Oxford University Press Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd Vasco Boulevard, Goodwood, Cape Town, Republic of South Africa P O Box 12119, N1 City, 7463, Cape Town, Republic of South Africa Oxford University Press Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd is a subsidiary of Oxford University Press, Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP The Press, a department of the University of Oxford, furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in South Africa by Oxford University Press Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd, Cape Town Psychology in the work context Fifth Edition Print edition ISBN 9780199048069 EPUB edition ISBN 9780199079032 © Oxford University Press Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd 2013 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd (maker) Fifth edition published 2013 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate designated reprographics rights organization Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Acknowledgements The authors and publisher gratefully acknowledge permission to reproduce copyright material in this book Every effort has been made to trace copyright holders, but if any copyright infringements have been made, the publisher would be grateful for information that would enable any omissions or errors to be corrected in subsequent impressions Author biographies Content editors Ziel Bergh was employed as a senior lecturer and is still involved in the Department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology at the University of South Africa (Unisa) He is a registered Industrial and Counselling psychologist, an experienced practitioner, has authored other publications, and his special interests include personality, heath psychology, psychological assessment and counselling Dirk Geldenhuys is a professor and Chair of the Department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology at Unisa He has various other publications, is an experienced consultant in the field of organisational design and change management and his special interests include systemspsychodynamics, appreciative inquiry and social constructionism Authors Amanda Werner is a senior lecturer in the Department Human Resource Management at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University She has various publications, is an experienced academic and consultant, and her special interests include organisational change and development Michelle May is a professor in the Department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology at Unisa She is a registered Clinical psychologist, authored various other publications, and has extensive research and consultation experience in the area of systems psychodynamics and diversity management Jerome Kiley is a lecturer in the Department of Human Resource Management at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology, as well as lectured and moderated courses for other universities He is registered as a Master Personnel Practitioner (Human Resource Development) and has published extensively Leona Ungerer is a senior lecturer in the department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology at Unisa She is an experienced academic and has various other publications, and her area of specialisation is consumer psychology She is also keenly interested in open and distance learning and how technology can enhance teaching and learning in this type of environment Theo Veldsman is professor and Head of the Department of Industrial Psychology and People Management at the University of Johannesburg He is a registered Industrial psychologist, has published extensively, and has many years of academic and consulting experience in the fields of business/people strategy, organisational design, large scale organisational change, and leadership development Larisa Louw is a lecturer in the Department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology at Unisa She is qualified as an Industrial psychologist, is an experienced academic, and has experience in applying psychology in the work context, personnel psychology and employee and organisational wellness Cebile Tebele is a lecturer in the Department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology at Unisa, and is currently a registered intern psychologist She is an experienced academic and has a notable number of research publications Her special interests are the application of psychological processes in the work context, the psychology of leadership, and career and personnel psychology Contributors Antoinette Theron Frans Cilliers Linda Albertyn Herman Roythorne-Jacobs Gugu Ngokha Abridged table of contents Preface Orientation Guidelines for using this book Foreword PART ONE: Study fields and thinking frameworks in Industrial and Organisational Psychology Fields of study/practice areas in psychology, and industrial and organisational (I-O) psychology Exploring the metatheory of