Sách dành cho các bạn sinh viên đại học và thạc sĩ chuyên ngành Tiếng Anh nghiên cứu về phương pháp giảng dạy, và đi sâu vào giải quyết các vấn đề trong quá trình học ngoại ngữ. Bao gồm 11 chương và và các nội dung tương ứng
Problem Solving in a Foreign Language Studies on Language Acquisition 41 Editor Peter Jordens De Gruyter Mouton Problem Solving in a Foreign Language by Lena Heine De Gruyter Mouton ISBN 978-3-11-022445-0 e-ISBN 978-3-11-022446-7 ISSN 1861-4248 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Heine, Lena Problem solving in a foreign language / by Lena Heine p cm Ϫ (Studies on language acquisition ; 41) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-3-11-022445-0 (alk paper) Second language acquisition Ϫ Study and teaching Language and languages Ϫ Study and teaching Language and culture Sociolinguistics I Title P118.2H45 2010 418.0071Ϫdc22 2010003181 Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de Ą 2010 Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, Berlin/New York Printing: Hubert & Co GmbH & Co KG, Göttingen ϱ Printed on acid-free paper Printed in Germany www.degruyter.com For Doris and Werner Heine who make things grow and sail the sea Acknowledgements This book is based on my PhD thesis “Kognitive Prozesse bilingualer Lerner bei der fremdsprachlichen Verarbeitung von Fachinhalten” (2007, Osnabrück University), which was partly funded by the German Research Foundation within the project “Fachlernen und (Fremd-)Sprachlichkeit: aufgabenbasierte Kognition, Kooperation, Kommunikation” I would like to thank H Johannes Vollmer for all his support and for taking me ‘on board’, Debbie Coetzee-Lachmann for the many stimulating discussions and the enjoyable working hours spent together, and Verena Barbosa Duarte, Kristin Möller and Randi Troschke for their help with the coding of the think-aloud data A special thanks goes to Alex Bergs for his support under the final stages of the project Thanks also to the editor of the present series, Peter Jordens, especially for his valuable comments on an earlier version of the manuscript My grateful thanks goes to the students of the Ratsgymnasium Osnabrück who allowed me intimate insights into their very thoughts Without their help this book could never have been written Contents Figures Tables x xi Chapter Introduction 1 Bilingual education and CLIL Objectives Structure Chapter Language and thinking Linguistic knowledge Linguistic knowledge in multilingual speakers Language and meaning Language and the format of thought Conclusions and summary Chapter Problem solving 8 10 13 15 21 23 Mental processes Task solving as problem solving The appropriate level of description Processes vs phases Focus on meaning and focus on form Summary 23 27 28 30 32 35 Chapter Language-specific cognitive processes 36 Linguistic processing Processes of text comprehension Processes of language production Models of writing tasks Summary Chapter A model of conceptual-linguistic task solving Task-solving as a complex problem solving activity Phases of task solving Summary 36 37 40 42 56 57 57 61 66 viii Contents Chapter Task design and task analysis The importance of the research design Subjects Elicitation tasks Cognitive task analysis Linguistic task analysis Summary Chapter Think-aloud data Thinking aloud Thinking aloud and language of thought Individual differences in cognitive processing Thinking aloud in L2 settings Think-aloud data as protocols of problem solving activites