EDITED BY K AT HL EEN A R MOUR An Introduction for Teaching and Coaching Sport Pedagogy offers an essential starting point for anyone who cares about sport, education and young people It offers invaluable theoretical and practical guidance for studying to become an effective teacher or coach, and for anyone who wants to inspire children and young people to engage in and enjoy sport for life The book also focuses on you as a learner in sport, prompting you to reflect critically on the ways in which your early learning experiences might affect your ability to diagnose the learning needs of young people with very different needs Sport Pedagogy is about learning in practice It refers to both the ways in which children and young people learn and the pedagogical knowledge and skills that teachers and coaches need to support them to learn effectively Sport pedagogy is the study of the place where sport and education come together This book is organised into three sections that reflect the three-dimentional structure of sport pedagogy: background and context; young people as diverse learners; and the professional responsibility of teachers and coaches Features of each chapter include: • • • • • research extracts, ‘comments’ to summarise key points, individual and group learning tasks, suggested resources for further reading, and reference lists to enable you to follow-up points of interest Cover photograph © Getty Images ED ITED B Y KATHLEEN A RMOUR Dr Kathleen Armour BEd MA PhD is Professor of Education and Sport in the school of Education, University of Birmingham, UK KATHLEEN ARMOUR An Introduction for Teaching and Coaching The study of sport pedagogy has three complex dimensions that interact to form each pedagogical encounter: Knowledge in context – what is regarded as essential or valuable knowledge to be taught, coached or learnt is contingent upon historical, social and political contextual factors that define practice; Learners and learning – at the core of sport pedagogy is expertise in complex learning theories, and a deep understanding of diversity and its many impacts on the ways in which young learners can learn; and Teachers/teaching and coaches/coaching – effective teachers and coaches are lifelong learners who can harness the power of sport for diverse children and young people Gaining knowledge and understanding of the three-dimensional concept of sport pedagogy is the first step towards ensuring that the rights of large numbers of children and young people, to effective learning experiences in and through sport, are not denied Sport Pedagogy Sport Pedagogy www.ebook777.com free ebooks ==> EDITED BY Sport Pedagogy An Introduction for Teaching and Coaching www.routledge.com www.ebook777.com CVR_ARMO2587_01_SE_CVR.indd 24/02/2011 16:06 A01_ARMO2587_01_SE_FM.QXD 2/19/11 5:30 PM Page i free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Sport Pedagogy A01_ARMO2587_01_SE_FM.QXD 2/19/11 5:30 PM Page ii free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Page Intentionally Left Blank www.ebook777.com A01_ARMO2587_01_SE_FM.QXD 2/19/11 5:30 PM Page iii free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Sport Pedagogy An Introduction for Teaching and Coaching Edited by Kathleen Armour University of Birmingham A01_ARMO2587_01_SE_FM.QXD 2/19/11 5:30 PM Page iv free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com First published 2011 by Pearson Education Limited Published 2013 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Copyright © 2011, Taylor & Francis All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein ISBN: 978-0-273-73258-7 (pbk) British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the library of Congress Typeset in 10/13 pt Minion by 73 www.ebook777.com A01_ARMO2587_01_SE_FM.QXD 2/19/11 5:30 PM Page v free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Dedication For Charlie, Georgie and Jamie And to the memory of Michael and Margaret A01_ARMO2587_01_SE_FM.QXD 2/19/11 5:30 PM Page vi free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Page Intentionally Left Blank www.ebook777.com A01_ARMO2587_01_SE_FM.QXD 2/19/11 5:30 PM Page vii free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Brief contents Acknowledgements xvii Introduction Section Pedagogy in physical education and youth sport What is ‘sport pedagogy’ and why study it? Kathleen Armour 11 Children learning in physical education: a historical overview David Kirk 24 Learning theory for effective learning in practice Fiona Chambers 39 Learning about health through physical education and youth sport Lorraine Cale and Jo Harris 53 Critical health pedagogy: whose body is it anyway? John Evans, Emma Rich and Brian Davies 65 Youth sport policy: an international perspective Iain Lindsey and Ruth Jeanes 77 Olympism: a learning philosophy for physical education and youth sport Dikaia Chatziefstathiou Section Children and young people: diverse learners in physical education and youth sport 90 103 Youth voices in physical education and sport: what are