Osip mandelstam and the modernist creation of tradition 1994

Osip Mandelstam and the Modernist Creation of Tradition This page intentionally left blank Osip Mandelstam and the Modernist Creation of Tradition • C LA R E C AVA N AG H P R I N C E T O N U N I V E R S I T Y P R I N C E T O N, N E W • P R E S S J E R S E Y Copyright  1995 by Princeton University Press Published by Princeton University Press, 41 William Street, Princeton, New Jersey 08540 In the United Kingdom: Princeton University Press, Chichester, West Sussex All Rights Reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Cavanagh, Clare Osip Mandelstam and the modernist creation of tradition / Clare Cavanagh p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-691-03682-9 Mandel’shtam, Osip, 1891–1938—Criticism and interpretation Modernism (Literature) I Title PG3476.M355Z59 1994 891.71′3—dc20 94-11248 This book has been composed in Galliard Princeton University Press books are printed on acid-free paper, and meet the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council on Library Resources Printed in the United States of America 10 • TO MIKE • This page intentionally left blank THE ARTICULATION OF SIBERIA When the deaf phonetician spread his hand Over the dome of a speaker’s skull He could tell which diphthong and which vowel By the bone vibrating to the sound A globe stops spinning I feel my palm On a forehead cold as permafrost And imagine axle-hum and the steadfast Russian of Osip Mandelstam —Seamus Heaney This page intentionally left blank • C O N T E N T S ACKNOWLEDGMENTS NOTE ON ABBREVIATIONS, TRANSLATIONS, AND TRANSLITERATION • xi xiii CHAPTER ONE Introduction: The Modernist Creation of Tradition CHAPTER TWO Self-Creation and the Creation of Culture 29 CHAPTER THREE Making History: Modernist Cathedrals 66 CHAPTER FOUR Judaic Chaos 103 CHAPTER FIVE The Currency of the Past 146 CHAPTER SIX Jewish Creation 193 CHAPTER SEVEN Powerful Insignificance 215 CHAPTER EIGHT Chaplinesque, or Villon Again: In Place of an Ending 279 APPENDIX 305 NOTES 313 INDEX 359 • N O T E S T O C H A P T E R S E V E N • 351 48 T S Eliot, The Complete Poems and Plays: 1909–1950 (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1968), 49 The phrases are Zhirmunsky’s (“Preodolevshie simvolizm,” 305–6) Lydia Ginzburg and Jane Gary Harris discuss this crucial shift in the later verse at some length ( Ginzburg, “Poetika Osipa Mandel’shtama,” esp 288–300; and Harris, Osip Mandelstam, 98–111) 50 See Freidin, Coat of Many Colors, 249, 267, for a discussion of Mandelstam’s play on his given name, the axis (os’), and the name of his oppressor (Iosif) in the late poems 51 The Complete Poems and Plays, 13 52 In the late poetry, Aleksandr Zholkovsky observes, “ ‘warm and kindred’ beginnings absorb ‘alien,’ great and eternal objects (nature, air, history, art) by way of purely human, ‘childish’ means (breathing, eating, drinking, and so on)” (“Invarianty i struktura teksta II Mandel’shtam: ‘Ia p’iu za voennye astry ,’ ” Slavica Hierosolymitana, vol [1979], 163.) The cosmic “physiology of speech” of Mandelstam’s late poetry points to his striking affinities in the late verse with the early theorizing of the Futurists and Formalists concerning what Viktor Shklovsky calls the “singular dance of the speech organs” occasioned by poetic language (“O poezii i zaumnom iazyke,” in Poetika Sbornik po teorii poeticheskogo iazyka [Petrograd, 1919], 24) 53 The editors of the Sobranie sochinenii provide the derisive quote describing Mandelstam’s politically incorrect “mandelstamp” but not give its author He is identified in Omry Ronen’s entry on Mandelstam in European Writers: The Twentieth Century vol 10 (“Osip Mandelshtam,” 1631) Ronen has also identified the origins of Mandelstam’s enigmatic “Egyptian stamp,” which had its beginnings in a genuine Egyptian stamp issued early in the century It defeated efforts to cheat the postal system, as any attempt to remove cancellation marks would cause the entire printed surface of the stamp to vanish (cited in Donald Fanger, “The City of Russian Modernism,” in Modernism, ed Malcolm Bradbury and James McFarlane [New York: Penguin Books, 1976], 480) 54 Walter Benjamin, Charles Baudelaire: A Lyric Poet in the Era of High Capitalism, trans Harry Zohn (New York: Verso, 1983), 80 See Maurice Nadeau on surrealist “walking tours” (History of Surrealism, 10) Roger Shattuck points to Villon’s influence on French postromantic poetry in The Banquet Years: The Origins of the Avant-garde in France 1885 to World War I (New York: Vintage Books, 1968), 24 55 Mandelstam himself tacitly calls our attention to his avant-garde affinities when he celebrates a Dante who practices an “infantile trans-sense,” an “eternal dadaism,” a Dante whose legacy was inherited not by the neoclassical Parnassians, with whom the Acmeists had been linked early on, but by those “damned poets,” Baudelaire, Verlaine, Rimbaud, who most inspired the twentieth-century avantgarde (CPL, 399, 416) 56 Nadezhda Mandelstam, Kniga pervaia, 295; Hope Against Hope, trans Max Hayward (New York: Atheneum, 1970), 277 Aleksandr Zholkovsky quotes Kovalenkov in his richly detailed reading of this lyric, “Invarianty i struktura teksta, II Mandel’shtam: ‘Ia p’iu za voennye astry ,’ ” Slavica Herosolymitana, vol (1979), 171 57 Vladimir Veidle, “O poslednikh stikhakh Mandel’shtama,” 81–82 Mandelstam’s Soviet critics are quoted in Zholkovsky, “Invarianty,” 171 352 • N O T E S T O C H A P T E R S E V E N • 58 “But the beauty is not the madness,/Tho’ my errors and wrecks lie about me,” Pound mourns near the end of his life and of his life’s work, the Cantos “And I am not a demigod,/I cannot make it cohere” (The Cantos of Ezra Pound [New York: New Directions, 1970], 795–96) 59 Levin, “Zametki, I,” 127 60 The very names of Mandelstam’s clowns send us back to his children’s