Industrial and Organisational Psychology PART TWO: Individual behavioural processe The biological basis of behaviour Human development across the lifespan Learning Perception Cognition Motivation and emotion PART THREE: Social behaviour and processes Attitudes and values 10 Prosocial behaviours, aggression and conflict 11 Group behaviour and other social processes in organisations 12 Leadership and entrepreneurial behaviour PART FOUR: Personality in the work context 13 The nature of personality and fundamental assumptions in personality study 14 Personality in unconscious processes 15 Personality by learning 16 Personality recognised in traits 17 Personality through self-experiences 18 Personality through cognitive constructions PART FIVE: Employee and organisational well-being 19 Psychological well-being 20 Psychological disorders and work dysfunctions PART SIX: Psychological methodologie 21 Assessment of personality and individual differences 22 Research and other methods in psychology Preface Psychology in the work context was initially written to meet the need for an Industrial and Organisational (I-O) Psychology textbook that South African lecturers and students could identify with The text has been revised to stay abreast of developments in the field This book aims to provide readers with foundational knowledge of important psychological concepts, and to illustrate how psychology applies to work It can assist students who are encountering psychology and its applications for the first time, as well as senior students in IO Psychology, practising psychologists, and practitioners in the field of human resources management Selected academic content from South Africa and the rest of the world is presented in a manner that is scientifically relevant and acceptable to most people in work contexts The book aims to foster respect for people’s dignity South Africa has a constitution that honours human rights, and this applies to education as much as to practising as a professional person Since this book is an educational resource, it alludes, where applicable, to the ethical and legislative implications of psychological practices While the book deals with psychology as a science and its study and applied fields, many chapters deal with the attributes and behaviour (human capacities) that people “bring” to their workplaces, the consequences of the employee-workplace interaction, and psychological methodologies The orientation section explains the systemic context in which employees and work organisations function Building on this explanation, many parts of the book also allude to the broader and cultural context of human behaviour Part one shows that psychology as a science has a sound theoretical basis It introduces the theory and practices utilised in study and in the applied fields of psychology, and it also discusses how psychology influences I-O Psychology This part also introduces possible work and career opportunities in I-O Psychology Part one further outlines the exploration of IOP’s metatheory or thinking frameworks consisting of all the assumptions, values and beliefs which learners and practitioners have obtained from various sources These different thinking frameworks provide psychological “thinking caps” or interpretation frameworks for the understanding of human behaviour, and can be used as a basis for assessing and influencing human behaviour However, learners and practitioners must also look critically “onto” their thinking, because one’s thinking frameworks may influence one’s scientific activities and practices One such thinking framework is the established schools of thought in psychology and related theories and the many other psychological explanations used in I-O Psychology and human resources management Part two focuses on people’s basic behaviour and related processes that contribute to important similarities and differences between individuals Differences and similarities between people represent crucial input factors in the interaction between employees and organisations Topics that allude to differences and similarities are the biological basis of behaviour, human development, learning, perception, cognition, and motivation and emotion (as well as personality, which is discussed in Part four) Part three considers the social processes in human behaviour that are important in all human interactions, and which are important building blocks in organisational functioning These social processes include attitudes and values, and pro-social behaviours, aggression and conflict This part discusses group processes and social functioning in organisations, and it explores leadership and entrepreneurial behaviour Part four discusses personality, which represents important individual-differences factors and inputs in work functioning Personality is discussed in terms of concepts and assumptions of the wellknown or classical theoretical approaches to personality Brief explanations in terms of African and Asian and