The physics and mathematics of electromagnetic wave propagation in cellular wireless communication

The Physics and Mathematics of Electromagnetic Wave Propagation in Cellular Wireless Communication The Physics and Mathematics of Electromagnetic Wave Propagation in Cellular Wireless Communication Tapan K Sarkar Magdalena Salazar Palma Mohammad Najib Abdallah With Contributions from: Arijit De Walid Mohamed Galal Diab Miguel Angel Lagunas Eric L Mokole Hongsik Moon Ana I Perez‐Neira  This edition first published 2018 © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions The right of Tapan K Sarkar, Magdalena Salazar Palma and Mohammad Najib Abdallah to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with law Registered Offices John Wiley 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any damages arising here from Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data Names: Sarkar, Tapan (Tapan K.), author | Salazar Palma, Magdalena, author | Abdallah, Mohammad Najib, 1983– author Title: The physics and mathematics of electromagnetic wave propagation in cellular wireless communication / Tapan K Sarkar, Magdalena Salazar Palma, Mohammad Najib Abdallah ; with contributions from Arijit De, Walid Mohamed Galal Diab, Miguel Angel Lagunas, Eric L Mokole, Hongsik Moon, Ana I Perez-Neira Description: Hoboken, NJ, USA : Wiley, 2018 | Includes bibliographical references and index | Identifiers: LCCN 2017054091 (print) | LCCN 2018000589 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119393139 (pdf ) | ISBN 9781119393122 (epub) | ISBN 9781119393115 (cloth) Subjects: LCSH: Cell phone systems–Antennas–Mathematical models | Radio wave propagation–Mathematical models Classification: LCC TK6565.A6 (ebook) | LCC TK6565.A6 S25 2018 (print) | DDC 621.3845/6–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017054091 Cover design by Wiley Cover image: © derrrek/Gettyimages Set in 10/12pt Warnock by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 v Contents Preface  xi Acknowledgments  xvii The Mystery of Wave Propagation and Radiation from an Antenna  Summary  1.1 Historical Overview of Maxwell’s Equations  1.2 Review of Maxwell–Hertz–Heaviside Equations  1.2.1 Faraday’s Law  1.2.2 Generalized Ampère’s Law  1.2.3 Gauss’s Law of Electrostatics  1.2.4 Gauss’s Law of Magnetostatics  10 1.2.5 Equation of Continuity  11 1.3 Development of Wave Equations  12 1.4 Methodologies for the Solution of the Wave Equations  16 1.5 General Solution of Maxwell’s Equations  19 1.6 Power (Correlation) Versus Reciprocity (Convolution)  24 1.7 Radiation and Reception Properties of a Point Source Antenna in Frequency and in Time Domain  28 1.7.1 Radiation of Fields from Point Sources  28 1.7.1.1 Far Field in Frequency Domain of a Point Radiator  29 1.7.1.2 Far Field in Time Domain of a Point Radiator  30 1.7.2 Reception Properties of a Point Receiver  31 1.8 Radiation and Reception Properties of Finite‐Sized Dipole‐Like Structuresin Frequency and in Time  33 1.8.1 Radiation Fields from Wire‐Like Structures in the Frequency Domain  33 1.8.2 Radiation Fields from Wire‐Like Structures in the Time Domain  34 1.8.3 Induced Voltage on a Finite‐Sized Receive Wire‐Like Structure Due to a Transient Incident Field  34 1.8.4 Radiation Fields from Electrically Small Wire‐Like Structures in the Time Domain  35 vi Contents 1.9 An Expose on Channel Capacity  44 1.9.1 Shannon Channel Capacity  47 1.9.2 Gabor Channel Capacity  51 1.9.3 Hartley‐Nyquist‐Tuller Channel Capacity  53 1.10 Conclusion  56 References  57 Characterization of Radiating Elements Using Electromagnetic Principles in the Frequency Domain  61 Summary  61 2.1 Field Produced by a Hertzian Dipole  62 2.2 Concept of Near and Far Fields  65 2.3 Field Radiated by a Small Circular Loop  68 2.4 Field Produced by a Finite‐Sized Dipole  70 2.5 Radiation Field from a Finite‐Sized Dipole Antenna  72 2.6 Maximum Power Transfer and Efficiency  74 2.6.1 Maximum Power Transfer  75 2.6.2 Analysis Using Simple Circuits  77 2.6.3 Computed Results Using Realistic Antennas  81 2.6.4 Use/Misuse of the S‐Parameters  84 2.7 Radiation Efficiency of Electrically Small Versus Electrically Large Antenna  85 2.7.1 What is an Electrically Small Antenna (ESA)?  86 2.7.2 Performance of Electrically Small Antenna Versus Large Resonant Antennas  86 2.8 Challenges in Designing a Matched ESA  90 2.9 Near‐ and Far‐Field Properties of Antennas Deployed Over Earth  94 2.10 Use of Spatial Antenna Diversity  100 2.11 Performance of Antennas Operating Over Ground  104 2.12 Fields Inside a Dielectric Room and a Conducting Box  107 2.13 The Mathematics and Physics of an Antenna Array  120 2.14 Does Use of Multiple Antennas Makes Sense?  