verses, one of which details the misadventures of two hapless trams, Tram and Klik (we might translate them as Tram and Shriek), as they wander lost through city streets (“Tramvai,” 1925; #406) 61 Nadezhda Mandelstam describes the conditions of their exile—the ceaseless troubles with health, housing, income, and supplies, to say nothing of their shaky status vis-à-vis the Soviet authorities—in painful, painstaking detail in the first volume of her memoirs (Kniga pervaia) Their haphazard housing also provides the subject for several memorable Voronezh lyrics 62 Vtoraia kniga, 145 63 “Noveishaia russkaia poeziia,” 118 64 Lomonosov, “Ia znak bessmertiia sebe vozdvignul,” Izbrannye proizvedeniia (Leningrad: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1986), 255; Derzhavin, “Pamiatnik,” Stikhotvoreniia (Moscow: Sovetskaia Rossiia, 1982), 147–48; Pushkin, “Exegi monumentum,” Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1974), vol 2, 385 65 “Under Ben Bulben,” The Collected Poems of W B Yeats (New York: Macmillan Publishing, 1956), 344 Richard Ellman quotes Pound’s parody in Eminent Domain: Yeats Among Wilde, Joyce, Pound, Eliot and Auden (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), 83 Mandelstam was not the only modernist to transform this tradition in the process of reviving it, although his idiosyncratic anti-monument is the antithesis of the collective memorial that Mayakovsky erects in “At the Top of My Voice” (Vo ves’ golos) : “I don’t give a damn for monumental bronze/ I don’t give a damn for marble slime/ Let socialism, built in battle, be our common monument” (Sochineniia v trekh tomakh, vol [Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1978], 337.) Mandelstam’s poem is, among other things, a reaction against the growth of the monumental, collectivized Soviet culture that Mayakovsky celebrates Akhmatova, who knew only too well that such common monuments have a habit of turning into mass graves, envisions a very different kind of commemoration in the conclusion of her “Requiem” (1940) The poet’s imagined memorial—“If ever in this land they decide/To erect a monument to me”—becomes a collective testament to mass suffering endured under Stalin’s reign of terror in the thirties (Sochineniia, vol 1, 369) Igor Golomstock outlines the evolution of Soviet Russia’s monumental culture generally in Totalitarian Art, 111–12 66 Mandelstam’s elegies to his fellow poet are replete with references to Belyi’s own writings and to his novel Petersburg in particular On Mandelstam and Belyi, see S M Margolina, “O Mandel’shtam i A Belyi: polemika i preestvennost,’ ” Russian Literature, 30-4 (Nov 15, 1991), 431–54; and Andrew Kahn, “Andrei Belyi, Dante and “Golubye glaza i goriachaia lobnaia kost”: Mandel’shtam’s Later Poetics and the Image of the Raznochinets,” Russian Review, vol 53, no (January 1994), 22–35 67 “This is not a literary fact, but an act of suicide,” Pasternak commented, shocked by what he considered the poem’s rash and “unpoetic” accusations • N O T E S T O C H A P T E R S E V E N • 353 (Fleishman, Boris Pasternak: The Poet and His Politics [Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990], 176) It was in fact a little of both Political invective was hardly new to the poet-Jew who emerges in the wake of “Fourth Prose,” and though the Stalin epigram may have been uncharacteristically straightforward for the perpetually evasive Mandelstam, its poetics, or anti-poetics, clearly link it to other strategically unlyrical lyrics of the “Moscow Notebooks.” As to Pasternak’s second claim, the poem did precipitate Mandelstam’s first arrest and set in motion the chain of events that would ultimately lead to his death It is difficult to believe, however, that a poet of Mandelstam’s notoriously volatile temperament would have escaped this fate in any case 68 This pun, left unarticulated, underlies Mandelstam’s own definition of prosody, which comes to us courtesy of his Dante, who “glorif[ies] the human gait, the measure and rhythm of walking, the footstep and its form The step, linked with breathing and saturated with thought, Dante understood as the beginning of prosody” (CPL, 400) 69 I have taken Whitman’s phrase from Mutlu Konuk Blasing, American Poetry: The Rhetoric of Its Forms (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), 121 70 Mandelstam revises a well-known Russian proverb here: “The grave alone will set the hunchback straight (Gorbatogo mogila ispravit).” 71 Jokes, Freud quotes the nineteenth-century German poet and aesthetician Jean Paul Richter 72 Ibid., 37, 33–34, 43–44 73 Ibid., 50; Welsh, Roots of Lyric, 245–47, 165–66 74 Welsh, Roots of Lyric, 158–61 Sigmund Freud, Totem and Taboo, trans James Strachey (New York: Norton, 1950), 54–57, 112 75 Welsh, Roots of Lyric, 145, 19 76 Christopher Benfey, “Lady in the Dark,” New York Review of Books (Mar 26, 1987), 49 77 “Noveishaia russkaia poeziia,” 118 Koltsov also integrated his own name into his poetry, albeit more conventionally, in a rather awkward acrostic he composed at the age of eighteen (“Akrostikh,” in his Polnoe sobranie sochinenii [Leningrad: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1958], 209) 78 Koltsov, Sobranie Sochinenii, 90, 159, 168, 171 79 Ibid., 13–14, 104, 155 See Barry Scherr’s Russian Poetry: Meter, Rhythm, and Rhyme for discussions of the relationship between trinary meters and the Russian folk tradition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 23, 65–66, 87–88 On the increasing use of trimeters in Mandelstam’s late verse, see Boris Gasparov, “”Evoliutsiia metriki Mandel’shtama,” Zhizn i tvorchestvo O E Mandel’shtama, ed S S Averintsev, V M Akatkin, et al (Voronezh: Izdatel’stvo Voronezhskogo universiteta, 1990), 336–45 80 Koltsov, Sobranie Sochinenii, 156, 92 81 Ezra Pound, “The House of Splendor,” in his Selected Poems (New York: New