crows, 200–201 Diamond, Jared, 2, 265 Digger wasp, 55 Dog, 1, 107, 221–235; border collie, 231; classical conditioning in, 36–37; domestication and evolution of, 222–225; embodied, enacted, and extended cognition in, 234–235; empathy in, 225; feral, free-roaming, and stray, 221–222, 234; imitation in, 150; learning in, 229; operant conditioning in, 43–44, 228, 231–233; oxytocin in, 221; play bow in, 225–226; play in, 225–227; reasoning by exclusion in, 231, 233; sensitivity to humans in, 228–230; sexuality in, 223–224; in shelters, 229–230; starch digestion in, 221, 224; theory of mind in, 151, 152; WHOC (Western, Human-Owned Companion), 222; wild justice in, 225–227; word learning in, 230–233 Dolphins, 25, 46, 214–220; artificial “language” learning in, 219; brain evolution in, 219–220; conservation of, 220; cooperation and altruism in, 217–218, 257; culture in, 216; imitation in, 218; numerical cognition in, 215; prospective cognition in, 216–217; selfrecognition in, 148; tool use in, 215–216; violence in, 218 Dunbar, Robin, 242 Ekman, Paul, 95–96 Emotion, 95–105, 140, 255; basic, 95–96; in birds, 99; in crayfish, 101; and ethics, 102–104; facial expressions in, 95–96; in fish, 99–100; in frogs, 99; in honeybees, 102; in humans, 95–96, 98; in invertebrate animals, 101–102; in lizards, 99; and motivation, 97–98; in rats, 97–99; in snails, 101–102; stress and, 98–99, 101–102; in turtles, 99 Emotional fever, 99–102, 255 Episodic-like memory, 135–138, 162–163, 202, 203 Ethics, 102–104, 220, 234, 252–253 Ethology, 7, 8–9 Eurasian jay, prospective cognition in, 140 Evolution, 3–7, 254; of dogs, 222–225; of dolphin brain size, 219–220; of emotions in vertebrates, 100–101; in four dimensions, 265–266; of humans, 221, 224, 238–239, 256–260; of intelligence in primates, 241–243; mosaic, 241–242, 251; of primate brains, 241–242; of primates, 237–238; in the symbolic dimension, 265–266; of tool making in New Caledonian crows, 101; of trichromatic vision, 14–15 Extended phenotype, 234 Extinction, in classical conditioning, 38–39, 41; in operant conditioning, 43 Eyes, design of, 5–6; in coleoid cephalopods, 177, 178; in jumping spiders, 166–168; in nautiluses, 176, 178 Facial expressions, 14, 96–97 Fields, William, 248, 250–251 Fischer, Julia, 231 Fish, 9, 22; circadian rhythm in, 72; cooperation in, 218; emotional fever in, 99–100; numerical cognition in, 87, 91; perception of electric charge, 23, 108; physical cognition in, 135; signals in, 113; use of geometry in, 59 Fork-tailed drongos, 125–127 Function, 12, 13, 14 Galef, Bennett G (Geoff), 150–151, 216, 240 Gene–culture coevolution, 257–258, 261–263, 265; in dogs and humans, 224–225 Geometry in spatial cognition, 57–59 Goodall, Jane, 238, 253 Gorillas, 236, 237–238; Koko, 245, 250; manual skills in, 240, 264; pantomiming in, 250 See also Great apes Graham, Paul, 67–69 Gray ceiling, 239, 259–260 Great apes, 236–253; biology and evolution of, 236–239; brain and intelligence in, 241–243, 251; brain evolution in, 241–242; development, 237; gestures in, 244–245, 250, 264; imitation in, 150, 240; insight in 252; Kanzi the bonobo, 248–251; language learning in, 244–251; locomotion in, 237–238; manual role differentiation in, 239–240; manual skills in, 239–241, 264–265; mating systems in, 238–239; Nim the chimpanzee 246–248; numerical cognition