they telling us and what they say they need? Ann MacPhail 105 Understanding young people’s motivation in physical education and youth sport Christopher M Spray 116 10 Young people, sporting bodies, vulnerable identities Laura Azzarito 127 vii A01_ARMO2587_01_SE_FM.QXD Brief contents 2/19/11 5:30 PM Page viii free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com 11 Playtime: the needs of very young learners in physical education and sport Frances Murphy and Dierdre Ní Chroinin 140 12 Disabling experiences of physical education and youth sport Hayley Fitzgerald 153 13 Disaffected youth in physical education and youth sport Rachel Sandford and Rebecca Duncombe 165 14 Barriers to learning in physical education and youth sport: does social class still matter? Symeon Dagkas 178 15 Young people, ethnicity and pedagogy Louisa Webb 190 16 Gender and learning in physical education and youth sport Anne Flintoff 202 17 Right to be active: looked-after children in physical education and sport Kathleen Armour, Rachel Sandford and Rebecca Duncombe Section Being a professional teacher or coach in physical education and youth sport 214 227 18 Effective career-long professional development for teachers and coaches Kathleen Armour 229 19 Personalised learning: a perfect pedagogy for teachers and coaches? Kyriaki Makopoulou 244 20 Becoming an effective secondary school physical education teacher Frank Herold 258 21 Becoming an effective primary school physical education teacher Mike Jess 271 22 Becoming an effective youth sport coach Julia Walsh 287 23 Mentoring as a professional learning strategy Mark Griffiths 299 24 Professional learning in communities of practice Deborah Tannehill 312 25 Models-based practice: structuring teaching and coaching to meet learners’ diverse needs Toni O’Donovan 325 Index 338 viii www.ebook777.com A01_ARMO2587_01_SE_FM.QXD 2/24/11 2:37 PM Page ix free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Contents Acknowledgements xvii Introduction Section PEDAGOGY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND YOUTH SPORT What is ‘sport pedagogy’ and why study it? 11 Kathleen Armour Why sport pedagogy? So, what is sport pedagogy? Pedagogy revealed and confounded Sport pedagogy revealed and confounded Conclusion Learning tasks 11 13 15 18 21 22 Children learning in physical education: a historical overview 24 David Kirk Introduction Physical education as drilling and exercising, 1906 Anyone for tennis (by numbers)? 1920s Freeing the body through educational gymnastics, 1951 The masculinisation of physical education as gymnastics, Carnegie, 1950s Discontinuity and continuity: the silences of and echoes from the past? Conclusion Learning tasks Learning theory for effective learning in practice 25 26 28 29 31 34 37 37 39 Fiona Chambers Introduction Metaphors to explain learning Behaviourism Cognitivism Constructivism Social theories of learning Conclusion Learning tasks 39 40 41 44 45 48 50 50 ix M25_ARMO2587_01_SE_C25.QXD 2/19/11 5:27 PM Page 332 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Models-based practice: structuring teaching and coaching to meet learners’ diverse needs Comment If contemporary physical education and youth sport programmes are to strive to meet the needs of diverse learners, teachers and coaches must be able to deliver sessions using more than one model Teacher knowledge There is much debate over just what a physical education teacher or coach needs to know in order to implement models-based practice Metzler (2005) argues that even though Shulman’s (1987) seven categories of a teacher knowledge base have been extremely helpful in recent discussions about what teachers need to know, their limitations come from the realisation that good teaching is strongly based in context So a teacher needs to know not only the knowledge categories identified by Shulman, but also how to adapt and apply that knowledge to their specific school or youth sport programmes For example, Metzler (2005) identified 11 knowledge areas necessary for models-based practice in physical education: learning contexts; learners; learning theories; developmental appropriateness; learning domains and objectives; physical education content; task analysis and content progression; assessment; social/emotional climate; 10 equity in the gym; 11 curriculum models for physical education Hattie (2003) claimed that experts and experienced teachers differ little in the amount of knowledge they have, but they differ in how they organise and use this knowledge Experts possess knowledge that is integrated They can combine new subject-matter content knowledge with prior knowledge, relate current lesson content to other subjects in the curriculum, and make lessons uniquely their own by changing, combining and adding to them according to their students’ needs and their own goals One primary school teacher described it like this: I felt much more in control when we had to revamp the Year unit to accommodate the two children who had disabilities, that’s where [a