Directions, 1957), 15 82 A more complex version of this pun resurfaces in another late lyric, “Ia videl ozero, stoiashchee otvesno” (#374) 83 According to Akhmatova and Nadezhda Mandelstam, Mandelstam first coined this phrase at a reading at the Voronezh Writers’ Union shortly before composing “Do not compare” (Akhmatova, Sochineniia, vol 2, 185; Nadezhda Mandelstam, Kniga pervaia, 264) 354 • N O T E S T O C H A P T E R E I G H T • CHAPTER EIGHT T S Eliot, The Complete Plays and Poems (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1971), 123, 117 Anna Akhmatova, “Poema bez geroia,” in her Sochineniia, ed G P Struve and B A Filipoff (vols 1, Munich: Interlanguage Literary Associates, 1967–68; vol Paris: YMCA Press, 1983), vol 2, 95–136 On Eliot and Akhmatova, see V N Toporov, “K otzvukam zapadnoevropeiskoi poezii u Akhmatovoi (T S Eliot),” International Journal of Slavic Linguistics and Poetics, 16 (1973), 157–76 Lipking, The Life of the Poet: Beginning and Ending Poetic Careers (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), 67 I use his here advisedly; one of the shortcomings of Lipking’s splendid study is his exclusive reliance on male poets, although the terms of his discussion would prove equally suggestive if applied to the poetic lives of many women writers Though it might be possible to see his magnificent “Verses on the Unknown Soldier” (1937; #362) as a final effort to interpret the ultimate meaning not so much of his life, or his life-in-verse, as of his imminent death at the hands of the Soviet state In this grim and stirring poetic apocalypse, the “unknown soldier,” the “humbled genius of the graves” is authorized by his anonymous demise to address posterity over the heads of his oppressors As such, this sequence has more in common with Akhmatova’s “Requiem” (1935–40)—in which Akhmatova’s own sufferings under Stalin permit her to transcend her own spatially and temporally bounded being and authorize her to speak for “a hundred million” suffering wives and mothers (Sochineniia, vol 1, 369)—than it does with the far more personal and selfreferential “Poem without a Hero.” Nadezhda Mandelstam, Vospominaniia: kniga pervaia (Paris: YMCA Press, 1982), 409 The demise of the Soviet Union has led to a resurgence of interest in the particulars of Mandelstam’s death, as eyewitness accounts and clandestine state documents on his last days gradually come to light E Polianovsky provides the most detailed account of Mandelstam’s arrest and final days in his five-part essay on “The Death of Osip Mandelstam” (Smert’ Osipa Mandel’shtama), which appeared in the newspaper Izvestiia in May of 1992 (May 25–29; Nos 121–125; each installment appears on the third page of the newspaper) For a more recent account of one British journalist’s efforts to retrieve state documents apparently verifying specifics of Mandelstam’s death, see Oliver Walston, “My hunt for Mandelstam,” The Times of London (Wednesday, January 12, 1994), 14–17 I am grateful to Evgeniia Pekker and Caryl Emerson for calling these articles to my attention For several eyewitness accounts of Mandelstam’s last days, see “Novye svidetel’stva o posledniakh dniakh O E Mandel’shtama,” ed Pavel Nerler, in Zhizn’ i tvorchestvo O E Mandel’shtama, 45–52 Walter Benjamin, “The Storyteller,” in his Illuminations (New York: Schocken, 1978), 100 Iurii Tynianov, “O Khlebnikove,” in his Arkhaisty i novatory (Priboi, 1929; rpt Ann Arbor: Ardis Press, 1985), 594 Kniga pervaia, 165 A number of critics have commented on Nadezhda Mandelstam’s christological reading of her husband’s life and writing; and Gregory Freidin in particular has argued that this reading had its beginnings in the Christian myths that gave Mandelstam’s own poetic life its overarching shape (A Coat of Many Colors: Osip Mandelstam and His Mythologies of Self-Presentation [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987]) For a sensitive and acute critique of • N O T E S T O C H A P T E R E I G H T • 355 Nadezhda Mandelstam’s memoirs, see Charles Isenberg, “The Rhetoric of Nadezhda Mandelstam’s Hope Against Hope,” in Autobiographical Statements in Twentieth-Century Russian Literature, ed Jane Gary Harris (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), 193–206 For a satiric, decidedly unscholarly take on Nadezhda Mandelstam as “biographical heretic,” see Danilo Kis’s scathing short story clef, “Red Stamps with Lenin’s Picture,” in his The Encyclopedia of the Dead, trans Michael Henry Heim (New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1989), 175–90 Levin, “Zametki o poezii O Mandel’shtama tridtsatykh godov, II (Stikhi o neizvestnom soldate),” Slavica Hierosolymitana, (1979), 158 The phrase is Jennifer Baines’s, from Mandelstam: The Later Poetry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 235 See Nadezhda Mandelstam, Kniga tret’ia (Paris: YMCA Press, 1987), 263 10 Nikita Struve, Osip Mandel’shtam (London: Overseas Publications Interchange Ltd, 1988), 275 Struve is careful to inform us in his study’s preface that his work has received the imprimatur of Nadezhda Mandelstam herself, and his interpretations of the poet’s life and writing betray the influence of his mentor throughout 11 Baines, Mandelstam, 235; Jane Gary Harris, Osip Mandelstam (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1988), 145 Apart from its conclusion, Harris’s admirably lucid and balanced overview of Mandelstam’s work bears little in common with Baines’s and Struve’s studies, both of which operate in the shadow of Nadezhda Mandelstam’s reading of Mandelstam’s life and writing 12 Lipking, Life of the Poet, 93, 114 13 S S Averintsev, “Sud’ba i vest’ Osipa Mandel’shtama,” in Osip Mandelstam, Sochineniia v dvukh tomakh (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1990), vol 1, 7, 32, 60 T S Eliot, Complete Plays and Poems, 145 14 Even Averintsev, who