in, 92; personhood in, 252–253; prospective cognition in, 138–140; self-recognition in, 148; sensitivity to humans in, 152, 228; theory of mind in, 152; trap-table problem in, 134–135 Gregg, Justin, 148, 214, 215, 216, 219–220 Grid cell, 61, 62–63 Habituation, 34–35, 90, 174, 181, 184, 185, 255; function of, 36 Hanlon, Roger, 185–188, 190, 192 Head-direction cell, 61–62 Hearing, 20–22, 25 Hippocampus, 59–62 HIREC (Human-Induced Rapid Environmental Change), 252, 253 Hochner, Binyamin, 179–180 Hockett, Charles, 250 Homo sapiens See Human Honeybee, 26, 30, 157–165; cognition in, 159–163; cognitive maps in, 63–68; colony collapse, 163–165; concept learning in, 161–162; dance language in, 159–161; development, 158; episodic-like memory in, 162–163; eusociality in, 157–159; looking back, 55; match-tosample task in, 161; metacognition in, 163; numerical cognition in, 91; odometry in, 28–39, 54; pessimistic bias in, 102; proboscis extension reflex (PER) in, 38; timing in, 71, 72, 75–77, 82 Huber, Ludwig, 207 Human, 1–2, 236, 237, 238–239, 256–267; bipedalism in, 238, 258–259; circadian rhythm in, 74; color vision in, 14–15; cooperation and altruism in, 158–159, 257, 259, 265; cooperative breeding in, 238–239, 256, 259–260, 265; core knowledge in, 93, 257; cultural input and intellectual development in, 212; development in, 212, 247, 259, 261; energy use in, 258; evolution of, 221, 224, 256–260; gene– culture coevolution in, 257–258, 261–263, 265; habituation in, 34; imagination in, 265; imitation in, 150, 262–263; improvisational intelligence in, 261–262; language in, 257, 263–266; learning in, 256–257, 260–261; numerical cognition in, 86, 90–91; parochialism in, 257; place cells in, 60–61; play in, 184; senses in, 21–22, 25, 29–31; starch digestion and evolution of, 221, 224; taste aversion in, 48; timing in, 77–78; tool use in, 260–262 Hunt, Gavin, 198–199 Hypothalamus, in circadian rhythm, 74; in emotions, 98 Imitation, 110, 150–151, 218; in dolphins, 218; in great apes, 150, 152, 240, 252; in humans, 150, 262–263 Infant, 93, 21, 256–257, 260, 262; expressions of disgust in, 98; numerical cognition in, 90–91; theory of mind in, 153 Insight, 133, 217, 252 Instrumental conditioning See Operant conditioning Intelligence in primates, 241–243 Interval timing, 77–82 Isler, Karin, 239, 259–260 Jablonka, Eva, 257, 265–266 Jackson, Robert, 169–172 Jumping spiders, 166–175; eyes in, 166–168; mechanoreception in, 167–169; mimicry in, 170–172; navigation in, 172–173; signals in, 173– 174 Kamil, Alan, 197 Kaminski, Juliane, 231 Kanzi the bonobo, 219, 248, 249–251; comprehension of spoken langauge, 250 Kea, 131, 206–208; diet in, 206; neophilia in, 206–207; photo of, 207; physical cognition in, 200, 207–208; play in, 206–207; social learning in, 208 Kelman, Emma, 188 Kuba, Michael, 183–184 Lamarck, Jean Baptiste, 3–4 Lamb, Marion, 265–266 Lana the chimpanzee, 245–246 Latent learning, 44–45 Le Pelley, Mike, 145–147 Learning, 8, 32–49, 255; associative, 8, 120, 121, 133, 146–147, 151, 153; in cephalopods, 180–182; in Clever Hans, 129–130; constraints on, 45–49; in crows, 194–195; definition of, 32; in dogs, 228, 229; evolution of, 33–34; in humans, 256–257, 260–261; latent, 44–45; in New Caledonian crows, 200–201; nonassociative, 34–36; in ravens, 194; social, 147–151, 182, 194–195, 200–201, 202–203, 