researcher] came down and actually checked the game out Because we had to revamp the game, then I suppose we had ownership of the game, and I felt much more confident with the unit, because it was a game that I had actually understood, up until then I was using someone else’s rules and it’s easy to take on someone else’s rules that’s fine, just but I think you get more because you design it (Mountfields Lodge Primary School) 332 www.ebook777.com M25_ARMO2587_01_SE_C25.QXD 2/19/11 5:27 PM Page 333 7.com book77 free ebooks ==> www.eModels-based practice in contemporary society Assessment (benchmarks) In an era of increased accountability, questions are increasingly asked about what physical education programmes are attempting to accomplish and the nature of the evidence to support claims for specific learning outcomes Many contemporary pedagogical models are underpinned by an extensive research evidence base For example, in a systematic review of Sport Education research between 1995 and 2005, Wallhead and O’Sullivan (2005) found that 62 peer-reviewed journal articles and papers had been published on the effectiveness of Sport Education, many of which examined the goals of the model and the extent to which they were met in a variety of populations This review highlighted the high level of congruence between the model’s goals and the outcomes of the programmes Thus, in effect, we can surmise that if a teacher makes decisions and carries out instruction in a way that is congruent with a model’s theoretical framework and design, students are more likely to learn what is intended Thus, it is important for a teacher to verify that he or she is implementing the model in the way it was designed Comment In order to maximise intended learning outcomes, teachers and coaches should ask themselves the question: ‘Am I teaching this model as it was intended to be used?’ The coherent and detailed structure of each instructional model provides ways in which the relationship between instruction and learning can be identified, thus allowing practitioners to verify appropriate implemention of the model Since many teacher and student instructional behaviours can be observed and measured, as can many stated learning outcomes, it then becomes possible to examine the relationship between input and outcomes within each model For example: ● Sport Education model: students are organised in persisting teams ● Tactical Games model: students make situated tactical decisions ● Peer Teaching model: teachers present a clear and effective task to (pupil) tutors Metzler (2005) refers to these observable patterns of student and teacher behaviour as ‘benchmarks’ that are indicative of a model As has been noted already, although local modifications are necessary, there must be a reasonable degree of adherence to the original model framework if outcomes are to be maximised The use of benchmarks is a useful way to test adherence to the principles of a model That said, although adherence to these operations or in class processes leads to a greater likelihood of increased student achievement, it does not ensure that student learning takes place as intended It is still necessary, therefore, to assess student learning using an array of appropriate assessments that are coherent with the plan Models-based practice in contemporary society In recent years, the nature of teaching, learning and content of physical education programmes has come under scrutiny Physical education has been positioned as both a problem but also the solution to a number of social, health and economic issues, both in the media and politically It has, thus, become a site of increased government planning, 333 M25_ARMO2587_01_SE_C25.QXD 2/19/11 5:27 PM Page 334 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Models-based practice: structuring teaching and coaching to meet learners’ diverse needs monitoring and evaluation Since 2002, the UK government has funded a major new policy for physical education, school sport and club links with associated publications such as Learning through Physical Education and Sport and How to Know if You Are Delivering HighQuality Physical Education and School Sport In the United States, an approach to PE centring on ‘fitness, fun and no one left on the bench’ resulted from a report to the President by the Secretary of Health and Human Services and the Secretary of Education in 2000 Burnett (2008) highlights that in South Australia, issues currently dominating the health and physical education agenda are the reported increasing levels of obesity across the population The Parliament of South Australia Inquiry into Obesity (2004) suggested that ‘preschools, primary and secondary schools provide ideal access points for education and other strategies aimed at children and families’ to increase their physical activity levels and decrease their obesity levels It is perhaps unsurprising then that a number of models, such as Fitness Education outlined below, have been developed in order to respond to political concerns