Summary Chapter A coding scheme 68 68 68 69 73 79 81 82 82 84 89 90 94 98 99 Coding the data Change of focus between the problem spaces Different phases – different mental activities Summary 99 107 114 118 Chapter Problem solving in a foreign language 119 Language as a catalytic converter: depth of processing L1-L2 processing differences in language production Language reception Filled and unfilled pauses Mispronunciations Differences in semantic processing of text information? Critical thoughts on the process data Summary Chapter 10 Evaluation of the think-aloud method Limitations of the think-aloud method Subjective interview data Reactivity Mental language switches Is thinking aloud a valid elicitation method? Summary 119 128 148 149 151 156 159 160 162 162 163 165 170 173 176 Contents Chapter 11 Results and discussion Retrospective thoughts Theoretical results Methodological results Empirical results Implications for the design of learning contexts What further research is needed? Final remarks Transcription conventions References Index ix 177 177 177 178 183 185 187 189 191 192 214 References 203 Johnson-Laird, Philip N 1983 Mental Models: Towards a Cognitive Science of Language, Inference, and Consciousness Cambridge: Harvard University Press Jourdenais, Renée 2001 Cognition, instruction and protocol analysis In Cognition and Second Language Instruction, Peter Robinson (ed.), 354–375 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Jusczyk, Peter W 1997 The Discovery of Spoken Language Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press Just, Marcel A., and Patricia A Carpenter 1987 The Psychology of Reading and Language Comprehension Newton, MA: Allyn and Bacon Kallenbach, Christiane 1996 Subjektive Theorien Tübingen: Narr Kasper, Gabriele 1998 Analyzing verbal protocols Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages Quarterly 32 (2): 358–362 Katz, Jerrold J 1972 Semantic Theory New York: Harper and Row Kaufer, D S., John R Hayes, and Linda Flower 1986 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refining the encoding and categorizing techniques via contextualized perspectives Computers in Human Behavior 19: 95–115 References 213 Zydatiß, Wolfgang 2002 Konzeptuelle Grundlagen einer eigenständigen Didaktik des bilingualen Sachfachunterrichts: Forschungsstand und Forschungsprogramm In Bilingualer Sachfachunterrich, Stephan Breidbach, Gerhard Bach, and Dieter Wolff (eds.), 31–61 Frankfurt a M.: Lang 2005 Bildungsstandards und Kompetenzniveaus im Englischunterricht: Konzepte, Empirie, Kritik und Konsequenzen Frankfurt a M.: Lang Index accommodation, 29, 31 accretion, 29 applied linguistics, 37, 40 assimilation, 29, 31 BICS, 12 Bilingual Education, 1, CALP, 12 case grammar, 39 CLIL, 1-4, 127, 177, 185, 187, 188 paradox, climate graphs, 6, 35, 45, 69, 70, 71, 77-79, 86, 87, 95, 96, 109, 116 Content and Language Integrated Learning, see CLIL coding (data), 56, 99-102, 116, 118, 160 cognition, 8, 14, 17, 23, 29, 36, 69, 73, 87, 88, 90, 99, 175, 178, 179 cognition hypothesis, 34 cognitive ability, 11 cognitive complexity, 25 Cognitive Linguistics, 13, 14, 17, 21, 36, 57, 177 cognitive processes, 1, 5, 6, 19, 24-26, 28, 30, 32, 35-37, 40, 50, 57, 69, 77, 83, 86, 89, 90, 99, 150, 162, 163, 175, 188 cognitive psychology, 8, 9, 14, 19, 21, 24, 27, 36, 40, 55, 74, 89, 177 cognitive shift, cognitive task analysis, 7, 73, -75, 80 comparison (as cognitive process), 23, 25, 26, 32, 61, 63, 102, 138 compensation, 4, 157, 