The ancient quarrel unsettled plato and the erotics of tragic poetry

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO THE ANCIENT QUARREL UNSETTLED: PLATO AND THE EROTICS OF TRAGIC POETRY A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE DIVISION OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY JOHN U NEF COMMITTEE ON SOCIAL THOUGHT BY THOMAS LUKE BARTSCHERER CHICAGO, ILLINOIS DECEMBER 2011 UMI Number: 3487592 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent on the quality of the copy submitted In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion UMI 3487592 Copyright 2011 by ProQuest LLC All rights reserved This edition of the work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346 Table of Contents Acknowledgements v   Introduction   The nature and power of images 20   1.1 Mimêsis and the ontology of images 22   1.1.1 Painting 22   1.1.2 Poetry 41   1.2 The power of images—the psychology of belief and the spectacle of suffering 46   1.3 The power of images—the greatest accusation 54   The critique of tragedy in Republic X: limitations and reformulation 61   2.1 Thinking twice: formal considerations 62   2.2 Thinking twice: erôs, epôidê, pharmakon 65   2.2.1 Erôs 65   2.2.2 Epôidê 67   2.2.3 Pharmakon 71   2.3 Two premises, two problems 75   2.3.1 Was will das Logistikon? 76   2.3.2 That obscure object 86   2.4 Beyond the looking glass; or, the return of the repressed 97   ii 2.4.1 Elusive originals 102   2.4.2 "The god must be described as he is…" 111   "All those beautiful tragic things" 118   3.1 Tragedy and erôs: an overview 119   3.2 Poetics of tragedy and philosophy of the tragic: Plato and Aristotle 128   3.3 Philosophy of the tragic: Halliwell and Rosen 132   3.4 Erôs for the beautiful and tragedy 145   3.4.1 The beautiful [to kalon] 145   3.4.2 To kalon, poetry, tragedy 148   3.4.3 Tragic beauty: irony and enigma 155   3.5 Conclusion: A frenzied and savage master? 161   Erôs: tyrannical and philosophical 164   4.1 The puzzle 164   4.2 Duo erôte 166   4.2.1 Argument of the imagery 168   4.2.2 Tyrannical desire: unnecessary, insatiable, lawless 170   4.2.3 Philosophical desire: unnecessary, insatiable, lawless? 175   4.3 One love: different objects 180   4.4 The puzzle is a puzzle 185   iii Tragedy, transgression, and psuchagôgia 189   5.1 Was will der Mensch? 191   5.2 The good, the beautiful, and the tragic 195   5.3 Love minus zero/no limit 201   Works Cited 207       iv Acknowledgements First thanks goes to the John U Nef Committee on Social Thought, and especially to the chair of the Committee and my advisor, Robert B Pippin, for sustained and unwavering support What there is of value in the following work derives in large measure from the unique intellectual environment of the Committee, which Mr Pippin has done so much to foster For his guidance, support, and example, I am enormously grateful I also thank the other members of my dissertation committee—John M Coetzee, Jonathan Lear, and Glenn W Most—who over many years have been generous with their time and attention, their criticism and encouragement Many other individuals and institutions have aided and abetted my work on this project Chief among them, David N McNeill, cherished interlocutor since 1994, and Ewa Atanassow, helpmeet of a dozen years Both have read many drafts and virtually every page of this work I cannot overstate my gratitude With apologies to any whom I omit inadvertently, I would like also to thank the following individuals and institutions: Danielle Allen, Shadi Bartsch, Rita Bartscherer, Manuel Baumbach, Jonathan Beere, Paolo d’Iorio, Anne Wescott Eaton, Christiane Frey, Paul Friedrich, Anne Gamboa, the late David Grene, H U Gumbrecht, John T Hamilton, Martin Holtermann, Brett Keyser, Martin Korjenac, Brad Krumholz, Justine Malle, Katia Mitova, Sandra Moog, James I Porter, James Redfield, Joan Retallack, Daniel Richter, Jarrell Robinson, Naomi Rood, Joydeep Roy-Bhattacharya, Nicholas Rudall, Lauriana Sapienza, Eric Schliesser, Roger Scruton, Mark Strand, Claudia Strobel, William Stull, Chenxi Tang, Nathan Tarcov, Jonny Thakkar, David Tracy, Martin Vöhler, James Wengler, Antja Wessels, my siblings and their spouses, the Bradley Foundation, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, the Earhart Foundation, the École Normale Supérieure, the European College of the Liberal Arts, the Evelyn Stefansson Nef Foundation, Heidelberg University, the Institut des Textes et Manuscrits v Modernes—CNRS, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, the North American Cultural Laboratory, and the Woodrow Wilson Foundation In accordance with custom, I emphasize that I alone bear responsibility for the shortcomings of this work vi Introduction “There is an ancient quarrel between philosophy and poetry.” This remark and the argument to which it belongs, attributed by Socrates to himself in Book X of Plato’s Republic, has not suffered from neglect in the history of Western letters Rejoinders come early For Aristotle, the notion of a “quarrel” between philosophy and poetry simply makes no sense Poetry is, like rhetoric or ethics or politics or weather, something about which philosophy can provide a reasoned account; it is not the sort of thing that might be regarded as an alternative to or opponent of philosophy.1 In Plutarch, the antagonism is replaced with complementarity: poetry is informed by philosophical argument and philosophy is sweetened with