about the fitness and health of populations globally Fitness education Overview Fitness education offers opportunities for experiential learning and application of knowledge through an integrated and evolving exposure to fitness, health and wellness concepts and practices Aim The model aims to help students to develop the knowledge and skills necessary to maintain lifetime physical activity and fitness Underpinning philosophy Teachers believe it is their responsibility to shape the curriculum in order to provide students with the experiences and knowledge to engage in lifelong physical activity Programme structure The student is involved in classroom, laboratory and physical activity experiences that are coordinated to emphasise both the how and why of physical fitness Fitness activities are infused through other physical education courses which are organised around general concepts such as cardiovascular health Activities are focused primarily on lifetime sports and activities rather than traditional team or youth sports Conclusion In 1983, Placek argued that many physical education teachers designed programmes primarily to keep students busy, happy and good Although these are important characteristics of a physical education programme, they hardly reflect the significant accomplishment that Siedentop, Mand and Taggart (1986) suggest is an integral part of a quality physical education programme Lund and Tannehill (2005) argue that the goal of keeping children busy is not sufficient for a professional approach to physical education and that learning and achievement must be central outcomes The same could be said of youth sport that is organised formally 334 www.ebook777.com M25_ARMO2587_01_SE_C25.QXD 2/19/11 5:27 PM Page 335 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com References Many scholars concur on the need for radical and extensive changes to physical education programmes (Locke, 1992; Rink, 1993) and youth sport practices Adopting a modelsbased practice approach can be advocated as an appropriate advance in the field of physical education In many cases, models-based practice requires teachers to extend their horizons, re-tool and step out of their comfort zones As physical education is increasingly being tasked with a growing range of societal goals and objectives in a broad variety of domains, it has become apparent that teachers cannot instruct in the same manner all the time, or be limited to particular instructional methods, strategies or models To engage young people fully in physical education and youth sport, teachers and coaches need to refresh their pedagogies and practices in order to offer new learning opportunities for children and young people Models-based practice is one way in which the traditional teaching of skills and drills can be broadened to become more meaningful for young learners Learning tasks Individual task Draw on personal experience to identify the ‘big ideas’ on which you would base your personal teaching or coaching philosophy Your ‘big idea’ will be based on your decisions about the nature of valuable learning for children and young people in contemporary society Interview five students in your class/group about their experiences of physical education and try to map the structure and goals of their school physical education programmes Can you identify any ‘big ideas’ that were driving the programmes they experienced? Group task In a group, consider the wider educational role of teachers and coaches in the development of children and young people in school and community sport What are the key contemporary societal factors that will influence the selection of particular models? Conduct a literature review to find out more about any models that you feel are important, and identify key factors to be considered in their implementation Further reading Metzler, M (2005) Instructional Models for Physical Education, Massachusetts, USA: Allyn and Bacon References Bernstein, B (1977) Class, Codes and Control, Volume London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Burnett, T (2008) Dancing with Dinosaurs – keeping professional learning moving Paper presented at AARE International Education Research Conference Brisbane, Australia, December 2008 Dinan-Thompson, M (2001) Teachers facing health and physical education curriculum changes: a kaleidoscope of beliefs, values, emotions and interactions, The ACHPER Healthy Lifestyles Journal, 48(1), 9–12 335 M25_ARMO2587_01_SE_C25.QXD 2/19/11 5:27 PM Page 336 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Models-based practice: structuring teaching and coaching to meet learners’ diverse needs Ennis, C D (2003) Using curriculum to enhance student learning In: S J Silverman and C D Ennis (eds) Student Learning in Physical Education: Applying research to enhance instruction (2nd edn), Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 109–27 Hattie, J (2003) Teachers Make a Difference: What is the research evidence? Paper presented at the Australian Council for