cultural contexts are also included Part five deals with issues related to psychological well-being, as well as with psychological and work maladjustment Its chapters emphasise a positive perspective on well-being to optimise human strengths It also offers an introduction to psychological disorders and impaired work behaviours in employees and organisational health Part six explains methodology in psychology and I-O Psychology and discusses psychological assessment of individual differences, scientific inquiry or research and other methods used to extend and apply knowledge of human behaviour It illustrates how sound methodology supports the theoretical foundations of psychology and I-O Psychology The book as a whole offers fundamental knowledge of human behaviour and psychological processes that are necessary to understand people in their work- and related life contexts Ziel Bergh Dirk Geldenhuys Orientation In the work or organisational context, the application of psychology involves various processes that together constitute an open system Human and organisational behaviour can be viewed as an open system The essence of an open system is that it is dynamic, and characterised by ongoing growth and change, while its various subsystems (for example, employees, departments and work groups) are interdependent and in constant interaction with each other An organisational system consists of structures, processes and people, which all provide inputs into the system Their interrelated functioning generates the work behaviours and work processes, which lead to particular outputs by and for both the individual employee and the organisation (for example, productivity, job satisfaction, absenteeism, turnover and organisational citizenship) Inputs and outputs provide continuous feedback to the system, for example good or poor health, or business success or failure) In this way they either elicit the maintenance of work behaviours, or adaptation, change, renewal and growth (such as improved performance at work, higher job satisfaction, or a change in work values and attitudes) Inputs to a work or organisational system include: • processes within the individual (for example, employee motivation, abilities and skills) as well as the personality of the individual (which is the unique organisation of attributes and processes within the individual) • social processes that involve interaction between individuals (for example, in work teams, groups and the various sections of organisations) sign language 153 similarity 214 cultural and social boundaries 217 perceptions on reciprocity experiment 215 in personality and personal factors 217–218 real or imagined 214 reciprocity 215 through social exchange and comparison 214–215 see also dissimilarity Simon, Theodore 11, 158 simple schizophrenia 453 Singer, Jerome 180–181 single-area theories 294 single-event (acute or traumatic) disorder 62 situational attribution 132 situational characteristics 103 situational factors external events 221 proximity, exposure, familiarity 220–221 situational or contingency approach to leadership 275 situational tests 492 situationism 340 situations and behaviour 337–338 16 Personality Factor (16PF) Questionnaire 356, 356, 482, 484 size constancy 127 cues 125 groups 248–249 skewness of distribution curves 514, 514 Skinner, Burrhus F 96, 98, 295, 336, 337, 339, 394 sleeping disorder 454 and dreaming 55 social acceptance 415 social actualisation 416 social and cultural factors 298 social-cognitive learning approaches 336 social-cognitive theories 348 social coherence 416 social competencies 273 social constructionism 300 social context of personality 299–300 social contribution 416 social-identity theory and intergroup bias 132 social interactions 213 social interest, lack of 331 social integration 416 socialisation 78 encounter or accommodation phase 265 pre-encounter or anticipatory phase 265 role management 265 social issues assessment and research 522 assessment of personality attributes 522–523 sociality corollary 402 social learning 98–102, 346 modelling 99 observational learning 99 processes 100 and stimulation 219–220 vicarious learning 99 social loafing 248–249 socially-oriented psychoanalysts 294–295 social phobias 449 social-psychological theory 213 social psychology 4–5 Social Readjustment Scale (SRRS) 441, 442 social reinforcement 344 social-role theory 67 social well-being facets 415–416 Society for Industrial and Organisational Psychology in South Africa (SIOPSA) 15, 477 Society for Industrial Psychology (SIP) 15 sociobiological approach 72 sociocultural learning approach 137 sociocultural perspectives 442–443 sociopathy 449–450 somatic disorders 453 somatic nervous system 58 somatic reflexes 58 S-O-R (interactionism) principle 337, 338 Sources of Work Stress Inventory (SWSI) 485 South African Board for Personnel Practice (SABPP) 16 South African Constitution 522 South African Journal of Industrial and Organisational Psychology 505 South African Journal