describes this open-ended poetics so astutely, feels obliged in closing to place the appropriate period at the end of Mandelstam’s career He describes “To the empty earth” and similar late lyrics as “closing the circle begun long ago with Mandelstam’s youthful poems on Golgotha.” The passion play once again proceeds to its forgone conclusion (“Sud’ba i vest’,” 61) 15 An avid practitioner of biographical heresies, Jennifer Baines follows Nadezhda Mandelstam’s lead with a vengeance in her literal-minded pursuit of prototypes and real-life referents as keys to reading “The buds smell of sticky vows,” among other poems (The Later Poetry, 230–31) 16 Nadezhda Mandelstam informs us that the final version of this poem consisted of only the second and fifth stanzas (Kniga tret’ia, 262) For the purposes of my discussion, however, I draw on all six stanzas preserved in the Filipoff/Struve edition of the poetry Mandel’shtam had linked Egypt’s monumental splendor with the Soviet state early on; see his remarks on Egyptian social architecture and the modern age in “Humanism and the Present” (1923; CPL, 181–83) 17 See, for example, Levin, “Zametki o poezii O Mandel’shtama tridtsatykh godov, II,” 157 18 There are minor textual differences in these poems as they appear in the three editions I have consulted: Filipoff and Struve; Sochineniia v dvukh tomakh, vol 1, ed P M Nerler, 245–46, 313; and Mandelstam,Voronezhskie tetradi, ed V Shveitser (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1980), 87–88, 130 I have followed the Filipoff/ Struve variant for the most part, although the last line of “Charlie Chaplin” seems more persuasive to me in the Nerler edition, and I have reproduced it accordingly 356 • N O T E S T O C H A P T E R E I G H T • 19 Chaplin was the subject of a collection entitled Chaplin: Sbornik statei, which appeared in Berlin in 1923 Neia Zorkaia quotes Tynianov’s remarks in her two-part article “Mandel’shtam o kinematografe” (Iskusstvo kino [1988], 10–19; and [1988], 82–95), II, 85 Zorkaia also cites Nadezhda Mandelstam’s remarks on her husband’s enthusiasm for Chaplin and “City Lights” (II, 84) I want to thank Liudmila Pruner for calling this article to my attention For “Cinemania” (Kinopovetrie), see Vladimir Mayakovsky, Sobranie sochinenii v vos’mi tomakh (Moscow: Pravda, 1968), vol 3, 249–51 Akhmatova mentions Chaplin both in her late lyric “Drugie uvodiat liubimykh” and in the opening lines of her unfinished memoirs (Sochineniia, vol 3, 75, 145) Mandelstam himself refers to Chaplin elsewhere only once: in an essay on the Berezil Theater Company, he describes the troupe’s “triumphant” transformation of “raw ‘Chaplinism’ ” into comic art (CPL, 258) 20 On Chaplin and modern Western poetry, see, inter alia, Maurice Nadeau, The History of Surrealism (trans Richard Howard [Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989], 139; F O Matthiessen, The Achievement of T S Eliot (New York: Oxford University Press, 1959), 156; and David Kalstone, Becoming a Poet: Elizabeth Bishop with Marianne Moore and Robert Lowell (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1989), 96 21 Arendt, “The Jew as Pariah: A Hidden Tradition,” in The Jew as Pariah: Jewish Identity and Politics in the Modern Age, ed Ron Feldman (New York: Grove Press, 1978), 67–90, 79 Arendt’s inclusion of Chaplin in her list of Jewish pariahs is less perplexing when we recall that Chaplin was frequently described as Jewish by contemporary journalists, though there is apparently no evidence that he did have Jewish ancestry Chaplin seems to have taken some pride in this mistaken identity, to judge from his response to one journalist’s question in 1921: “All great geniuses have Jewish blood in them I am sure there must be some somewhere in me I hope so” (quoted in David Robinson, Chaplin: His Life and Art [New York: McGraw-Hill, 1985], 154–55) 22 Arendt, “Jew as Pariah,” 79–80 23 I V Sokolov, Charli Chaplin : Zhizn’ i tvorchestvo (Moscow: Goskinoizdat, 1938), 97 24 Acoustically these three loci of highbrow culture seem to serve chiefly as a build-up to the climactic “Charlie” who is a punning synthesis of all that has gone before him: A teper’ v Parizhe, v Shartre, v Arle / Gosudarit dobryi Chaplin Charli 25 Theodor Adorno, “Lyric Poetry and Society,” Telos, No 20 (Summer 1974), 58 26 See Harris, Mandelstam, 142, for a more detailed discussion of this lyric 27 We may follow Nadezhda Mandelstam’s lead and attempt to end the carousel’s spinning once and for all by locating a real-life prototype She argues that the poem’s attractive, elusive French female is Romain Rolland’s wife Maia Kudasheva, who visited Moscow in 1937, although, as Nadezhda Mandelstam admits, “I don’t recall her having a lisp” (Kniga tret’ia, 246) See Jennifer Baines for an attempt to interpret this poem in light of this biographical data (The Later Poetry, 204–6) 28 Averintsev, “Sud’ba i vest’ Osipa Mandel’shtama,” 64 Baines insists that Mandelstam’s last Moscow poems were weak at best, and that we should end our consideration of his verse with “To the empty earth” (#394), which is “in effect,” if not in fact, “Mandelstam’s last word” (The Later Poetry, 234–35) 29 It had earlier appeared in a slightly different version, and in far less discon- • N O T E S T O C H A P T E R E I G H T • 357 certing company, in the Filipoff/Struve edition of Mandelstam Gregory Freidin concludes his study of Mandelstam with a provocative discussion of the “Ode” and its place in Mandelstam’s late work (Coat of Many Colors, 222–73) For the other Stalinist lyrics, see Nerler, ed., Sochineniia v dvukh tomakh, vol 1, 314–16 In the first volume of her memoirs, Nadezhda Mandelstam mentions a certain “sentimental Stalinist,” Liliia Popova, who tried to reeducate Mandelstam in the spirit of the times (Kniga pervaia, 237–38) To judge by the evidence of the last