Educational Research, October 2003, http://www.emr.vic.edu.au/Downloads/ English%20and%20Maths%20Leader%20Professional%20Learning/Leaders%20and%20Data% 20Collections/teachers_make_a_difference.pdf Joyce, B and Weil, M (1996) Models of Teaching (5th edn), Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Joyce, B R., and Weil, M (2000) Models of teaching and learning; where they come from and how are they used? In Models of Teaching (6th edn), Allyn and Bacon, 13–28 Kirk, D (2006) The Idea of Physical Education and Its Discontents: Inaugural Lecture, Leeds Metropolitan University, 27 June 2006, Locke, L (1992) Changing secondary school physical education, Quest, 44, 361–72 Lund, J and Tannehill, D (2005) Standards-based Physical Education Curriculum Development, Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett MacPhail, A., Kinchin, G and Kirk, D (2003) Students’ conceptions of sport and Sport Education, European Physical Education Review, 9(3), 285–99 MacPhail, A., Kirk, D and Kinchin, G (2004) Sport Education: Promoting team affiliation through physical education, Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 23(2), 106–22 MacPhail, A., Kirk, D and Kinchin, G (2005) Sport Education in Key Stage – Games In: Penney, D et al (eds) Sport Education in Physical Education, London: Routledge, 122–39 Metzler, M (2005) Instructional Models for Physical education, Massachusetts, USA: Allyn and Bacon Mosston, M (1966) Teaching Physical Education, Columbus, OH: Merrill O’Donovan, T M., MacPhail, A and Kirk, D (2010) Active citizenship through Sport Education, Education 3–13: International Journal of Primary, Elementary and Early Years Education O’Sullivan, M and Kinchin, G (2005) Cultural studies in sport and physical activity In: J Lund and D Tannehill (eds) Standards-based Physical Education Curriculum Development, Boston: Jones & Bartlett Penney, D (2005) Pursuing HPE outcomes through sport education and school sport In: Tinning, R., Hunter, L and McCuaig, L (eds) Teaching Health and Physical Education, Pearson Pieron, M (1996) Seeking expert teachers in physical education and sport, Physical Education & Sport Pedagogy, (1/2), 5–18 Placek, J H (1983) Conceptions of success in teaching: busy, happy, and good? In: T Templin and J Olsen (eds) Teaching in Physical Education, Illinois: Human Kinetics Publishers, 45–56 Rink, J E (1993) Teaching Physical Education for Learning, St Louis: Mosby Year Book Rossi, T and Hopper, T (2001) Using personal construct theory and narrative methods to facilitate reflexive constructions of teaching physical education, Australian Educational Researcher, 28(3), 87–116 Schempp, P., Marross, D and Tan, S (1998) Subject expertise and teachers’ knowledge, Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 17, 1–15 Shulman, L S (1987) Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform Harvard Educational Review, 57, 1–22 Siedentop, D (1986) The theory and practice of sport education In: Barrette, G.T., Feingold, R S., Rees, C R and Pieron, M (eds) Myths, Models and Methods In Sports Pedagogy, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Siedentop, D (1994) Sport Education: Quality PE through positive sport experiences, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Siedentop, D and Tannehill, D (2000) Developing Teaching Skills in Physical Education (4th edn), Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company Siedentop, D., Mand, C and Taggart, A (1986) Physical Education – Teaching and curriculum strategies for Grades 5–12, Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield 336 www.ebook777.com M25_ARMO2587_01_SE_C25.QXD 2/19/11 5:27 PM Page 337 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com References The Social Development Committee of the Parliament of South Australia (2004) Parliament of South Australia Inquiry Into Obesity, Nineteenth Report of the Social Development Committee laid on the table of the Legislative Council and ordered to be printed May 2004 Third Session, Fiftieth Parliament 2004 (p 209) Wallhead, T and O’Sullivan, M (2005) Sport Education: physical education for the new millennium? Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 10(2), 181–210 Wright, J (2004) Critical inquiry and problem-solving in physical education In Wright, J., Macdonald, D and Burrows, L (eds) Critical Inquiry and Problem-solving in Physical Education, London: Routledge 337 Z01_ARMO2587_01_SE_IND.QXD 2/25/11 9:44 AM Page 338 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Index ability, beliefs about 119–20 academic self-concept 132–3 access looked-after children 214–24 opportunities and 206–7 accountability 299, 305, 333 accreditation 296 achievement goal theory 118–19, 122, 124 Active After-School Community 82 Active Australia programme 82 Active School 59 Active Schools Coordinators 273 Active Sports programme 306 activities (in communities) 317–18 activity-centred model 142 adaptive motivation 117, 124 affect, motivation and 117 affective development 144, 146–50 agency 47, 183, 186, 