123 2.14.1 Is MIMO Really Better than SISO?  132 2.15 Signal Enhancement Methodology Through Adaptivity on Transmit Instead of MIMO  138 2.16 Conclusion  148 Appendix 2A Where Does the Far Field of an Antenna Really Starts Under Different Environments?  149 Summary  149 2A.1 Introduction 150 2A.2 Derivation of the Formula 2D2/λ  153 2A.3 Dipole Antennas Operating in Free Space  157 Contents 2A.4 Dipole Antennas Radiating Over an Imperfect Ground  162 2A.5 Epilogue 164 ­References  167 ­ Mechanism of Wireless Propagation: Physics, Mathematics, and Realization  171 Summary  171 3.1 Introduction  172 3.2 Description and Analysis of Measured Data on Propagation Available in the Literature  173 3.3 Electromagnetic Analysis of Propagation Path Loss Using a Macro Model  184 3.4 Accurate Numerical Evaluation of the Fields Near an Earth–Air Interface  190 3.5 Use of the Numerically Accurate Macro Modelfor Analysis of Okumura et al.’s Measurement Data  192 3.6 Visualization of the Propagation Mechanism  199 3.7 A Note on the Conventional Propagation Models  203 3.8 Refinement of the Macro Model to Take TransmittingAntenna’s Electronic and Mechanical Tilt into Account  207 3.9 Refinement of the Data Collection Mechanismand its Interpretation Through the Definition of the Proper Route  210 3.10 Lessons Learnt: Possible Elimination of Slow Fadingand a Better Way to Deploy Base Station Antennas  217 3.10.1 Experimental Measurement Setup  224 3.11 Cellular Wireless Propagation Occurs Through the Zenneck Wave and not Surface Waves  227 3.12 Conclusion  233 Appendix 3A Sommerfeld Formulation for a Vertical Electric Dipole Radiating Over an Imperfect Ground Plane  234 Appendix 3B Asymptotic Evaluation of the Integrals by the Method of Steepest Descent  247 Appendix 3C Asymptotic Evaluation of the IntegralsWhen there Exists a Pole Near the Saddle Point  252 Appendix 3D Evaluation of Fields Near the Interface  254 Appendix 3E Properties of a Zenneck Wave  258 Appendix 3F Properties of a Surface Wave  259 ­ References  261 Methodologies for Ultrawideband Distortionless Transmission/ Reception of Power and Information  265 ­ Summary  265 4.1 Introduction  266 vii viii Contents 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.5.1 4.5.2 4.5.3 4.6 4.6.1 4.6.2 4.6.3 4.7 Transient Responses from Differently Sized Dipoles  268 A Travelling Wave Antenna  276 UWB Input Pulse Exciting a Dipole of Different Lengths  279 Time Domain Responses of Some Special Antennas  281 Dipole Antennas  281 Biconical Antennas  292 TEM Horn Antenna  299 Two Ultrawideband Antennas of Century Bandwidth  305 A Century Bandwidth Bi‐Blade Antenna  306 Cone‐Blade Antenna  310 Impulse Radiating Antenna (IRA)  313 Experimental Verification of Distortionless Transmission of Ultrawideband Signals  315 4.8 Distortionless Transmission and Reception of Ultrawideband Signals Fitting the FCC Mask  327 4.8.1 Design of a T‐pulse  329 4.8.2 Synthesis of a T‐pulse Fitting the FCC Mask  331 4.8.3 Distortionless Transmission and Reception of a UWB Pulse Fitting the FCC Mask  332 4.9 Simultaneous Transmission of Information and Power in Wireless Antennas  338 4.9.1 Introduction  338 4.9.2 Formulation and Optimization of the Various Channel Capacities  342 4.9.2.1 Optimization for the Shannon Channel Capacity  342 4.9.2.2 Optimization for the Gabor Channel Capacity  344 4.9.2.3 Optimization for the Hartley‐Nyquist‐Tuller Channel Capacity  345 4.9.3 Channel Capacity Simulation of a Frequency Selective Channel Using a Pair of Transmitting and Receiving Antennas  347 4.9.4 Optimization of Each Channel Capacity Formulation  353 4.10 Effect of Broadband Matching in Simultaneous Information and Power Transfer  355 4.10.1 Problem Description  357 4.10.1.1 Total Channel Capacity  358 4.10.1.2 Power Delivery  361 4.10.1.3 Limitation on VSWR  361 4.10.2 Design of Matching Networks  362 4.10.2.1 Simplified Real Frequency Technique (SRFT)  362 4.10.2.2 Use of Non‐Foster Matching Networks  366 4.10.3 Performance Gain When Using a Matching Network  367 4.10.3.1 Constraints of VSWR < 2  367 Contents 4.10.3.2 Constraints of VSWR < 3  369 4.10.3.3 Without VSWR Constraint  371 4.10.3.4 Discussions  372 4.10.4 PCB (Printed Circuit Board) Implementation of a Broadband‐ Matched Dipole  373 4.11 Conclusion  376 ­ References  377 Index  383 ix xi