lyrics, her efforts bore some success; she is, according to Averintsev, the enchanting stalinistka to whom Mandelstam dedicates several of his final poems (“Sud’ba i vest’,” 62) For a very different reading of the Stalin Ode and Mandelstam’s “Stalin verses” generally, see Irina Mess-Beier, “Ezopov iazyk v poezii Mandel’shtama 30-x godov,” Russian Literature, vol 29-3 (April 1991), 243–393 30 Sochineniia v dvukh tomakh, vol 1, 316 31 Eisenstein, “Charlie the Kid,” 119, 120–22 Eisenstein’s essay does not represent his own views on Chaplin’s art; rather, it gives us the Stalinist era’s party line on Chaplin and “decadent” Western cinema generally, and this is precisely its value for my argument Eisenstein was an early admirer of the comedian’s films, and this was the sin that “Charlie the Kid” in his Film Essays and a Lecture, ed and trans Jay Leyda (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982), 108–38, here was intended to rectify It was Eisenstein’s desperate bid to avoid Stalin’s postwar efforts to purge “rootless cosmopolitans” (read “Jewish intellectuals”) from positions of power within the Soviet establishment “In cinema,” Richard Stites notes, “Eisenstein and other prominent film people—most of them Jewish—were punished or made to confess errors and sins against the people, including excessive admiration for Griffiths and Chaplin” (Russian Popular Culture: Entertainment and Society since 1900 [Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992], 117) 32 Eisenstein, “Charlie,” 129 33 And this “frivolous” children’s verse is in turn more serious than it seems; its techniques and themes anticipate tendencies in the later poetry in ways that merit further exploration On the infantile poetics at work in “Charlie Chaplin” and the late poetry generally, see Iurii Levin, “Zametki o poezii O Mandel’shtama tridtsatykh godov, I,” Slavica Hierosolymitana, (1978), 127 34 Freidin, Coat of Many Colors, 40 This page intentionally left blank • I N Acmeism, 5, 6, 7, 9, 34, 35, 36, 47, 48, 54, 59–65, 67–68, 70, 74, 76, 82, 85–86, 88, 90–94, 97, 99–101, 107, 155, 166–67, 179, 208, 219, 228, 229, 259, 264, 278, 294, 315n.17, 323n.53, 351n.55 Adamism, 61–65, 67–68, 82–83, 86, 88, 90– 93, 97–99, 323n.50 Adorno, Theodor, 292; “Lyric Poetry and Society,” 292 Akhmatova, Anna, 5, 9, 10, 55, 114, 155, 217, 229, 266, 279–80, 290, 314n.12, 315n.17, 323n.50, 354n.3; “Poem without a Hero” (Poema bez geroia), 279, 354n.3; “Prehistory” (Predystoriia), 318n.51; “Requiem” (Rekviem), 352n.65, 354n.3 Alter, Robert, 193–94 Annensky, Innokentii, 10 Ansky, Semën Akimych, 196 Apollinaire, Guillaume, 8, 52, 248; “Futurist Anti-Tradition,” 52 Apollon, 59, 61, 70, 98 Arendt, Hannah, 203, 290–91, 299, 356n.21; “The Jew as Pariah,” 290–91 Ariosto, Lodovico, 214, 218 Auden, W H., 193 Augustus, Caesar, 184 Averintsev, S S., 283, 315n.13, 355n.14 Babel, Isaac, 110, 199 Baines, Jennifer, 282, 350n.39, 355n.15 Bainton, Roland, 72 Bakhtin, Mikhail, 52, 56, 57, 84–85, 88–90, 124, 328n.56; Rabelais and His World, 57, 84 Balmont, Konstantin, 32–33 Baratynsky, Evgenii, 10, 234 Batiushkov, Konstantin, 24 Baudelaire, Charles, 36, 247–48, 351n.55 Baumgarten, Murray, 111 Belinsky, Vissarion, Bell, Daniel, 110 Belyi, Andrei (Boris Bugaev), 114, 148, 235, 261–62, 294, 345n.36; Gogol’s Mastery (Masterstvo Gogolia), 261–62 Benjamin, Walter, 193–94, 219, 247–48, 280 Bergson, Henri, 83, 190 D E X • Berkovsky, Nikolai, 29 Bishop, Elizabeth, 290 Blake, William, 113 Blok, Aleksandr, 105, 114, 124, 148, 345n.36 Bloom, Harold, 12, 41, 65, 98–99, 101, 321n.22 Bowra, C M., 172 Breton, André, 248, 290 Brod, Max, 206 Brodsky, Joseph, 78; “Flight from Byzantium,” 78 Brown, Clarence, 34, 41, 156, 168, 199, 314n.13, 337n.22 Broyde, Stephen, 167, 168, 188, 337n.22, 341n.68 Bukharin, Nikolai, 218, 220 Burliuk, David, 217 Calinescu, Matei, Catullus, 26, 100, 163, 186, 187 Celan, Paul, 193; Die Niemandsrose, 193 Chaadaev, Petr, 15, 16, 17, 26, 33, 51, 52, 112, 119, 200, 240, 326n.35 Chaplin, Charlie, 9, 286–303, 356nn.19 and 21, 357n.31; City Lights, 290–92, 301–2; Modern Times, 291, 296, 301 Chénier, André, 51 Chukovsky, Kornei, 10; “Akhmatova and Mayakovsky” (Akhmatova i Maiakovskii), 10 Clark, Katerina, 124 Constantine, Emperor, 73 Crane, Hart, 290 Cuddihy, John Murray, 212 Dante Alighieri, 16, 17, 19, 25, 28, 53, 90, 93, 200, 210–14, 216, 220, 226, 240, 245, 247, 273–78, 283, 317n.33, 345n.37; Divine Comedy, 17, 22, 46, 90, 200, 210–11, 216, 274, 278 de Coster, Charles, 201; La Légende d’Uylenspiegel, 201 Deich, A., 32 Delauney, Robert, 295 Deleuze, Gilles, 344n.28 Derzhavin, Gavriil, 260; “Monument” (Pamiatnik), 260 360 • I N D E X Deutscher, Isaac, 145 Dickinson, Emily, 269 Dostoevsky, Fedor, 157, 197, 270 Duchamp, Marcel, 226 Eastman, Max, 218 Eikhenbaum, Boris, 11–12, 62, 233, 323n.53 Eisenstein, Sergei, 297–99, 357n.31; “Charlie the Kid” (Charli malysh), 297–98, 357n.31 Eliot, T S., 9, 15–30, 50, 52, 58, 60, 66, 96, 99–100, 114, 143, 216, 241, 243, 244, 245, 279–80, 283, 290, 314n.12, 317n.33; “Burnt Norton,” 279; “East Coker,” 279; Four Quartets, 279; “Little Gidding,” 283; “The Love Song of J Alfred Prufrock,” 244; “Philip Massinger,” 16; “Preludes,” 245; The Sacred Wood, 15, 17; “Tradition and the Individual Talent,” 16, 19, 99–100; The Waste Land, 22, 143 Ellman, Richard, 5–6, Eluard, Paul, 290 Erofeev, Benedikt, 242; Moscow Circles (Moskva-Petushki), 242 Esenin, Sergei, 114, 148, 203, 249 Euripides, 140; Hippolytus, 140 Fedorov, Nikolai, 149 Feidelson, Charles, 5–6, First Soviet Writers’ Congress, 218, 220 Fleming, William, 82–84 Fonvizin, Denis, 252; The Minor (Nedorosl’), 252 Ford, Ford Madox, 19 Formalism, 12, 290, 351n.52 Freidin, Gregory, 6–7, 11, 38, 120–21, 137, 202, 314–15n.13, 319n.5, 334n.66, 357n.29 Freud, Sigmund, 224, 225, 229, 230, 233, 265–66, 350n.33; Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious, 