an admixture of poetic myth.2 Subsequent responses, varying greatly in content, form, and tone, continue to appear from the time of the neoplatonists through to the twenty-first century The list would rival Leporello’s catalogo for its magnitude and diversity.3 What I provide in this introduction is a I agree with the many commentators who regard Aristotle’s Poetics as a response to the critique of poetry we find in Plato, and especially in Republic X Halliwell (1998) offers a particularly detailed account of the relationship between the Poetics and the Republic See also Fuhrmann (1973), Gould (1964), and Kannicht (1980) As Hunter and Russell observe, Plutarch’s De Audiendis Poetis 15d likely contains a direct allusion to Plato’s formulation of the ancient quarrel (Plutarch (2011)) To get a sense of the sheer range of periods in which and authors for whom the quarrel is of pressing concern (in some cases, the concern being to reject the idea that there is such a quarrel), consider just a few prominent examples Neoplatonists, and Proclus in particular, inherit Plato’s interest in investigating the relationship between philosophy and poetry and they typically share with Plutarch a more harmonious conception of this relationship For the Romantic writers of the 18th and 19th centuries, Plato’s formulation of the quarrel had profound resonance, as seen for example in Shelley’s “Defense of Poetry” and in much of Coleridge’s work (see James Vigus’s chapter, “The Ancient Quarrel Between Poetry and Philosophy,” in Vigus (2009), 63-92) For a revisiting of this tension from the perspective of a 20th century novelist, see Italo Calvino’s “Philosophy and Literature,” in Calvino (1986), 39-49 Paul de Man, commenting on Plato, remarks that “philosophy and literature” are “the two activities of the human intellect that are both closest and the most impenetrable to each other,” in De Man (1979), 103 One may also recall how Stanley Cavell concludes The Claim of Reason: “But can philosophy become literature and still know itself?” in Cavell (1979), 496 Finally, in a recent study of the work of J M Coetzee, Stephen Mulhall argues that through the character of Elizabeth Costello, Coetzee re-visits questions about the relationship between philosophy and literature first formulated by Plato, but that Costello does so “in ways that can only be properly understood if we understand that our relationship to her is as a literary creation” (Mulhall (2009), 3) highly selective survey of recent publications to identify the field within which the present study moves, and then a summary of my central concerns to reveal the absence of field at which it aims In brief and broad terms, I will be arguing that for Plato, the quarrel contrasts two fundamentally different conceptions of the nature and purpose of discursive activity and the ethical implications of each The distinction Plato proposes between philosophy and poetry is not, at root, a matter of formal criteria, such as meter or diction Nor is it simply the difference between myth-making and account-giving, or between muthos and logos Moreover, I not believe we are to understand the quarrel to have been resolved within the confines of the Republic, nor the arguments Socrates makes to constitute philosophy’s victory over poetry (or, for that matter, philosophy’s incapacity to defeat its opponent) As I shall indicate in this introduction and elaborate in detail in the study that follows, on my reading the quarrel turns on the nature of what Plato calls erôs As modes of discourse, philosophy and poetry manifest different understandings of the character and fate of erotic striving and constitute two different responses to the human condition Three monographs dedicated to the ancient quarrel in various manifestations, published in the last three decades, appeared at about ten year intervals beginning in 1990 They provide a convenient framework for this survey I begin with Thomas Gould’s The Ancient Quarrel Between Poetry and Philosophy (1990), then take up Susan Levin’s The Ancient Quarrel Between Philosophy and Poetry Revisited (2001), and turn finally to Raymond Barfield’s The Ancient Quarrel Between Philosophy and Poetry (2011).4 For Gould, the quarrel to which Stanley Rosen’s The Quarrel Between Philosophy and Poetry: Studies in Ancient Thought (1988) was published prior to all three mentioned above and includes chapters published as essays many years earlier I discuss Rosen’s work in detail in Chapter Three See also Most (2011), discussed below, and Kannicht (1980) Socrates refers is “a permanent state of affairs,” a fundamental disagreement about the nature of moral responsibility in relation to fate and the divine (Gould 1990, xxvi) Philosophy, on Gould’s understanding, is essentially a worldview based on the premise that human beings, not the gods, are entirely responsible for their own happiness or misery “In 'philosophy,'” he writes, “are included not only the systematic thinkers like Heraclitus … but anyone who complained that the gods ought not to be envisaged as the authors of all human misery, deserved and undeserved alike” (214) Poetry, by contrast, represents the view that “divine injustice” is responsible for human misery and, as a corollary, that human beings are not responsible for their own lot and so are relieved of guilt for their own suffering Poetry in this sense is aligned, Gould argues, with those religious traditions that ascribe human