of Industrial Psychology 14, 15 South African Journal of Psychology 15, 505 South African Medical and Dental Council (SAMDC) 14 spatial ability 480 Spearman, Charles 11, 159 spermatozoa 48 spinal cord 53 Spiritual Experience Index 489 Spititual Well-being Scale 489 sports psychology Spranger’s six value orientations 193–194 stability versus change in development nature or nurture 72 psychosocial evolution 71–72 Stage Model 67 standard deviation 515 Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale 158 State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) 486 statistical significance 518 statistics 512–519 status formal or informal 347 socially defined position or rank 247 stereotypes 190 in impression formation 131 Stern, William 158 Stevens’s Power Law 118 stimuli or operants 339 stimulus or predictor variable 508 stomach ulcers 446 storming 243 strength paradigm 413 versus pathogenic orientation 414 stress 443 coping with 344 models 439, 441–442 moderate 58 psychological factors and health 446 research 12, 13 stress-related personality types 485 stroboscopic movement 126 Strong and Kuder Interest Inventories 487 structural blueprint 33–35 dimensions 34 example 34 entities 34 foci 35 as map of field 34 struggling 428 Study of Values Scale 364 sub-fields in psychology 4–5 subjective influences 520 subjective or phenomenological experiences 377–378 subjective well-being 485 subliminal perception 119, 339 blindsight syndrome 120 research on 120 Vicary’s prank 120 submerged construct 397 subordinate 400 subsidisation 368 substance abuse 450 intoxitation 450 psychoses 451 withdrawal 450 substance dependence 450 stages 451 substance-induced (psychotic) disorders 450–451 substance-related disorders 450–451 subtraction 480 success, reasons for 133 summation spatial 52 temporal 52 superego 322 superordinate 400 supportive leadership style 276 survey designs 510 suspended construct 397 SWOT analysis 259, 260 sympathetic nervous system 57–58 synapse 51, 52 syndrome 445 systematic desensitisation 348 systematic inquiry 501–502 systemic and cultural perspectives 299–302 systemic environmental influences in human development 73, 73 systems-interactional approach and contextual perspectives 439 Systems-Interactional Model 438, 440 of occupational well-being 440 Systems Model for organisations 240 open-systems approach 240–241 systems theory 67 T talent mapping 263 retention 261 task boundaries 252 structure 276 task-oriented leader 275 taxonomy for adult career problems 463 Taylor, Frederick 11, 12 The principles of scientific management 11 team roles 364 technology 17 desirable consequences of appropriation 141 extra-role behaviour 141 personal object-related satisfaction 141 social power and status 141 Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) 140–141 perceived ease of use 140 perceived usefulness 140 students’ perceptions of ICT 140–141 teleological principle 324, 367 temperament 50 and ability traits 367–368 or nature 307 temperance 424 temporal lobes/cortex 55–56, 57 temporary production impediments 456–457 testability 504–505 test bias 523 texture gradient 125 thalamus 54 sensory impulses 54 thematic analysis 490 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) 327, 489, 526 therapeutic and counselling procedures 524–525 therapeutic drugs 52 therapeutic psychology thinking frameworks (metatheory of I-O psychology) 21 Thorndike, Edward Lee 96, 295, 336 thought-stopping 348 threat 406 Three-Factor Theory of Emotion 347 Three-Factor Model of personality 355–356, 356 thresholds (limen) 117–118 Thurstone, Louis 11, 159, 353 time boundaries 253 perceptions 302 Time Urgency and Perceptual Activation Scale (TUPA) 486 token economies 348 Tolman, Edward C 295, 336 trade-proficiency tests 13 training feedback in process 111 groups 13 process 103 process in work context 103–111 training and development phase learning principles 105, 106 transfer of learning 105, 107 transfer of learning experiment 107 training techniques action learning 107 apprenticeship, internships, workshops 109–110 business games 109 case studies 109 experiential learning 107 field study and shadowing 110 in-basket technique 109 mentoring and coaching 110 model of experiential learning 108 non-experiential learning 107 role playing 109 scaffolding 110 sensitivity training 109 simulation 109 value of experiential learning 110 trait and type theories 296–297 Three-Factor, Sixteen-Factor, Five-Factor Models 296 trait approach to human nature 352–353 “Big Five” factors 353, 357 main assumptions 354 type and style classifications 352 trait approach to leadership 273–274 trait psychology 296, 298, 353 traits central 365 general, in most people 364–365 as neuro-physic structures 298 personality development 365–367 and personality dynamics (motivation) 367–368 personality expressed in different types 364 secondary 365 source 365 types and styles 361–364 unique, in each individual 365 transcendence 424 transduction 115 transference 331, 395 