224, 265–66 Froula, Christine, 23 Frye, Northrop, 91–92, 213, 339–40n.52; Anatomy of Criticism, 91 Futurism, 5–6, 9, 52, 63,148, 154, 208, 217, 218, 226, 228, 248, 259, 270, 323n.53, 348n.19, 351n.52 Gautier, Théophile, 28, 60 Gilman, Sander, 202, 206–7; Jewish SelfHatred, 206–7 • Ginzburg, Lydia, 219, 220, 223, 227, 319n.6 Gippius, Vladimir, 11 Gippius, Zinaida, 105 Glazova, Marina, 345n.37 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 106, 108, 149, 231 Gogol, Nikolai, 197, 326n.32; “On the Middle Ages” (O srednikh vekakh), 326n.32 Gordon, Milton, 111 Gorky, Maksim (Aleksei Peshkov), 149 Gornfeld, A G., 201, 202 Gorodetsky, Sergei, 60–63, 208, 323n.50; “Adam,” 61–62 Grimal, Pierre, 174 Guattari, Giles, 344n.28 Gumilev, Nikolai, 9, 59–65, 87, 314n.12, 323–24n.60; “The Life of Verse” (Zhizn’ stikha), 61–62, 68; “The Precepts of Symbolism and Acmeism” (Zavety simvolizma i akmeizm), 59–62 Harris, Jane Gary, 50, 282, 355n.11 Hayward, Max, 249 Heaney, Seamus, 210 Hegel, Georg, 332n.44 Heine, Heinrich, 208, 232, 291, 342n.3, 350n.33 Holquist, Michael, 124 Homer, 19, 24–25, 28; Iliad, 25, 43; Odyssey, 23, 167 Horace, 260 Iakhontov, Vladimir, 197–99 Ivanov, Viacheslav, 124, 127, 133, 248, 250, 325n.22, 328n.56; “The Ideology of the Jewish Question” (K ideologii evreiskogo voprosa), 127 Jabès, Edmond, 111 Jakobson, Roman, 5, 9, 11, 20, 32, 154–55, 218–19, 259, 270 James, Henry, 16 Johnson, Paul, 124–25 Justinian, Emperor, 72–78, 80, 84, 167, 325n.15 Kablukov, Sergei, 334n.64 Kafka, Franz, 193–94, 206, 291, 344n.28, 346n.42 Kahler, Heinz, 71, 74, 77 Keats, John, “Ode on a Grecian Urn,” 274 Kenner, Hugh, 20–21, 53, 108 • I N D E X Kerensky, Aleksandr, 153–54 Khlebnikov, Velimir (Viktor Khlebnikov), 148, 154–55, 217, 270; “On Poetry” (O stikhakh), 154 Kliuev, Nikolai, 148 Koltsov, Aleksei, 268–73; “The Falcon’s Meditation” (Duma sokola), 270–72; “The Road” (Put’), 272; “What Do I Mean?” (Chto ia znachu?), 272 Kruchenykh, Aleksei, 217 Küchelbecker, Wilhelm, 290 Kurke, Leslie, 184 Kuzmin, Mikhail, 60, 62; “On Beautiful Clarity” (O prekrasnoi iasnosti), 60 Lamarck, Jean Baptiste, 230 Lattimore, Richmond, 175 Lawrence, D H., Lazare, Bernard, 291 Lenin, Vladimir (Vladimir Ulianov), 148, 149, 168, 169, 198, 217, 232, 251, 335n.4 Lentricchia, Frank, 27 Lermontov, Mikhail, 349–50n.31; “I go out along the road” (Vykhozhu odin ia na dorogu), 349n.31; “A Prayer” (Molitva), 349n.31 Levin, Iurii, 8, 219, 220, 221, 225, 240–41, 253, 281, 299, 315n.21 Lipking, Lawrence, 233, 279–80, 282, 319n.5, 354n.2 Literary Gazette (Literaturnaia gazeta), 225 Livshchits, Benedikt, 217 Lomonosov, Mikhail, 260 Lunacharsky, Anatolii, 148, 149 Lvov–Rogachevsky, V., History of Russian Jewish Literature, 111 Macpherson, James, 96, 328n.58 Mallarmé, Stéphane, 36, 190 Mandelstam, Nadezhda, 10, 50, 60, 70, 131, 136–37, 143–44, 156, 180, 193, 194, 195, 200, 205, 218, 229, 236, 249, 257, 259, 280–82, 283, 314n.12, 315n.17, 317n.33, 323n.53, 348nn.16 and 22, 350n.39, 354n.6, 355nn.15 and 16, 356n.27 Mandelstam, Osip Emilievich: and Acmeism, 5–7, 34–36, 48, 59–65, 67–68, 70, 74, 76, 82, 85–86, 88, 90–94, 97, 99–101, 107, 166–67, 179, 219, 228, 229, 248, 264, 278, 294, 326n.32; and Akhmatova, 10, 63, 229, 266, 315n.17, 354n.3; and • 361 Anglo-American modernism, 8–9, 15–28, 52–54, 316n.23; and architecture, 71– 102; arrest and exile, 215, 264–68, 271– 72, 275–78, 346–47n.1, 352n.61; and the avant–garde, 217, 248, 351n.55; and Belyi, 235, 261–62, 294; and Byzantium, 55, 72–81, 96, 102, 125; and Chaplin, 286–303; and Christianity, 49, 66–104, 112–14, 116–17, 121–24, 127–28, 131– 36, 138, 141–42, 144, 200, 234, 324n.5, 333n.49, 342n.7; conversion of, 105, 114, 324n.5; death of, 302, 354n.4, 379–85; the Eulenspiegel affair, 201; and family, 31–32, 36, 45, 108–10, 112–13, 119, 131–33, 136–39, 141–42, 194; and Formalism, 12, 290, 351n.52; and Futurism, 63, 208, 217, 218, 226, 228, 248, 259, 270, 351n.52; and Gumilev, 59–65; and Hellenism, 21, 24–25, 43, 82, 90–93, 101–2, 112, 114, 116, 123–45, 147–52, 155, 158, 161–68, 170–74, 176, 178–79, 182, 185–86, 188, 196–97, 201, 226–28, 231, 249, 328n.56, 331n.41, 334n.68, 335n.1, 339–40n.52; and Jewishness, 27, 36, 45, 49, 71, 96, 98, 104–45, 191, 193– 214, 217, 230, 232, 240, 245–48, 257– 58, 290–91, 332n.48, 334n.64, 342n.3, 344n.28, 345n.33, 349n.29; and Marxism, 146–53, 164, 170, 178–79; and Orthodoxy, 80–81, 124, 326n.29; poem– jokes, 220–32; poetics of eternal return, 7– 8, 48, 163; poetics of insignificance, 215– 78 (esp 216–18); poetics of proper names, 97–99, 174–75, 227–30, 257–72, 278, 341n.69; and the revolution, 31, 114, 130–31, 148–57, 162–65, 168, 195, 236, 339n.43; and Stalin, 17–18, 27, 216–18 (see also [Works Cited:] “Stalin Epigram” and “Stalin Ode”); subtextual criticism of, 8; and Symbolism, 30–34, 36, 38, 41, 43, 51–52, 54–56, 60–63, 65, 68, 80, 91, 104–6, 241 —books of poems cited: “Moscow Notebooks” (Moskovskie tetradi), 213, 215, 218, 224, 240, 245, 247–48, 257–59, 262–63, 353n.67; Poems (Stikhotvoreniia), 163; Stone (Kamen’), 32–34, 36, 40, 45, 49, 55, 58, 63–65, 67, 70, 87, 94– 96, 99, 104, 106, 111, 114, 118, 123, 139, 140, 147, 165, 174, 218, 220, 225, 226, 229, 240, 296, 319–20n.8, 327n.47; Tristia, 104, 111, 120, 123–24, 128, 130, 132, 138–40, 144–45, 162, 165, 174, 362 • I N D E X Mandelstam, Osip Emilievich (cont.) 219, 220, 226–29, 282, 342n.7; “VoronezhNotebooks” (Voronezhskie tetradi), 8, 147, 215, 218, 224, 232, 242, 245, 257–58, 262–63, 274, 282, 284, 297, 300 —individual poems cited: “The Admiralty” (Admiralteistvo), 76–78, 166, 325n.23; “The Age” (Vek), 150, 180, 182, 340n.57; “Aleksandr Gertsovich,” 221– 32; “As I’d ask for charity and mercy” (Ia proshu, kak zhalosti i milosti), 286–90, 292–97, 300; “The bread is poisoned and the air’s been drunk” (Otravlen khleb i vozdukh vypit), 118–19; “The buds smell of sticky vows” (Kleikoi kliatvoi pakhnut