Preface Wireless communication is an important area of research these days However, the promise of wireless communication has not matured as expected This is because some of the important principles of electromagnetics were not adhered to during system design over the years Therefore, one of the objectives of this book is to describe and document some of the subtle electromagnetic principles that are often overlooked in designing a cellular wireless system These involve both physics and mathematics of the concepts used in deploying antennas for transmission and reception of electromagnetic signals and selecting the proper methodology out of a plethora of scenarios The various scenarios are but not limited to: is it better to use an electrically small antenna, a resonant antenna or multiple antennas in a wireless system? However, the fact of the matter as demonstrated in the book is that a single antenna is sufficient if it is properly designed and integrated into the system as was done in the old days of the transistor radios where one could hear broadcasts from the other side of the world using a single small antenna operating at 1 MHz, where an array gain is difficult to achieve! The second objective of this book is to illustrate that the main function of an antenna is to capture the electromagnetic waves that are propagating through space and prepare them as a signal fed to the input of the first stage of the radio frequency (RF) amplifier The reality is that if the signal of interest is not captured and available for processing at the input of the first stage of the RF amplifier, then application of various signal processing techniques cannot recreate that signal Hence the modern introduction of various statistical concepts into this deterministic problem of electromagnetic wave transmission/reception is examined from a real system deployment point of view In this respect the responses of various sensors in the frequency and the time domain are observed It is important to note that the impulse response of an antenna is different in the transmit mode than in the receive mode Understanding of this fundamental principle can lead one to transmit ultrawideband signals through space using a pair of antennas without any distortion Experimental results are xii Preface provided to demonstrate how a distortion free tens of gigahertz bandwidth signal can be transmitted and received to justify this claim This technique can be achieved by recasting the Friis’s transmission formula (after Danish‐ American radio engineer Harald Trap Friis) to an alternate form which clearly illustrates that if the physics of the transmit and receive antennas are factored in the channel modelling then the path loss can be made independent of frequency The other important point to note is that in deploying an antenna in a real system one should focus on the radiation efficiency of the antenna and not on the maximum power transfer theorem which has resulted in the misuse of the S‐parameters Also two antennas which possess a century bandwidth (i.e., a 100:1 bandwidth) are also discussed The next topic that is addressed in the book is the illustration of the shortcomings of a MIMO system from both theoretical and practical aspects in the sense that it is difficult if not impossible to achieve simultaneously several orthogonal modes of transmission with good radiation efficiency In this context, a new deterministic methodology based on the principle of reciprocity is presented to illustrate how a signal can be directed to a desired user and simultaneously be made to have nulls along the directions of the undesired ones without an explicit characterization of the operational environment This is accomplished using an embarrassingly simple matrix inversion technique Since this principle also holds over a band of frequencies, then the characterization of the system at the uplink frequency can be used to implement this methodology in the downlink or vice versa Another objective of the book is to point out that all measurements related to propagation path loss in electromagnetic wave transmission over ground illustrate that the path loss from the base station in a cellular environment is approximately 30 dB per decade of distance within the cell of a few Km in radius and the loss is 40 dB per decade outside this cell This is true independent of the nature of the ground whether it be urban, suburban, rural or over water Also the path loss in the cellular band appears to be independent of