209 alignment (communities) 316 amotivation 121–2, 124 analysis and observation 282 ‘androgogy’ 12 antisocial behaviour 166–7 apprenticeship 49 approach goals 118–19, 121, 124 Approved Provider Status 238 asocial view (of learning) 45 assessment 251, 280–1, 283 benchmarks 333 criteria 261 Association for Physical Education 54, 193, 194, 195, 238, 251 ‘at risk’ young people 128, 129, 132, 133, 135, 166, 215 attainment standards 248 attitudes (individual traits) 147 Australia (youth sport policy) 77, 81–3, 85–6 Australian Sports Commission 81, 82 authentic learning 45, 276, 277, 281–3 avoidance goals 118–19, 124 Backing Australia’s Sporting Ability 82 baseball (Little League) 290 baseline assessment 280–1 basic movements 28, 29, 30, 145, 278, 281 basketball 289, 290 Be Active programme 145, 149 Be Active Kids! 149 ‘becoming’ process 237–8 Bedford Physical Training College 28–9, 30 behaviourism 235 primary PE 279–80, 282–3 theory/perspective 41–3, 44, 45, 50 behaviours, motivation and 117, 118 beliefs (about ability) 119–20 benchmarks (assessment) 333 Binder, D 97–8 big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE) 116, 122–3, 124 Birmingham City Council 193, 194, 195, 197 black box theory 41, 43, 44, 45 black feminists 209, 210 blame culture 69–73 blocks (multi-activity approach) 276, 277, 283 Board of Education 11, 20, 27 body image 69–73, 109, 209, 217 narratives 133–6 pedagogies 66–73, 127 vulnerable identities 127–37 body mass index (BMI) 67, 69, 217 boundaries (in communities) 314 BSkyB Living for Sport programme 165–6, 169–70, 172, 173–4, 222–3 capital 1, 168, 181–6, 208, 220 Care Matters: Time for Change 217–18 career-long development see continuous professional development Carnegie College 31–2, 33 Centre for Olympic Studies 96 ‘character-building’ process 20, 220 child-centred approach 15, 30, 59, 206, 246, 248 338 www.ebook777.com Z01_ARMO2587_01_SE_IND.QXD 2/25/11 9:44 AM Page 339 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com children disabled 153–62 disaffected 15, 165–74, 278 diverse needs of 325–35 ethnicity see ethnic minorities; ethnicity looked-after 214–24 motivation 116–24, 268, 293 rights of 2, 3, 15, 215 social class see social class voice of 105–13 vulnerable identities 127–37 younger (needs of) 140–51 Children, School and Families Committee 249 Children Act (1989) 215 Children Act (2004) 218 Christianity 191 classical conditioning 42 classroom 123, 281, 319–21 co-educational PE 25, 36–7, 206, 210 coaching/coaches behaviours 289–90 career-long development 229–41 context (decision-making) 293–4 critical friends 320, 321–2 definition of pedagogy 3, 14, 59, 61, 291 developmental stages 292–3 effective (becoming) 287–96 frameworks 291–2 knowledge 290–1 mentoring 299–309 models-based practice 325–35 personalised learning 244–54 responsibilities/experience 2, teachers and (differences) Coaching Behaviour and Assessment System 290 Coaching Framework 239, 251 coalescing stage (development) 318 codified knowledge 306 cognitions, motivation and 117 cognitive approach 302, 308 cognitive constructivism 46 cognitive development 54, 144, 148–50, 277–8, 280–1, 302 cognitivism 41, 43–5, 50, 235 collaborative approach 49, 234, 235, 247, 283, 313, 315 collective habitus 182 collective learning 48 Index ‘command’ style 28, 30 communities of practice 48–9, 235, 262–3, 296, 312–22 community membership 316–17 competence perceived (physical/social) 109–10 personal goals 118–19, 121, 124 competent coach 292 competition 141–2, 150, 208 complex pedagogy 272, 273–6, 279–83 computing, learning as 40 concept development 148 concrete operations stage 46 conditioning theory 41–2 confidence 169, 170, 216, 302–3 connectionism 43 constructivism 41, 45–7, 50, 235, 304, 306 content and focus of PE 57–8 knowledge 2, 264, 265, 291 of youth sport policy 79–82, 84 context knowledge in 3, 13, 27, 59, 61, 86, 207, 290–1, 295 of learning 45, 279, 300 continuity of experience 237, 240 continuous professional development 159, 229–41, 254 community of practice 313, 319 effective/ineffective 232–5, 239–41 health education 59–60 learning theory and 235–8 mentoring 299–309 policy 238–9 in primary school 273, 274 in secondary school 268 control/manipulation skills 145 cooperation 47, 147, 261, 267–8, 314 coordination, learning as 40 core learning 276, 277, 283 corporal punishment 27 corrective change, learning as 40 Coubertin, Pierre de 90–1, 92, 95–6 creativity 30, 148–9 critical friends 320, 321–2 critical health pedagogy 53, 65–73 critical inquiry 59 critical pedagogy 18 critical reflection 14, 149, 154, 236–7, 261, 302, 306–7 339 Z01_ARMO2587_01_SE_IND.QXD Index 2/25/11 9:44 AM Page 340 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com critical thinking 47, 133, 148, 277, 281, 283 cultural beliefs/diversity 199 cultural capital 182–4 cultural ideas (memes) 40 cultural studies model 328–9 culture 46, 48 sociocultural perspective 58–9, 61, 304, 329 curriculum 186, 219, 252 cultural studies model 328–9 gendered 206–7 hidden 59 knowledge 264 PE 107–8, 168 see also