transformational leadership 278 outer and inner leadership 278 stages in transformation process 279 transformation in South Africa 382 traumatic disorder 62 Trompenaars, Fons 201–203 trust affective 257 cognitive 257 in relationships 258 trust versus mistrust: Virtue – hope 82 Truth and Reconciliation Commission 511 twins identical (monozygotic) 48 non-identical or fraternal (dizygotic) 48 Two-Factor Theory of Emotion 180–181, 347 emotional process 181 two-factor theory of motivation (Herzberg) 13 two-pronged trident image 128 Type-A behavioural pattern or personality types 485 Type-A personality 458, 459 behavioural personality pattern 447 Type-B personality 458, 459 Type-C personality 458, 459 Type-D personality 458, 459 U ubuntu (humanness) 390 unconscious 397 cognition or non-consciousness 339 forces 294 motivation 175 processes 317 role in personality 320 underachievement 456 undercommitment patterns 456 undoing hypothesis testing 416, 417 unfairness idealogy 523 uniqueness aspect effect of false consensus 217 false effect 217 universum 518–519 unlearning of old roles 346 Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model of Human Development 73 V valence, instrumentality, expectancy motivational theory 13 value-add of I-O psychology 37, 37 values approaches to understanding 192–196 functions of 191 Frankl’s three types of 383, 383 nature of 189–190 as part of personality 191 see also attitudes Values-in-Action (VIA) Classification System 427 variables 517, 517 verbal and non-verbal ability tests 479 verbal information 105 verbal (language) comprehension 480 verification and objectivity 504 Vernon, Philip 159, 160 vicarious emotional arousal 346 vicarious learning 344 vigour 426 violence 223 virtues 424 visceral organ activities 57 visionary leadership characteristics 277–280 visual perception 121–127 vocational development 396 Vocational Preference Inventory 487 vocational psychology 4, vocational uncertainty 462 voluntary muscles 58 Von Bertalanffy, Ludwig 299 Vroom, V.H 13, 98, 172–173 Vygotsky, Lev 160 W wage inequity 136 Waisfisz 203 Watson, John B 78, 295, 336 Ways of Coping Checklist (WCCL) 364 Weber, Ernst 118 Weber’s Law 118 Wechsler, David 158 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale 480 well-adjusted person 329 well-being assessment and diagnosis 426–428 conceptualisation 414 constructs used to describe 423–426 directions of research 418–423 employee and organisational 428–431 promoting and managing at work 465, 467–468 sources of knowledge 419 subjective 414 wellness at work in organisations 466 Wertheimer, Max 297 Western personality theories 303 Wheel of Wellness 417 White, Joseph 78 whole object relations 321 Wiggins, Jerry 296, 353 wisdom 77, 424 womb envy 326 word fluency 480 work addiction 457 adjustment 436–437 disturbances in capacity 456 dysfunctions 437 dysfunctions and organisational health 455–456 environment 395 and job design 169–170 meaningful experience 386 and non-work conflicts 461–462 and organisational psychology (Europe) performance measurement 17 personality 306, 436 psychopathology 436–437 psychology 25, 511 as self-fulfilment 26 station attributes 63 stations design 63 stimulations 490 stress 443, 444 workaholism 457 characteristics 458 work–family conflicts 461 working body posture 62 working memory 153 work performance, impact of happiness and well-being 486 workplace aggression 222–224 causes 224 changes and discontinuity 227–228 norms and norm violations 227 perceptions of unfair treatment 227 physical working conditions 228 poor management of diversity 227 sexual or racial harassment 225 social, environmental, situational determinants 227 strategies for handling aggression, violence, conflict 233–234 theoretical model 225 violence 223 see also aggression Workplace Dignity Institute 435 work-related anxiety, fears, depression 459–460 work-related attitudes central life interest 196 values and meaning of work 196 work-related personality criteria 311 work-related personality-trait classifications 359 work-related psychological assessment World Health Organisation (WHO) 414 world of work manifesto (or charter) 36 World Values Survey 200 World Wars I and II 12–13, 448–449 Wundt, Wilhelm 11, 117, 336 Y Yerkes, Robert 12, 177 Yerkes–Dodson law 177, 177 young adulthood stage 68 and workplace 87–88 Z zone of proximal development (ZPD) 160–161 zoophobia 449 ... which the working person is embedded, and the interrelationship between the working person and the work context or the person -context fit These three aspects are intrinsically part of the study... the application of psychological concepts, principles, theories and methods to the three key foundational concepts informing the world of work: the working person, the work context in which the. .. Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in South Africa by Oxford University Press Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd, Cape Town Psychology in the work context Fifth Edition Print edition