frequency Therefore in order to propagate a signal from 1 m to 1 kilometer the total path loss, based on the 30 dB per decade of distance, is 90 dB And compared to this free space path loss over Earth, the attenuation introduced by buildings, trees and so on has a second order effect as it is shown to be of the order of 30–40 dB Even though this loss due to buildings, trees and the like is quite large, when compared to the free space path loss of approximately 90 dB over a 1 km, it is negligible! Also, the concept of slow fading appears to be due to interference of the direct wave from the transmitting antenna along with the ground wave propagation over earth and also emanating from it and generally occurs when majority of the cell area is located in a near field environment of the base station antenna These concepts have been illustrated from a physics based view point developed over a hundred years ago by German theoretical physicist Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld and have been validated using   References operating in the receive mode, irrespective of the antenna type Moreover, observations of the output wave shapes (radiated field and received current) from the antennas provide important information about their transmitting and receiving properties, and certain relationships are obtained between the input and output wave shapes Consequently, one can conclude, for example, that if a bicone transmits to a receiving TEM horn, then the induced current in the horn will be exactly identical to the driving point voltage of the bicone Such observations can have very important ramifications in broadband high‐speed information transmission Finally, a procedure is presented to design a time limited ultrawideband pulse fitting the FCC mask which has a good linear phase response Also this pulse is practically bandlimited in addition to having a finite time domain support Examples are given on how to transmit and receive such ultrawideband pulses without distortion using a special type transmit and receive antennas The implementation and the results of broadband matching in simultaneous information and power transfer have been described Electromagnetic simulation has been performed to calculate the power efficiency and voltage efficiency for power allocation over a number of disjoint frequency channels It has been demonstrated that the narrow bandwidth of the antenna would limit the performance of simultaneous information and power transfer Two methods for 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Maxwellian context  95 MIMO 100 mobile communication environment 96 radiation pattern  97 signal‐of‐interest (SOI)  99 transmitting antennas  99 vector antenna problem  99 vector electromagnetic scattering problem 99 antennas 265 biconical antennas  292–299 century bandwidth bi‐blade antenna 306–310 cone‐blade antenna  310–313 dipole antennas  281–292 dipole structures, transient responses from  268–276 frequency domain  267–268 impulse radiating antenna 313–315 monocycle input pulse  279, 280 performance of  266 radiation efficiency  279 simple C‐R circuit  266–267 TEM horn antenna  299–305 time domain analysis  266 travelling wave  276–279 ultra wideband input pulse 279–281 ultra wideband signal transmission 315–338 automatic gain control (AGC)  124 B baud rate  328, 329 Bessel function  236, 238 bi‐blade century bandwidth antenna 306–310 biconical antennas with end caps  294, 296, 297 frequency spectrum  294 monocycle pulse reception  294, 295, 298 The Physics and Mathematics of Electromagnetic Wave Propagation in Cellular Wireless Communication, First Edition Tapan K. Sarkar, Magdalena Salazar Palma, and Mohammad Najib Abdallah © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc Published 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc 384 Index biconical antennas (cont’d ) radiated field from  294, 295, 297, 298 radiation pattern  292 resistive loading profile  297 structure 293 Brewster’s angle  228–230 Brewster’s phenomenon  240 Brewster–Zenneck wave  228 broadband matching effect, in dipole antennas 355 antenna configuration  357, 358 Gabor capacity  359–360 HNT capacity  360 PCB technology  373–376 performance gain using  matching network 367–373 power delivery  361 power efficiency  358, 359 Shannon capacity  358–360 total channel capacity  358–360 voltage efficiency  358, 360 voltage standing wave ratios (VSWR) 359 constraints 367–370 electromagnetic simulation  358 limitation on  361–362 non‐foster matching