159, 184, 185, 188 competence tests, compound and coordinate bilingualism, 10 Comprehensible Input Hypothesis, concept mapping, 189 conceptual knowledge, 8, 16, 22, 36, 37, 42, 59, 121, 124, 133, 138, 184 construction (as cognitive process), 4, 6, 15, 23, 26, 29-32, 35, 37, 38, 42, 45, 47, 59, 61-64, 66, 70, 73, 74, 76-81, 102, 116, 124, 143, 152, 153, 156, 160, 178, 179, 182, 183 constructivism, 11, 13, 21, 24, 35, 37, 40, 64, 66, 73, 149, 178, 179, 185 content learning, context (as source of information), 4, 6, 9, 15, 19, 28, 35, 38, 44, 49, 50, 58, 65, 74, 106, 157160, 178, 179, 181, 185, 187 continuum, 25, 26, 31, 127, 146, 185 Contrastive Hypothesis, 11 curriculum, 33, 186 deeper processing, 7, 124, 126129, 139, 143, 146, 147, 159, 160, 183, 184, 186-189 design of learning contexts, 185 dual coding, 20, 21 editing, 43, 49, 116 elicitation tasks, 5, 6, 35, 50, 58, 66, 68, 69, 76, 77, 79, 81, 83, 91, 148, 160 Index empirical, 5, 6, 7, 8, 16, 21, 22, 33, 35, 37-39, 45, 49, 51, 56, 58, 65-68, 76, 83-86, 172, 177, 179, 180, 183, 184, 186, 188, 190 enactive theories, 21 encyclopaedic knowledge, 9, 14, 21, 22, 39, 40, 57, 59, 64 evaluate (as cognitive process), 23, 28, 50, 54, 62, 64, 88, 133, 138, 148 eye movement data, 38, 82, 89 feature semantics, 13, 14 focus on form, 1, 32-35, 127, 184, 186 on forms, 33, 34 on meaning, 1, 2, 32-35 format of thought, 15, 19, 84 frame semantics, 14 functional approach, 25, 26, 30, 31, 38, 50, 127 gaps, 7, 38, 39, 106, 150, 171 garden path experiments, 38 geography, 2, 3, 35, 49, 68, 69, 73, 76, 157-159, 170, 188 goal state, 5, 28, 31, 43, 58, 59, 62, 65, 66 gradience, 14 imagery debate, 19 immersion programme, individual differences, 13, 84, 89, 130, 159, 170, 179, 182 inference, 20, 38-40, 160 information (as cognitive construct), 5, 6, 20-29, 31-40, 44, 45, 49, 54, 55, 58, 61, 64, 69, 70, 73, 75-82, 86, 95, 106, 116, 119, 126, 170, 175, 180, 183, 184, 187, 188 processing, 25, 27, 30, 37, 57, 59, 66, 85, 130, 177, 178, 182, 187 215 inner speech, 18, 19, 84 Interaction Hypothesis, 33 Interdependence Hypothesis, 12 Interpretation (as cognitive process), 10, 15, 24, 38, 39, 70, 73 introspection, 82-84 keyboard protocols, 89 knowledge declarative, 79 procedural, 32, 45, 75, 80 telling, 45, 46, 47, 49 transforming, 47-49, 50, 147 L1, 1, 2, 6, 10, 11, 12, 51, 56, 68, 90, 92, 93, 118, 119, 124, 128132, 139, 141, 143, 146, 147, 153, 171, 177, 180, 183-185, 187 L2 proficiency, 3, 11, 143 -specific processes, 56 language acquisition, 2, 10, 12, 23, 33, 34, 83, 178, 188 of thought, 19, 20, 84, 94, 173, 178, 181, 188 production, 40, 41, 53, 54, 64, 70, 128, 183, 186 switches, 41, 90, 91, 170, 172 learner characteristics, type, 88 linguistic determinism, 16, 17 knowledge, 5, 8-14, 21, 22, 45, 54, 57, 62, 64 processing, 6, 9, 36, 48, 56, 68, 80, 127, 146 relativity, 4, 16, 17, 120 216 Index structure, 1, 2, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19, 22, 33, 34, 38, 39, 40, 59, 63, 102 long-term memory, 44, 45, 50, 54, 127 meaning-focused problem solving, 1, task, 5, 26, 28 memory, 9, 21, 23-26, 30, 31, 35, 39, 45, 47, 49, 58, 59, 70, 76, 79, 80, 106, 124, 126, 127 mental lexicon, 9, 13, 22, 40, 41, 80 model, 20, 21, 40, 83, 121 processes, 6, 7, 8, 23, 26, 30, 32, 37, 40, 51, 67, 69, 73, 74, 76, 80, 86, 90, 92, 98, 99, 106, 175 representation, 1, 6, 10, 16, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27, 32, 40, 41, 47, 59, 62, 63, 73, 75, 80, 84, 95, 96, 102, 107, 111, 114, 116, 124, 128, 