208; to time, 75–76 Macaques See Rhesus macaque monkey Magnetic sensitivity, 23, 69, 70 Malthus, Thomas, Manser, Marta, 117–118, 125 Mather, Jennifer, 183–184 Mechanism, 11–13, 13 Mechanoreception, 21–22, 27–28, 110, 167–169 Menzel, Randolf, 65–67 Merritt, Michele, 234 Metacognition, 141–147; in chimpanzees, 144–145; in honeybees, 163; in rats, 143, 146–147; in rhesus macaque monkeys, 141–144 Mimicry, 110, 112–113, 180; in fork-tailed drongos, 125–127; in jumping spiders, 168, 170–174 Mirror test, 147–148, 194, 252 Misbehavior of animals, 45–49 Moser, Edvard, and May-Britt, 61, 62 Myrmarachne, 168, 170–172; aggressive mimicry in, 171; mating in, 171–172 Natural selection, 3–6 Nautilus, 176; learning in, 180–181; nervous system of, 177; photo of, 178 Navigation, 50–70; cognitive map in, 63–68; in cuttlefish, 182; global, 50–51, 68–69, 71; in jumping spiders, 172–173; in nautiluses, 180– 181; in octopuses, 182; true navigation, 68–69; view-based, 63–65, 68–69, 70 See also Spatial cognition Nelson, Ximena, 169–172 Neoteny, 184; in dogs, 223–224, 225 Neuroethology, 9–11, 24 Neuron, 20, 33, 34, 59, 254 New Caledonian crow, 198–201; Aesop’s-fable problem in, 195; development of tool making and using in, 200–201; evolution of tool making and using in, 201; laterality in, 199; physical cognition in, 200; string-pulling problem in, 133; tool making and using in, 198–201 Newcombe, Nora, 260–261 Nim the chimpanzee, 246–248 Nociception, 103–104 Numerical cognition, 83–94; in Alex the grey parrot, 92; in chimpanzees, 92; in dolphins, 215; in fish 87, 91; in honeybees, 91; in insects, 87, 91; in jumping spiders, 169–170; in rats, 84–86; in rhesus macaque monkey, 87–90 Object-tracking system, 87–94 Octopuses, learning in, 181–182; nervous system of, 176, 177–180; photo of, 178; play in, 183–184 Odometry, 28–29, 52, 54 O’Keefe, John, 60–61 Olfaction, 25–26 Operant chamber, 8, 39, 40 Operant conditioning, 39–45, 255; in chickens, 45–46; in Clever Hans, 129–130; constraints in, 45–48; in dogs, 228, 231–233; extinction in, 43; in metacognition, 146–147; in pigeons, 39–40, 246; in raccoons, 46–47; in rats, 39, 42, 43, 48, 149, 227; schedules of reinforcement in, 43; shaping in, 43–44; in social learning, 149; in string-pulling problem, 133; in theory of mind, 151, 153 Optic flow, 28–29, 54 Orangutans, 236, 237–238; gestures in, 244–245; language learning in, 245; manual skills in, 240, 264; metacognition in, 144 See also Great apes Pain, 19, 21–22, 103–104; in cephalopods, 181 Parrots, 205–206; brains in, 206; dietary habits in, 205–206; evolution of, 205; innovation in, 206; string-pulling problem in, 131–132 Path integration, 51–54, 62, 63, 70 Pavlov, Ivan, 36, 37, 228, 229 Pavlovian conditioning, see Classical conditioning Peak procedure, 79–80 Pepperberg, Irene, 92, 208–213; photo of, 209 Perceptual organization, 26–28 Perceptual processes, 19, 21–31; multimodal perception, 31; perception of edges, 29, 191; perception of bilateral symmetry, 162; perception of electric charge, 23, 108; perception of heat, 23; perception of polarized light, 23–24, 53–54; topdown perceptual processes, 29–31 Pessimistic bias, 102–103 Petitto, Laura, 253 Pheromones, 26, 106, 158, 166, 173 Pierce, Jessica, 225, 226–227, 234 Pig, habituation in, 35 Pigeon, 27; attention in, 30; food conditioning in, 38; imitation in, 