networks  366–367 vs reflected power  356, 357 simplified real frequency technique 362–366 without VSWR constraint  371–372 C Cauchy principal integral method  231–232 century bandwidth bi‐blade antenna  306–310 channel capacity  339 broadband matching effect, in dipole antennas 358–360 formulation 353–355 frequency selective channel simulation 347–353 optimization for Gabor channel capacity 344–345 Hartley–Nyquist–Tuller channel capacity 345–347 Shannon channel capacity 342–344 Chu limit  93 cone‐blade antenna  313 for generating circular polarization  310, 311 monocycle pulse reception  311, 312 radiation from  311 structure  310, 311 transient input resistance  312 correlation and convolution Lorentz reciprocity theorem  25 Poynting’s theorem  27–28 principle of superposition  26–28 Rayleigh‐Carson reciprocity theorem 26 surface integrals  25–26 D D*dot antenna conical antenna  323 transmit and receive signal  325 ultra wideband signal transmission 323–325 dipole antennas  61 broadband matching see broadband matching effect, in dipole antennas effective illumination  281 free space  159–161 frequency spectrum  282 imperfect ground  162–164 impulse response  292 Index monocycle pulse reception  283, 285 radiation from  283–286 resistive loaded  283, 285, 287, 288 monocycle pulse reception 288–290 radiation efficiency  288, 291 radiation from  288–290 transient responses from dipoles separation  271–276 frequency domain code 268–269 Gaussian pulse  269–275 general‐purpose code  268 induced current  276, 277 radiated electric fields  272–275 E electrically small antennas (ESAs)  62, 149 definition 86 vs large resonant antennas performance 86–90 matching network Chu limit  93 Fano‐Bode limit  91 impedance of  90 non‐Foster elements  92 passive matching network  91 Q‐factor 92 electric field integral equation (EFIE) 280 electromagnetic macro model  171, 184–190 electromagnetic wave propagation and radiation channel capacity, concept of entropy and probability  45 Gabor channel capacity  51–53 Hartley–Nyquist–Tuller channel capacity 53–56 second law of thermodynamics 45 Shannon channel capacity 47–51 statistical mechanics  44 statistical thermodynamics 45–46 deleterious effects  far field in frequency domain  29–30 of point radiator  30–31 impulse response, of antenna  Maxwell–Hertz–Heaviside Equations equation of continuity  11 Faraday’s law  5–7 Gauss’s law of electrostatics 9–10 Gauss’s law of magnetostatics  10–11 generalized Ampere’s Law  8–9 Maxwell’s equations  3–5 receive antenna pattern  reception properties finite‐sized dipole‐like structures, in frequency and time  33–44 of point receiver  31–33 reciprocity theorem  spatial directivity  wave equation AC voltages  15 Doppler frequency  18 energy transmission  16 Euler’s identity  16 fading characteristics  17 free space  12 frequency domain and time domain 17 magnitude and phase characteristics 17 oscillating electric and magnetic fields 13 power frequencies  17 scalar quantity  16 temporal and spatial variation  14 385 386 Index Ericsson in‐building path loss model  174 external resonance phenomenon  F Fano‐Bode limit  91 far field see also radiated far field derivation of the formula electric and magnetic fields  150 magnitude of total electric field  151–155 planar and antenna radiation pattern 149 radiated far field see radiated far field Fast‐Fourier‐Transform (FFT) technique 281 finite‐sized dipole current and field distribution  70 electric fields  71, 72 magnetic fields  71 near field  72 sinusoidal approximation  70 vector potential  70 free space antenna array, half wave dipole in  95 dipole antennas  159–161 electromagnetic wave propagation and radiation  12 half wave dipole in  95 G Gabor channel capacity  51–53 optimization for  344–345 vs power delivery with VSWR constraints  368, 370 without VSWR constraints  371 Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver 211 Green’s function  191, 192, 256, 257 H Hankel function  232, 239–242 Hartley–Nyquist–Tuller (HNT) channel capacity  53–56 optimization for  345–347 vs power delivery with VSWR constraints  368, 370 without VSWR constraints  372 Hata model  203–206 Hertzian dipole  28, 29, 61, 316 Ampere’s law  64 electric field intensity  64 magnetic field intensity  63 magnetic vector potential  63 Poynting vector  64–65 Hertzian vector  184, 234, 235 Hertz potential  184, 185, 255, 257 HOBBIES  182, 334, 341 I Idea Cellular Network  177 impulse radiating antenna (IRA) 313–316 information and power transmission broadband