130 mentalese, 19 metacognition, 64, 86, 87, 163, 180 methodology, 3, 4, 6, 17, 68, 81-85, 92, 93, 99, 118, 119, 143, 148, 150, 175, 177-179, 182, 183, 185 mispronunciation, 151-153, 158 modality-specific, 21 monitor, 28, 43, 44, 89, 163 monolingualism, 12 multilingualism, 10, 12 perception, 8, 9, 16, 17, 25, 26, 73, 88 phase (of problem solving), 4, 7, 30-32, 35, 43, 44, 57, 61-66, 75, 76, 80, 96-98, 101, 102, 114, 116, 128, 130, 148, 150, 175, 178, 182 pilot study, 73, 91-93, 163, 171, 179 presupposition, 40 problem (as mental category), 4, 5, 23, 27, 30, 31, 35, 42, 47, 49, 51, 57, 58, 65, 66, 69, 70, 74, 75, 79, 81, 82, 92, 93, 95, 96, 114, 116, 129, 131, 143, 171, 175 problem solving theory, 28, 182 problem space, 27, 47-49, 58, 59, 61, 62, 65, 66, 101-111, 116, 119, 124, 130, 133, 148, 161, 171, 176, 183, 187 proposition, 19, 20, 40, 80 prototype theory, 14, 21 qualitative, 7, 87, 89, 116, 124, 139, 146, 150, 185 quantitative, 7, 26, 130, 146, 176, 179 operation, 24, 26, 27, 30, 59, 68 orthography, 111, 114, 150 reactivity, 88, 89, 93, 162, 165, 167 reading, 6, 20, 37, 38, 42, 50, 57, 62, 91, 96, 101, 107, 152, 159, 162 reconstruction, 23, 29, 30, 32, 35, 61, 63, 64, 78-80, 81, 124 reliability, 106, 107 revising, 44, 45 rules, 9, 22, 33, 80, 127 parallel processing, 24, 41, 96, 150, 164, 180 pause, 106, 149-150 schema, 14, 29, 30, 39, 55 script, 14, 15, 40 semantic primitives, 13, 14 noticing hypothesis, 33, 34 Index social context, 6, 19, 35, 1179 sociocultural, 9, 55, 65 theory, 17, 19 strategy, 12, 25, 28, 31, 44, 51, 55, 64, 87, 88, 157, 160, 163, 167, 172, 188 subjective, 21, 24, 65, 73, 107, 163, 173, 174 data, 163 theories, 163 subject-specific competence, 3, 157 SUP, 12 syllabus, 2, 33, 34 task, 1, 3-5, 6, 26, 29, 30-35, 39, 42, 44, 45, 47, 55, 57-67, 69, 70-83, 85-88, 90, 91, 93-96, 102, 106, 107, 117, 124, 126, 131, 133, 134, 139, 148, 160, 162, 165, 175, 178, 185, 188 design, 6, 34, 58, 69, 73, 148, 160 teaching method, 185, 189 text composition, 1, 6, 37, 41–45, 47, 49, 50, 56, 85, 127, 128, 130, 177, 186 comprehension, 37–40, 160, 161, 186 text written so far, 45, 54, 55, 65 think-aloud data, 6, 7, 92, 94, 99, 101, 106, 107, 117, 139, 160, 179, 182, 183 thinking, 15–23, 25, 30, 35, 43, 49, 85, 92, 93, 164-169, 178, 179, 181, 185 for speaking, 16, 17 thought, see thinking transcription, 84, 99 translating, 56, 85 triangulation, 5, 83, 88, 181 217 understanding (as cognitive process), 32, 37, 38, 61-63, 75, 80, 116, 148, 159, 186, 187 validity, 7, 83, 91, 114, 116, 162163, 170, 173-176, 178-182 variables of personality, 64 verbal protocol, 82, 84, 86, 130 vocalization, 86, 149, 150, 152, 164, 170, 179 world knowledge, see encyclopedic knowledge working memory, 40, 50, 54, 85, 87, 89, 93, 109, 131, 150, 164, 167, 180 writing, 41-57, 66, 82, 85, 96, 97, 98, 99, 101, 116, 124, 131, 132, 139 zone of proximal development, ... 1861-4248 Library of Congress Cataloging -in- Publication Data Heine, Lena Problem solving in a foreign language / by Lena Heine p cm Ϫ (Studies on language acquisition ; 41) Includes bibliographical references... Bilingual education and CLIL Objectives Structure Chapter Language and thinking Linguistic knowledge Linguistic knowledge in multilingual speakers Language and meaning Language and the format... design and task analysis The importance of the research design Subjects Elicitation tasks Cognitive task analysis Linguistic task analysis Summary Chapter Think-aloud data Thinking aloud Thinking aloud