misfortune to divine will or plan Gould’s argument turns on his account of pathos He defines pathos as “the operative event in stories essential to popular religion and tragedy: catastrophic suffering, undergone by some great figure, man or god, far in excess of the sufferer's deserts” (ix).5 “Poetry” in the Republic’s formulation of the ancient quarrel can be regarded, according to Gould, as "the enterprise of those who wish to move hearers with accounts of a pathe”; philosophy, by contrast, is the "mission of those who are hostile to this enterprise” (x) Gould further argues that poets and philosophers, so understood, are responding to fundamental and ineradicable features of human psychology that are irreconcilable We are in part driven by a desire, elevated to the highest principle in Socratic ethics, to lead our lives, to be alone responsible for the state of our souls Yet part of us also longs to believe that we are not responsible and therefore not guilty of the ills I discuss the term pathos in some detail in Chapter One Gould, for his part, argues that the revelation of the hero’s underserved suffering—his pathos—was at the center of the religion of hero worship and initiation into the mysteries and was central to the epic tradition as well From these sources, according to Gould, the celebration and exploitation of pathos became the central feature of Attic tragedy See his chapter, “Pathos in Greek Religion,” Gould (1990), 22-28 is admittedly a plausible interpretation, but it means, as I show in Chapter Three, that the fundamental difference between philosophy and poetry dissolves I see a different project in Plato’s writing about tragedy He is not presenting tragedy as a discourse that makes claims about the nature of human beings and the world Tragedy does not posit an ultimate object of erotic desire (such as the good), nor does it claim that there is no ultimate object of desire, both of which would be philosophical claims “Praxis” may be the best term to convey my understanding of the nature of tragedy as it emerges from the dialogues Tragedy, on the interpretation I am putting forward, is a praxis that sustains desire in the absence of any proper object This returns us to the question of tragic beauty We have seen that beauty, as typically understood in the Platonic dialogues, is intimately connected to the good Yet we also noted some ambiguity about this in the Symposium Most prominently, in the final revelations of Diotima’s speech, to agathon falls out of the picture altogether and instead Diotima speaks only of to kalon She describes what sounds almost like an exponential expansion of beauty which gradually becomes “so vast” and is eventually described as “the vast open sea of the beautiful” (210c-d) There is something in this excess that mirrors the subjective excess of feeling we saw in the Phaedrus passage that describes the experience of the soul in response to beauty In the Republic, this aspect of to kalon is somewhat muted but it is still apparent Note, for example, that in Book VI the good is said to exceed knowledge and truth in terms of its beauty (508e) The primary point in that passage is to convey the abundance of to agathon, but it also implies an expansive conception of to kalon How are we to imagine this excess of the beautiful if, per the hypothesis, it is to be disconnected from the good? The task is to think through the idea that the phenomenon of tragic 202 beauty, for Plato, represents the possibility, at least the hypothesis, of a divorce between the beautiful and the good I want to suggest that the beautiful, separate from the good, can only manifest as sheer transgression This, I think, is at the core of tragedy as Plato understood it The story of Leontius, told in Book IV of the Republic, is relevant here We need not discuss the episode in detail to appreciate the salient point for our concerns Socrates introduces the story in the context of the tripartite division of the soul, and specifically, as a way to illustrate that there is a third part of the soul, distinct from the desiring and the calculating parts The story is as follow: "But," I said, "I once heard something that I trust Leontius, the son of Aglaion, was going up from the Piraeus under the outside of the North Walls when he noticed corpses lying by the public executioner He desired to look, but at the same time he was disgusted and made himself turn away; and for a while he struggled and covered his face But finally, overpowered by the desire, he opened his eyes wide, ran toward the corpses and said: 'Look, you damned wretches, take your fill of the beautiful sight [kalou thematos]’” (439e-440a) Socrates concludes from this that “anger sometimes makes war against the desires” and so the spirited part of the soul must be distinct from the desiring part There is much that is striking and strange about this passage, but I want to call attention to one particular aspect of it Leontius finds himself powerfully drawn to a spectacle that might typically be considered abhorrent, but he cannot resist the “beautiful sight.” He is in the position of a spectator to tragedy.14 Leontius is, in other words, in the position of the chorus that beholds the corpses of Cassandra and Agamemnon in the Agamemnon, or the chorus that looks upon blinded Oedipus in Oedipus Turannos, or the one that hears the murder Clytemnestra in the Electra Presumably Leontius, like those spectators, feels