National Curriculum dance 30–1, 35, 209 decision making 148, 266, 292–3, 327 deep learning 44, 276, 279, 280 delinquency 166–7, 216 demonstration (as teaching aid) 282 development stages (communities of practice) 317–18 Developmental Physical Education Group (DPEG) 275, 276, 281 diagnosing needs 21, 253–4 ‘dialogues’ 46 Diem, Carl 96 direct approach 276 disabled young people 153–62 Paralympic Games 94, 98, 99 disaffected youth 15, 165–74, 278 discipline 27 discovery-based learning 267 discrimination 43 disability 154–5 ethnicity 191–2, 193, 198–9 gender 205 disengagement 166–7, 174 dispersed stage (of development) 318 diversity 192–3, 260–1, 263 Diwali 196 domain (community of practice) 49 doxa 186 drilling and exercising 24, 25, 26–8, 30, 32, 35, 37 Easter 196 eating disorders 69–73 economic capital 182–4 Edinburgh University 275 education, social class and 180 Education Act (2002) 55 Education and Inspections Act (2006) 217 educational gymnastics 25, 29–31, 33, 37 ego goals 118–19, 120, 121, 122, 124 Eid 196 elite sport/elitism 81–2, 84–6, 110, 184, 260, 288, 293 embodiment 183, 184 gendered 203, 209 of sporting bodies 128, 131–3, 135 emotional development 277–8, 281 emotions, motivation and 117, 118 Encouraging Players, Developing Champions 82 enculturation process 48 engagement of children 1, 12, 21, 47, 282–3 in communities 316 dis-engagement 166–7, 174 re-engagement 2, 15, 167–74 England (youth sport policy) 77–80, 85–6 ‘enjoyment for all’ 259 entity theory 119–20, 124 environment (learning) 78–9, 81, 83, 282 equal opportunities 206 equality 133, 191, 246–7, 254 Equality Act 191 Equality Duty 191 equity 246–7 ESRC study 231, 232–3 ethics 97 ethnic minorities 110, 128–9, 132–6 ethnicity 190–9, 210 European Union Commission White Paper on Sport (2007) 1, 2, 220, 221 Every Child Matters 54, 168, 217, 221, 247–8 exclusion see social exclusion experience 4, 192–3 continuity of 237, 240 of learning 237, 240, 279–82 of PE 107–10 of youth sport 110–12 experiential learning 47, 334 experts/expertise 14, 304, 332 health education 59–60, 70 teaching effectiveness 267, 288–9, 291–3 Extended Schools 221 extrinsic motivation 121 340 www.ebook777.com Z01_ARMO2587_01_SE_IND.QXD 2/25/11 9:44 AM Page 341 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com family (role) 186 family structure 184 fat/fat facts 66–9 feedback 42, 47, 78, 117, 119–20, 150, 261, 280, 282, 306 femininity 27, 129, 132 gender relations 203, 204, 207–10 feminist pedagogy 18 feminist theories 205, 206, 209–10 Fitness Education model 334 fitness orientation 57, 58 five-hour offer 113, 146, 219 five-level approach 239–40 Five Steps programme 94 floorball 34–6 folk theories 4, 21 football 84, 85, 130–2, 133–6 formal operations stage 46 Foundation for Olympic and Sport Education 97–8 fundamental motor skills 145, 150 Game Plan 54, 79 games 20, 34–6, 37, 267 gender 129 -appropriateness 35 equality 133 learning and 202–10 power relations 130, 203, 206, 207, 209–10 relations 203, 205, 207–9, 210 segregation 25, 27, 28, 30, 36–7 sporting bodies and 130–7 see also feminist theories gendered attributes/behaviours 203–4 gendered embodiment 203, 209 gendered socialisation 111–12 General Teaching Council 245 generalist teachers 274–5, 276 Gestalt theories 44 ‘Get Set’ initiative 98 goals of communities 314 motivation and 118–19, 120–2, 124 group work 47, 49 guided discovery 47 gymnastics 24, 25, 29–34, 37 habits 182 habitus 181–2, 183–5, 186, 237 ‘haya’ 193–4 Index health 19 learning about 53–61 of looked-after children 219, 221 pedagogy, critical 53, 65–73 -related knowledge 59–61 Healthy Schools 59 Healthy Weight, Healthy Lives 54, 221 hegemonic masculinity 130–1, 207–9 heterodoxy 186 heterosexuality 208 ‘hidden curriculum’ 59 Hinduism 191, 193, 196 HIV/AIDS (in Zambia) 83, 84, 85 holistic approach 17, 54, 291, 292, 294 housing, social class and 180 HSBC/Outward Bound project 165–6, 170–4 human capital human movement 13, 19, 32 humanism 92, 93 ideal sporting bodies 127–37 identity 48 gendered 202–10 vulnerable (sporting bodies) 127–37 imagination (in communities) 316 implicit theories 119 ‘in-the-head’ learning 316 ‘in care’ (local authority) 214–24 inclusion 15, 239, 251, 261 of disabled children 155, 157–60 social 147–8, 179 Inclusion Spectrum 159 Inclusion Statement 192 incremental theory 119–20 Independent Sport Panel 81, 82–3 individual differences (motivation) 117, 118 individual traits 147 inequalities gender 206 in youth sport 183–4, 187 informal learning 49 information-input process 41, 43, 45 Initial Teacher Training (ITT) 261 inputs (youth sport policy) 78–9, 81, 83 instructional models 326, 327, 329–31, 333, 335 integrated knowledge 292–3, 332, 334 integrated learning 149–50 interdisciplinary work 15, 98 intergenerational habitus 184–5 341 Z01_ARMO2587_01_SE_IND.QXD Index 2/25/11 9:44 AM Page 342 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com internalisation 122, 128 International Olympic Academy 94, 96 International Olympic Committee 91, 93, 94, 98 International Olympic Institute 96 