150, 151, 240; landmark use in, 56, 59; metacognition in, 145; numerical cognition in, 85; operant conditioning in, 39–40, 246; place cells in, 60; self-recognition (lack thereof) in, 148; sequence learning in, 246; timing in 77, 79–80; what-where-when task in, 136–137 Pilley, John, 231–233 Place cell, 59–61 Play, 182–183; in dogs, 225–227; in great apes, 248, 249; in keas, 206–207; in octopuses, 183–184 Pleasure, 100; in rats, 102; in snails, 102 Portia, 169–170, 172–174; aggressive mimicry in, 172, 173–174; navigation in, 172–173; photo of, 168; signals in, 172, 173–174 Primates, 236–237; brains in, 237, 241–243, 251–252; communication in, 116, 121, 125, 244–245, 264; general intelligence in, 241–243, 251; locomotion in, 237–238; trichromatic vision in 13–15, 237 Priming, 29–30 Principal-components analysis, 188–189, 243 Quail, imitation in, 150; sexual conditioning in, 38–39 Raccoon, 131; operant conditioning of, 46–47, 48 Rats, 1; culture in, 216; emotion in 98–100; empathy in, 227; episodic-like memory in, 137; fear conditioning in, 35, 37–38, 48; food conditioning in, 38; grid cells in, 62–63; habituation in, 35; head-direction cells in, 61–62; imitation in, 150; metacognition in, 143, 146– 147; numerical cognition in, 85–87; operant conditioning in, 39, 42, 43, 48, 149, 227; place cells in, 59–60; pleasure in, 103; prospective cognition in, 139; radial-maze task in, 197; social learning in, 147–148; taste aversion in, 48; timing in, 72–73, 76, 77–78, 79, 81–82; use of geometry in, 57–59 Reduction, in science, 2–3 Reinforcement contingency, 39–43 Rendall, Drew, 122–124 Rhesus macaque monkey, 13–15; general intelligence in, 243; metacognition in, 141–144; numerical cognition in, 85, 87–90; place cells in, 60; theory of mind in, 152, 153; use of geometry in, 59 Richerson, Peter, 261–263 Rico the border collie, 231 Roberts, William (Bill), 140 Salticids, 165–175 See also Jumping spiders Savage-Rumbaugh, Sue, 248–251, 252–253 Scrub jay, 136–138, 197, 201–203; cache protection in, 202–203; episodic-like memory in, 136–138; information gathering in, 202; pilfering in, 201–202; prospective cognition in, 203; social learning in, 202–203 Sea turtles, 10, 15, 118; global navigation in, 68–69; magnetic perception in, 23, 68–69 Search image, 30 Segerdahl, Pär, 248, 250–251 Self-recognition, 147–148; in an Asian elephant, 148; in chimpanzees, 147–148; in European magpies, 191; in primates, 252 Sensitization, 35–36, 255; by fear, 35; function of, 36; in Aplysia, 35–36; in cephalopods, 181 Sensory homunculus, 28 Sensory processes, 19–28; auditory sensitivity, 25; sensitivity to electric charge, 23; sensitivity to heat, 23; visual sensitivity, 23–24 Sexual conditioning, 38–39 Sexual selection, 6–7; handicap theory of, 115; in humans, 256; in signals, 110, 113–115; runaway sexual selection, 115 Shettleworth, Sara, 8, 9, 48, 147; contributions, 10, 11 Signal detection theory, 120–121 Signals, 106–128, 256; alarm calls, 115–119, 121–124, 125; aposematic, 106–107, 108, 112–113; attention signals, 110; audience effect in, 125; auditory, 109; camouflage, 111–112, 123, 172–174; chemical, 109; in chickens, 116–117, 121–124, 125; cognitive processes in, 113, 124–127; contact call, 111; in cuttlefish, 112, 184–192; deceptive, 112–113, 122–124, 125–127, 171, 172, 173–174, 184–192; definition of, 107, 