pochkoi), 284; “Canzonet” (Kantsona), 112, 195–96; “Charlie Chaplin” (Charli Chaplin), 286–90, 296–303; “The cloudy air is damp and resonant” (Vozdukh pasmyrnyi vlazhen i gulok), 49, 121; “Concert at the Railway Station” (Kontsert na vokzale), 231, 349–50n.31; “Do not compare” (Ne sravnivai), 273– 78; “Falling is fear’s faithful companion” (Paden’e—neizmennyi sputnik strakha), 116; “From an evil, miry pond” (Iz omuta zlogo i viazkogo), 44–48, 104, 122; “Hagia Sophia” (Aiia Sophiia), 59, 67–71, 76–82, 325n.23; “The Horseshoe Finder” (Nashedshii podkovu), 158–92, 198, 217, 227, 337n.22; “How the splendor of these veils” (Kak etikh pokryval), 140–42; “I drink to military asters” (Ia p’iu za voennye astry), 224, 248–51, 253; “I have not heard the tales of Ossian” (Ia ne slykhal rasskazov Ossiana), 13, 15, 29, 74, 95–96, 186; “I have not yet died” (Eshche ne umer ia), 275; “I’ll give it to you absolutely straight” (Ia skazhu tebe s poslednei priamotoi), 221–32, 246–50; “Implacable words” (Neytolimye slova), 104, 120–23, 131; “I’m still nothing like a patriarch” (Eshche daleko mne patriarcha), 224, 227, 236–45, 250–53; “I’m stuck around Koltsov” (Ia okolo Kol’tsova), 263, 268– 73, 275; “In the vast pond it’s transparent and dark” (V ogromnom omute prozrachno i temno), 44–48, 132, 144; “I’ve become afraid of living life out” (Mne stalo strashno zhizn’ otzhit’), 35, 114–17, 131, 136; “I’ve been given a body––what should I with it” (Dano mne telo––chto mne delat’ s nim), 37–38, 58, 67; “I will not see the famous Phèdre” (Ia ne uvizhu • znamenitoi “Fedry”), 95; “January 1, l924” (1 ianvaria 1924), 191, 340n.57; “Leningrad,” 224; “Midnight in Moscow” (Polnoch’ v Moskve), 224, 236–45, 251, 254–55, 350n.47; “Not as a mealy white butterfly” (Ne muchnistoi babochkoiu beloi), 264; “Notre Dame,” 59, 67–70, 72–73, 78, 81–103, 134, 147, 166, 175, 219, 229, 292–96, 325n.23; “The pear and cherry trees took aim at me” (Na menia natselilas’ grusha, da cheremukha), 283–84; “The Piano” (Roial’, 1926), 254; “The Piano” (Roial’, 1931), 235; “Return to the incestuous womb” (Vernis’ v smesitel’noe lono), 120, 128–31, 135–40; “Set me free, let me be, Voronezh” (Pusti menia, otdai menia, Voronezh), 265–68, 270, 272; “Shell” (Rakovina), 67; “Silentium,” 41–44, 46–47, 57–58; “Sisters— heaviness and tenderness” (Sestry— tiazhest’ i nezhnost’), 123; “Sky blue eyes and burning brow bone” (Golubye glaza i goriashchaia lobnaia kost’), 235, 261–62; “Slate Ode” (Grifel’naia oda), 57, 106, 112, 123, 191, 233; “Sleeplessness Homer Taut sails” (Bessonnitsa Gomer Tugie parusa), 24, 138, 225; “So that the friend of wind and raindrops” (Chtob priiatel’ i vetra i kapel’), 284–86; “The sound, cautious and muted” (Zvuk ostorozhnyi i glukhoi), 34–36; “Stalin epigram” (My zhivem, pod soboiu ne chuia strany), 263, 353n.67; “Stalin Ode,” 297, 357n.29; “Stanzas” (Stansy, l937), 297, 300; “There are chaste charms” (Est’ tselomudrennye chary), 39–41; “There’s nothing to talk about” (Ni o chem ne nuzhno govorit’), 42, 58; “This night is irreparable” (Eto noch’ nepopravima), 120, 128–35; “To the empty earth” ( K pustoi zemle), 281–85; “Today you can make decals” (Segodnia mozhno sniat’ dekal’komanii), 224, 236–45, 251–57, 293; “Tristia,” 7, 23, 135; “The Twilight [Dawn] of Freedom” (Sumerki svobody), 155, 168–89, 173; “Verses on the Unknown Soldier” (Stikhi o neizvestnom soldate), 171, 293–94, 354n.3; “We’ll sit together in the kitchen” (My s toboi na kukhne posidim), 240, 299; “We will meet again in Petersburg” (V Peterburge my soidemsia snova), 227, 282; “What street is this?” (Eta, kakaia ulitsa?), 204–5, 258– 60; “When the grasses of mosaics droop” • I N D E X (Kogda mozaik niknut travy), 103–5; “Where can I vanish in this January?” (Kuda mne det’sia v etom ianvare?), 263; “Where’d they get him from?” (Otkuda privezli?), 261–62; “Why is the soul so songful” (Otchego dusha tak pevucha), 98; “Wild cat, Armenian speech” (Dikaia koshka, armianskaia rech’), 225; “With a smoking torch I enter” (Ia s dymiashchei luchinoi vkhozhu), 256–57; “With the world of power” (S mirom derzhavnym), 224; “A young Levite among the priests” (Sredi sviashchennikov levitom molodym), 120, 128–31, 135, 143–44; “You’ve deprived me of seas, running starts, and departures” (Lishiv menia morei, razbega i razleta), 263–64 —prose cited: “Badger Hole” (Barsuch’ia nora), 11, 60, 163; “Conversation about Dante” (Razgovor o Dante), 22, 28, 41, 46, 72, 90, 93, 111, 119, 200, 210–14, 216, 226, 240, 245, 264, 315n.21, 328n.60, 344n.24; “The Egyptian Stamp” (Egipetskaia marka), 106, 198–201, 203, 217, 230, 234, 246–47; “The End of the Novel” (Konets romana), 14; “Fourth Prose” (Chetvertaia proza), 35, 106, 111, 139, 156, 191–92, 194, 200–11, 213, 215–18, 224–25, 231–33, 240, 241, 247, 256, 257–58, 263, 290, 328n.60, 344nn.24 and 28, 353n.67; Franỗois Villon (Fransua Villon), 32, 3738, 41, 4959, 64, 75, 82–83, 87, 132, 134, 170, 201, 240; “Government and Rhythm” (Gosudarstvo i ritm), 147; “Human Wheat” (Pshennitsa chelovecheskaia), 12, 147, 151; “Humanism and the Present” (Gumanizm i sovremennost’), 14, 87, 147, 150–53, 158, 161, 162, 171, 178, 179, 337n.22; “Iakhontov,” 196–99; “On the Interlocutor” (O sobesednike), 33, 54, 56, 243; “Journey to Armenia” (Puteshestvie v Armeniiu), 251, 263; “Kiev” (Kiev), 196; “A Letter on Russian Poetry” (Pis’mo o russkoi poezii), 33; “Literary Moscow” (Literaturnaia Moskva), 8, 64, 233; “Literary Moscow: The Birth of Plot” (Literaturnaia Moskva: Rozhdeniia fabuly), 206; “Mikhoels,” 196–99, 209; “The Morning of Acmeism” (Utro akmeizma), 33, 47, 49, 51, 60–64, 68, 85–86, 88, 189, 234, 292; “On the Nature of the Word” (O prirode slova), 20–21, 40, 63, 68, 80, 91, 94, 107, 110, • 363 145, 147, 185, 189, 199–200, 209, 213, 226; “The Nineteenth Century” (Deviatnadtsatyi vek), 14, 29; The Noise of Time (Shum vremeni), 7, 29–31, 45, 105– 11, 113, 