matching see broadband matching effect, in dipole antennas wireless antennas  338–355 internal impedance  61, 75, 76 L line‐of‐sight propagation  62 load impedance  61, 75, 76, 78, 80, 91, 138, 346, 365 log‐normal model  182, 203 M macro cell propagation measurements 175 maximum power transfer concept AC power distribution  80 antenna systems  76 AWAS analysis  81–84 in communication systems  81 damping factor  80 efficiency vs power transfer  79 Index efficiency vs RL and XL 79 electric and magnetic fields  80 energy transfer  75 external load resistance  78 internal impedance  76 load impedance  76 load resistance  80 radio circuits  80 S‐parameters 84–85 Thevenin/Norton resistance  75 maximum power transfer theorem  61 Maxwell’s equations  2–5 electric and magnetic field intensities 22 Fourier transform theory  24 frequency domain  22–23 Gauss’s law of magnetostatics  19 gradient of vector  19 Lorenz gauge condition  22 magnetic flux density  19 time and space variables  24 time domain representation  22 transmit and receive modes of operations 24 vector’s Laplacian  21 method of steepest descent  247–252 monopole antenna ultra wideband signal transmission 325–328 and wave‐guide horn antennas  318 multiple‐input‐multiple‐output (MIMO)  62, 100 simple input‐output relationship 128 SISO system conducting concentric cylinders 135 global positioning system (GPS) 134 2×2 MIMO system  135–137 multi‐moded wave guiding system 134 N spatial modes  138 orthogonal mode  132 Shannon channel capacities  132 Shannon’s theory  133–134 transmitting antennas  132 transmit/receive antennas  108 uncoupled parallel decomposition 129 N non‐foster matching networks  366– 367, 370, 372 non‐resonating tapered horn antenna 303–305 Norton surface wave  189, 202, 231, 256 O Okumura propagation measurements  192–199, 204 optical analog model  171, 173 Ott’s formulation  241 P passive radio frequency identification (RFID)  339, 373 physics based electromagnetic macro model 179–180 Poincaré asymptotic series  251 pole near the saddle point  252–254 Poynting vector  64–65 printed circuit broadband matched dipole configuration  373, 374 voltage standing wave ratios  374, 375 propagation path loss  171–172 antenna’s tilt  207–210 electromagnetic macro model  171, 184–190 numerically accurate macro model 192–199 Zenneck wave  227–233 proper route concept  210–211 387 388 Index Q Q‐factor 92 quarter‐wave transformer  373 R radiated far field antenna field pattern  67 antenna impedance  67 E & H fields  66 electric and the magnetic fields  67 finite‐sized dipole antenna binomial expansion  72 center‐fed dipole  74 diffraction theory  74 electromagnetic wave propagation 74 Fraunhoffer diffraction  74 maximum phase error  73 power flows  66 reactive power component  67 small circular loop complex power density  69 far field expressions  70 magnetic vector potential  68 peak values  69 transmission of energy  66 radiating elements antenna array direction of arrival (DOA)  120 impulse response  123 isotropic radiator  120 mutual coupling  122 phased array, of Hertzian dipoles 122 signal of interest (SOI)  120 vector electromagnetic problem 120 field, in dielectric room and conducting box absorption boundary condition 109 electromagnetic practitioners 109 frequency domain integral equation code  117 numerical electromagnetics code 117 probability theory  112 signal enhancement effect  110 transmitting and receiving dipoles 110 Wheeler‐Cap method  117 finite‐sized dipole current and field distribution  70 electric fields  71, 72 magnetic fields  71 near field  72 sinusoidal approximation  70 vector potential  70 Hertzian dipole Ampere’s law  64 electric field intensity  64 magnetic field intensity  63 magnetic vector potential  63 Poynting vector  64–65 maximum power transfer concept see maximum power transfer concept microwave relay link, antennas cellular wireless communication 105 communication distance  104 multipath fading  105–106 rule of thumb  105 TV transmission  104 multiple antennas, deployment of automatic gain control (AGC) 124 electromagnetic wave  123 impedance matching  127 MIMO system  132–138 M‐transmit and M‐receive antennas 129 multiple‐input‐multiple‐ output  125, 126 mutual coupling  131 Index near and far fields  131 non‐realistic systems  126 NT transmit and NR receive antenna systems  127 point source model  131 signal processing approach  127 single‐input‐single‐output (SISO) channels  128, 132–138 singular value decomposition (SVD) 128 space and time variables  