the phrikê as well 14 Aristotle, in Poetics Chapter 4, observes that though we find looking at corpses abhorrent, we can take pleasure in looking at a mimetic representation of a corpse 203 While many commentators simply take this episode at face value, others have recognized its peculiarity and sought explanations.15 If we set aside the unsupported claim that Leontius had a sexual predilection for bodies that looked like corpses, the most puzzling aspect is why he would find the site “beautiful.”16 Benardete (1989) suggests that the passage alludes to both cannibalism (the eyes desire to eat) and, possibly, to the self-blinding of Oedipus (both men were angry at their eyes) (99-101) With this in mind, we may recall that when Socrates in Book IX describes the paranomaic desires that dwell in all souls, he runs through a list—incest, cannibalism, and the killing of one’s own kin—that clearly alludes to the themes of tragic poetry The common theme in all of this is transgression It is clear that Leontius understand himself to be breaking a taboo, to be doing something illicit, in looking at the corpses Likewise, many of the plots in tragic drama—and apparently the dreams to which Socrates alludes—are essentially about transgression, whether it be transgressing divine law or natural law or human custom As I argued in Chapter Four, the philosopher and the tyrant are both driven by transgressive erôs The philosopher’s love compels him to transgress law and custom (nomos) in the name of, in pursuit of, nature (phusis) This is, in part, what Socrates signifies by placing the ultimate object of the philosopher’s desire—the idea of the good—“beyond being” [epekeina tês ousias] Nevertheless, the philosopher’s erôs is not without an object His love of learning is said to be insatiable [aplêstos] in Book V, but in Book VI we learn that it is ultimately directed toward a single object His desire is in principle satiable, and by the same token, it is subject to surcease 15 Reeve, on no cited evidence, sees it as sexual appetite (129); Irwin cites the evidence for Leontius’ sexual preference and concludes that it is weak (156); Craig (1994), 101 regards the motivation to be curiosity, or the desire to know; Gould (1990), 290 proposes that it is a manifestation of the universal desire to see the world as unjust See also Benardete (1989), 99-101 16 On the potentially ironic character of kalos here, see my remarks on irony in Chapter 204 The tyrant’s desire, by contrast, has no proper object The tyrant is, as Augustine was in Carthage, in love with love Tyrannical desire is portrayed in the Republic as, literally, insatiable In Book X, Socrates indicates that the part of the soul that is drawn to tragedy is likewise insatiable [aplêstos] (604d) Tragedy’s power, I have been arguing, is reckoned by Plato to lie in its depiction of transgression Perpetual transgression is essential to tragedy, on this account, because only as such can it escape the fall into objecthood If the essence of tragedy were the positing of a worldview, it would be open to dialectical inquiry It would be an object of, and would be subject to, philosophical interrogation Plato sees in tragedy something different He presents it as the antithesis, the radical other, of philosophy As such, its power cannot proceed from its cognitive content (as it does on Aristotle’s theory); nor from its affirmation of the human belief in divine injustice (as Gould suggests); nor, for that matter, from its affirmation of a belief in divine justice; nor from its presentation of our common moral destiny It is not even the case, despite what Socrates gets Glaucon to agree to in Book X, that for Plato tragedy’s greatest strength lies in its capacity to gratify our irrational and base yearning for emotional excitement and release The appeal of tragedy is erotic The same aspect of human nature that is, according to Plato, drawn to the “daemonic excess” of the idea of the good (509c) is likewise drawn to the excesses of tragedy Tragic beauty is the spectacle of perpetual transgression It is the most soulleading form of poetry From a perspective internal to the dialogues, philosophy conceived as Socrates describes it in the Republic would regard tragedy as a praxis for sustaining desire Under the supervision of philosophy, or perhaps through good luck, it may direct souls toward the good; 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Why Plato's Poets Fail In Plato on Beauty, Wisdom, and the Arts, edited by J Moravcsik and P Temko, 137-150 Totowa, N.J.: Rowman & Allanheld Xenophon 1979 Xenophon in Seven Volumes, 4: Memorabilia Translated by E C Marchant Cambridge: Harvard (Loeb) Xenophon 2006 The Shorter Socratic Writings: "Apology of Socrates to the Jury," "Oeconomicus," and "Symposium" Translated by R C Bartlett Ithaca: Cornell University Press 216 ... however, bring to the fore what I regard to be some of the key issues in Plato s formulation of the ancient quarrel Weaving together the discussions of poetry in the Republic and the Ion, Barfield... properly used This is the source of a new and better type of poetry, the sort of poetry Plato writes” (28) Now, while the Symposium may well offer a description of the kind of erotic attachment... philosophy and poetry and they typically share with Plutarch a more harmonious conception of this relationship For the Romantic writers of the 18th and 19th centuries, Plato s formulation of the quarrel