127; in dogs, 225–227; emotional expressions as, 95; in fish, 113, 218; in fork-tailed drongos, 125–127; functionally referential, 119, 120, 121, 159–161, 264; functions of, 110–124; gestures in great apes, 244–245, 250, 264; in ground squirrels, 115– 116; in honeybees, 159–161; identity signals, 112; information in, 119–124; in jumping spiders, 168–169, 171, 172–174; in lizards, 106, 108, 111, 112; in lyrebirds, 110; mechanosensory, 109–110; in meerkats, 117–119; mimicry, 112–113; in Monarch butterflies, 106–107, 112; multimodal, 110; in peafowl, 106, 107, 114; in plants, 108; play bow, 225–226; of quality, 113–115; range of, 108–110; tidbitting, 121–122, 123–124; in vervet monkeys, 116, 121, 125; visual, 108–109; in widowbirds, 114–115 Silver fox, 229, 230; domestication of, 224 Skinner, B F., 8, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 45, 46, 246 Smith, Carolynn, 117, 121–122 Social brain hypothesis, 242 Spatial cognition, 50–70; in Clark’s nutcrackers, 59, 196–197; cognitive maps in, 63–68; in core knowledge, 93; in cuttlefish, 182; geometry in, 57–59; in jumping spiders, 172–173; landmark use in, 54–59, 70; in nautiluses, 180–181; neurobiology of, 59–63; in octopuses, 182 See also Navigation Spatial frequency, 187–189 Spelke, Elizabeth, 93 Star-nosed mole, 27–28, 179, 255 String-pulling problem, 131–133; in New Caledonian crows, 133, 200; in parrots, 131–132, 200; in ravens, 132–133 Tachycardia, 98–99 Tactile sense, 21–22, 27–28 Terrace, Herb, 246–248, 253 Theory of mind, 151–153; associative learning in, 151; in chimpanzees, 152–153; in scrub jays, 202–203; in seals, 151–152 Thorndike, Edward Lee, 8, 39 Time cells, 138 Timing, 71–82; circadian, 72–76; interval, 76–82; multiple oscillators in, 81–82 Tinbergen, Niko (Nikolaas), 8–9, 47, 55; four Whys, 11–15; life of, 12 Tolman, Edward, 44, 63, 64 Tomasello, Michael, 228 Tool making and using, evolution of, 201; in chimpanzees, 240, 264–265; in dolphins, 215–216; in fish, 135, 216; in great apes, 140, 252; in humans, 260–262; in New Caledonian crows, 198–201, in rooks, 195 Touch, 21–22, 27–28 Transduction, 19–21 Trap-tube problem, 133–135; in capuchin monkeys, 134; in great apes, 134–135 Trivers, Robert, 259 Umwelt, 19, 21–31, 254–255 van Schaik, Karel, 239, 259–260 Vision, 23–24, 26–27, 28–31; in jumping spiders, 166–168; of objects, 29; of polarized light, 53; trichromatic vision in primates, 13–15 von Frisch, Karl, 8–9, 12, 157; and honeybee dance language, 159–161 Wallace, Alfred Russel, 3, Weber’s law, 78–79, 81, 84, 85–86, 87 Western scrub jay See Scrub jay Wild justice, in dogs, 225–227, 234; Pan/Homo, 248 Wolves, 194, 218, 221, 223–224, 226; play in, 225; sensitivity to humans in, 230 Wright, Geraldine, 102 Zoo animal behavior, 138–139, 148, 151–152, 228, 240 Zurek, Daniel, 167 .. .How Animals Think and Feel How Animals Think and Feel An Introduction to Non- Human Psychology Ken Cheng Copyright © 2016 by ABC-CLIO, LLC... Title: How animals think and feel : an introduction to non- human psychology / Ken Cheng Description: Santa Barbara, California : Greenwood, 2016 | Includes bibliographical references and index... Tinbergen came to see observing and photographing animals he was a keen photographer—as a form of hunting, and he came to treat animals from an objective standpoint, as mechanisms to be figured