131 statistical methodology  132 radiated far field see radiated far field reactive near field  65–66 signal enhancement methodology concentric cylinders  142 electromagnetic analysis code  143, 145 helical antenna transmit/receive system  143, 148 multiple‐user transmit/receive scenario 139 reciprocity principle  139 transmitter T2 and receiver R1 140 spatial antenna diversity central limit theorem  101 electromagnetic field components 104 line‐of‐sight (LOS)  103 physics‐based approach  102 probability distributions  101 probability theory  101 vector quantities  100 radiation efficiency, of antenna  279 ray tracing technique  112, 204 reactive near field power flows  65, 66 Poynting vector  66 scalar power density  65 resistive loaded dipole antennas monocycle pulse reception  288–290 radiation efficiency  288, 291 radiation from  288–290 Riemann sheets  239, 240, 244, 259 S saddle point  188, 193, 231, 242, 244, 245, 247–248 Schelkunoff formulation  192, 194, 195, 229–231 Shannon channel capacity  182 global positions system (GPS)  48 optimization for  342–344 vs power delivery with VSWR constraints  368, 369 without VSWR constraints  371 Poynting vector  49–51 Pulse Code Modulation  48 Pulse Position Modulation  48 satellite communication  47 Shannon’s theory  133–134 simplified real frequency technique (SRFT) 362–366 slow fading phenomenon  171, 217 Sommerfeld formulation  98, 184, 191, 234–247 Sommerfeld integrals  171, 173, 259 Sommerfeld tail problem  231 space division multiple access (SDMA)  151, 197 spatial antenna diversity central limit theorem  101 electromagnetic field components 104 line‐of‐sight (LOS)  103 physics‐based approach  102 probability distributions  101 probability theory  101 vector quantities  100 statistical based models  182, 203 superposition, principle of  26–28 surface plasmon polaritons (SPP) 260–261 surface waves  232, 259–261 389 390 Index T tapered horn antenna monocycle pulse reception  300, 303 radiation from  300, 302 structure  300, 302 Taylor series  248–250, 252 T‐pulse (Time limited pulse) design 329–331 distortionless transmission and reception  332–338 FCC UWB spectral mask criterion 331 Fourier transform theory  328 orthogonal Nyquist signals 329 transverse electromagnetic mode (TEM) horn antenna 299 monocycle reception  300, 301 radiation from  300, 301 structure 300 ultra wideband signal transmission  319–322 transverse magnetic (TM) plane wave  227, 228 travelling wave antennas  276–279 two‐ray model  203–205 U ultrawideband (UWB) signal transmission experimental verification conical antenna  318–322 D*dot antenna  323–325 Frii’s transmission formula  316, 317 impulse response  315–316 monopole antenna  325–328 TEM horn antenna  319–322 FCC spectral mask criterion discrete finite time domain pulse 327–328 T‐pulse design  328–338 W water‐filling algorithm  340, 344, 347–350 Wheeler‐Cap method  117 wireless antennas, information and power transmission additive white Gaussian noise channel 339 bandwidth allocation  341 channel capacity  339 electromagnetic simulation setup 340 frequency selective channel simulation 347–353 HOBBIES 341 optimization for  353–355 Gabor channel capacity 344–345 Hartley‐Nyquist‐Tuller channel capacity 345–347 Shannon channel capacity 342–344 passive RFID  339 water‐filling algorithm  340 wireless sensing system  339 wireless propagation mechanism base station antennas  217–227 electromagnetic macro model  171, 184–190 measured data, description and analysis of  173–184 models 203–207 numerical evaluation  190–192 Index Okumura et al.’s measurement data analysis 192–199 proper route  210–216 total fields near the interface  254–258 visualization 199–203 Xpol 45º model  207–210 Zenneck wave  227–233, 258–259 wireless sensing system (WSN)  339, 373 X Xpol 45º tilted antenna model 207–210 Y Yagi‐Uda antenna  192, 193 Z Zenneck/Sommerfeld wave type  229 Zenneck wave  227–233, 258–259 391 ... the Poynting’s theorem of electromagnetic energy transmission This introduces the principle of conservation of energy into the domain of signal analysis which is missing in the context of information... the input of the first stage of the radio frequency (RF) amplifier The reality is that if the signal of interest is not captured and available for processing at the input of the first stage of. .. of the subtle electromagnetic principles that are often overlooked in designing a cellular wireless system These involve both physics and mathematics of the concepts used in deploying antennas