117, 119, 142, 145, 146, 196, 207, 209, 211, 345n.33; “Petr Chaadaev,” 15, 51, 55, 119, 131, 142; “Pushkin and Skriabin” (Pushkin i Skriabin), 5, 55, 71, 93, 96, 113, 116, 120–21, 123–24, 128, 131, 138–39, 141–42, 144, 147, 328n.60, 330n.18, 332n.48, 333n.49, 340n.57; “Remarks on Chènier” (Zametki o Shen’e), 21, 51, 180; “Storm and Stress” (Buria i natisk), 187; “Theodosia” (Feodosiia), 196–97; “The Word and Culture” (Slovo i kul’tura), 19, 26, 94, 100–2, 128, 139, 147–48, 150–52, 161, 163–65, 177, 185–86, 220, 245, 294 Margolin, Iulii, 208, 350n.47 Margulis, Aleksandr, 229 Markov, Vladimir, 208 Marx, Karl, 149, 182 Mayakovsky, Vladimir, 10, 83, 114, 148, 149, 150, 155, 217, 241, 248, 264, 290, 352n.65; “At the Top of My Voice” (Vo ves’ golos), 352n.65; “Cinemania” (Kinopovetrie), 290; “Notre Dame,” 83 Megill, Allan, 111 Mikhoels, Solomon, 197–99 modernism, Anglo-American See under Mandelstam, Osip Emilievich Muller, Herbert, 72, 324n.7 NEP (New Economic Policy), 155–57, 164, 169, 191 Nicholls, Peter, 190 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 67, 71, 97, 126, 190; The Gay Science, 97; The Will to Power, 126 Oksenov, I., 32 Orshansky, I G., 109; The Jews in Russia, 109 Ovid, 23, 26, 55, 100, 163, 165, 184, 186 Pascal, Blaise, 46, 122 Pasternak, Boris, 29–30, 110, 217, 330nn.15 and 18, 333n.50, 342n.3, 345n.34, 352– 53n.67; Doctor Zhivago, 330nn.15 and 18; Safe Conduct (Okhrannaia gramota), 29– 30 Paul, St., 71, 134, 281 Péguy, Charles, 4, Peter I, Tsar (Peter the Great), 76–77, 87, 107, 167–68, 252 364 • I N D E X Pindar,163–68, 171, 172–78, 182–84, 187, 188, 338nn.29 and 35; Isthmian 2, 183; Isthmian 8, 164; Nemean 5, 173; Nemean 8, 175; Olympian 6, 173, 175; Olympian 9, 172; Pythian 11, 173 Platonov, Andrei, 149 Poggioli, Renato, Pound, Ezra, 9, 15–28, 52–54, 185–86, 188–89, 190–91, 241, 251, 261, 272, 314n.12, 318n.51, 333n.50; Canto I, 23, 25; Cantos, 17, 23; “Histrion,” 25, 185– 86; “Hugh Selwyn Mauberly,” 15; “Montcorbier, alias Villon,” 53–54; The Spirit of Romance, 19, 52; “Towards Orthology,” 190–91 Pushkin, Aleksandr, 10, 26, 40, 77, 100, 107, 108, 109, 117, 154, 163, 186–87, 197, 259–60, 270, 273 ;“The Bookseller’s Conversation with the Poet” (Razgovor knigoprodavtsa s poetom), 154; “The Bronze Horseman” (Mednyi vsadnik), 77, 107; “Exegi monumentum,” 256–60; “The Prophet” (Prorok), 117 Rabelais, Franỗois, 60 Racine, Jean, 140; Phốdre, 140 Red Militiaman (Krasnyi militsioner ), 155 Red Virgin Soil (Krasnaia nov’),175 Reed, John, 218 Regalado, Nancy Freeman, 53 Rimbaud, Arthur, 226, 351n.55 Ronen, Omry, 8, 45, 103, 133, 137, 229, 320n.16, 339n.49 Rozanov, Vasilii, 200 Russell, Charles, Said, Edward, 50 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 234 Saussure, Ferdinand de, 190 Scholem, Gershom, 193–94 Schubert, Franz, 230–32, 263 Segal, Dmitrii, Selvinsky, Ilia, 247 Shakespeare, William, 28, 53, 60, 108, 294 Shell, Marc, 190 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 154 Shklovsky, Viktor, 12, 290, 351n.52 Shtempel, Natasha, 281, 284 Sieburth, Richard, 185 Simmel, Georg, 111; “The Stranger,” 111 Sinani, Boris, 196 Sinyavsky, Andrei, 218 • Smith, Sir William, 174 socialist realism, 218, 291 See also Bukharin; Gorky; First Soviet Writers’ Congress Sokolov, I V , 291 Soloviev, Vladimir, 80–81, 326n.29 Southey, Robert, 40; “Hymn to the Penates,” 40 Stalin, Joseph, 18, 27, 154, 191, 216–18, 220, 234, 276, 280, 297–98, 301–2, 352n See also Stalinism Stalinism, 280, 282, 297–98, 302, 357nn.29 and 31 Steiner, Peter, 82 Stevens, Wallace, 107, 241, 290 Stites, Richard, 148 Stölz, Christoph, 344n.28 Struve, Nikita, 282, 355n.10 Surrealism, 226, 348n.19 Symbolism, 5, 30–34, 36, 38, 41, 43, 51–52, 54–56, 60–63, 65, 68, 104–6, 148, 242, 323n.53 Taranovsky, Kiril, 8, 45, 200, 334n.66 Terras, Victor, 40 Tibullus, 24 Tiutchev, Fedor, 33, 35–36, 39, 41–43, 46, 68, 107, 122, 270, 319n.7; “Day and Night” (Den’ i noch’), 107; “Silentium,” 41–43 Tolstoy, Lev, 9, 12 Tomashevsky, Boris, 29 Trotsky, Leon, 10, 148–49, 152, 163, 189, 217, 232; “The Formalist School of Poetry,” 10, 155; “Literary ‘Fellow Travelers,’ ” 155; Literature and Revolution (Literatura i revoliutsiia),149, 152–53 Tsvetaeva, Marina, 34–35, 193, 202; “Poem of the End” (Poema kontsa), 193 Turgenev, Ivan, 16 Tynianov, Iurii, 11–12, 179, 218, 219, 220, 227, 280, 290, 315n.21; Archaists and Innovators (Archaisty i novatory), 12 Valéry, Paul, 13, 59 Veidle, Vladimir, 249 Vengerova, Zinaida, 314n.12 Verlaine, Paul, 39, 41, 51, 244, 351n.55 Villon, Franỗois, 16, 25, 2728, 3738, 41, 48, 4959, 6465, 67, 71–72, 74, 83–84, 86, 88, 91, 99, 112, 132, 134, 147, 248, 273, 284–86, 292; “Ballade des pendus, ” 284; Ballades, 54; Petit and Grand Testaments, 53–54, 59 • I N D E X Wagner, Richard, 119–20, 207–8, 230, 345n.36; “Jews in Music,” 119, 208, 230, 345n.36 Waxman, Meyer, 111 ; History of Jewish Literature, 111 Weininger, Otto, 200; Sex and Character, 200 Wells, H G., 149 Welsh, Andrew, 228, 265–67, 270 Whitman, Walt, 264 Woolf, Virginia, • 365 Yeats, William Butler, 261; “Under Ben Bulben,” 261 Zelinsky, Faddei (Tadeusz Zielinski), 124– 28, 132, 134, 137, 139, 144–45, 147, 327n.56, 331n.41, 332n.44, 333nn.49 and 50; Christianity’s Rivals (Soperniki khristianstva), 127 Zhirmunsky, Viktor, 10, 32, 61–62, 218–19, 323n.53 Zoshchenko, Mikhail, 203 .. .Osip Mandelstam and the Modernist Creation of Tradition This page intentionally left blank Osip Mandelstam and the Modernist Creation of Tradition • C LA R E C AVA... Dante, or Pound, Eliot, and Mandelstam themselves For the Mandelstam of the twenties and thirties, cultural theft becomes a way of life; true, unofficial culture thrives, like the poets who shape... in the title of my book, the contradiction that lies at the heart of Mandelstam s work It is not finally the intensity of Mandelstam s sense of loss that distinguishes him among his fellow modernists