interpersonal knowledge 290 intrinsic motivation 121 intuition 292 Islamic faith 191, 192, 193–5, 196–7, 199, 210 kinesiology 18–19, 149 knowledge 47 bases 264–5, 280, 289, 302 coaching (domains) 290–1 in context 3, 13, 27, 59, 61, 86, 207, 290–1, 295 -driven society 244, 248–9 health-related 59–61 integration 292–3, 332, 334 learning metaphors 40–1 prior 46, 47, 50, 332 subject 264–5, 332 technical 264, 265 Laban, Rudolf 30–1 Lawrence, Stephen 193 leadership 261, 267–8 learners learning and 3, 13–14, 59, 61, 291 see also children; young people learning authentic 276, 277, 281–3 capacity 234, 249, 254 communities (classroom) 319–21 communities of practice 312–22 context of 45, 279, 300 core 276, 277, 283 deep 44, 276, 279, 280 by doing 43 environment 78–9, 81, 83, 282 experience 237, 240, 279–82 gender and 202–10 health issues 53–61 integrated 149–50 interdisciplinary 15, 98 mentoring strategy 299–309 metaphors 40–1 needs see needs objectives 43 personal learning audit 294–5 personalised 11, 16, 241, 244–54 PE (historical development) 24–37 play as 140–51 situated 47, 48, 50, 304 social class as barrier 178–87 surface 44, 279 learning theories 39–50, 235–8 legitimate peripheral participation 48, 316 Leicester Community College 194–5 leisure activities 259 games 20, 34–6, 37, 54, 79, 267 of looked-after children 214, 217–18, 220 play 140–51, 267 liberal feminism 206, 209 liberal humanism 92 lifelong learning 3, 14, 249, 250, 254, 300 see also continuous professional development Ling system (gymnastics) 25, 27, 30 Little League baseball 290 Living for Sport programme 165–6, 169–70, 172, 173–4, 222–3 local authorities (care policy) 214–24 locomotor skills 145 Long Term Player/Athlete Development model 294 looked-after children 214–24 Loughborough College 31 Loughborough Partnership 80 Loughborough University 267 maladaptive behaviours 142 maladaptive motivation 117, 120, 122, 124 management (of learning environment) 282 management and organisation 295 manipulation/control skills 145 masculinity 27, 110, 111 gender relations 203, 204, 207–10 hegemonic 130–1, 207–9 vulnerable identities 129, 132, 135–7 mastery goals 118–19, 120, 121, 124 media 128, 129–31, 132, 134–5, 136 medical model 155–6, 157, 160, 161 medicalisation approach 68–9, 128 memorable (development stage) 318 memory techniques 45 mental models 292–3 mentoring 49, 173–4, 295, 296, 317 attributes 30–1 as learning strategy 299–309 model 305–8 metacognition 45 342 www.ebook777.com Z01_ARMO2587_01_SE_IND.QXD 2/25/11 9:44 AM Page 343 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com metaphors (to explain learning) 40–1 mixed-sex PE lessons 109–10, 202, 206 models-based practice 325–35 modesty 193–5, 197 moral education 97 motivation 268, 293 in PE/youth sport 116–24 Mountfields Lodge Primary School 325, 327, 331, 332 movement 39, 54, 140 basic 28, 29, 30, 145, 278, 281 fundamental motor skills 145, 150 human 13, 19, 32 multi-activity model 260, 275–6, 277, 279, 283, 328–9, 330 multi-agency approach 165, 172–4 multi-model approach 329–31 multidirectional learning 49 multiple mentoring 305 Muslim Council of Britain 193, 196, 197, 199 Muslims 191, 192, 193–5, 196–7, 199, 210 myelination process 278 National Assessment Framework for Initial Teacher Training 261 National Coaching Foundation 234 National College for Continuing Professional Development 238 National Curriculum 13, 53, 55, 121, 192, 207, 249, 251, 266 for FP (NCPE) 56, 221 National Disability Sport Organisations (NDSOs) 159, 161 National Equality Panel 191–2 national governing bodies (NGBs) 159, 161, 295 National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) 54–5 National Junior Sports Policy 81–2 National Olympic Academies 94 National Olympic Committees 91, 94 National Professional Development Programme 238 National Sports Associations 81, 82 National Statistics Socio-Economic Classification (NS-SEC) 180 Nations and Regions Group 218 needs 121–2 diagnosing 21, 253–4 diversity of 325–35 individual pupils 172 Index young learners 106, 144–6, 150, 260 youth voices 105–13 network mentoring 305 non-government organisations 83, 84, 86 NOPES initiative 168 Nottingham case studies 196–8 novice coach 292, 294 novice teacher 317 numbers approach 25, 28–9, 36 obesity 65, 66–73, 128, 146, 217, 334 observation and analysis 282 occupations, social class and 180 OFSTED 56–7, 79, 80 Olympic Charter 91, 92, 93, 99 Olympic Games Berlin (1936) 96 London (1948) 32 London (2012) 98, 218, 220, 221 Salt Lake City (2002) 93 Olympic gymnastics 32, 33 Olympic Legacy 220, 221 Olympic Study Centres 94 Olympic Value Education Project 98 Olympism/Olympic education 90–9 operant conditioning 42 opportunities, gender and 206–7 organisational support 240, 314 Organising Committees for the Olympic Games (OCOGs) 91, 94 out of school hours learning (OHSL) 218 outputs (youth sport policy) 80, 82–3, 85 Paralympic Games 94, 98, 99 participation, learning as 41, 240 PE and Sport Survey 55 pedagogical knowledge 264, 290–1 pedagogical model 326, 327 Pedagogie Sportive (Coubertin) 95, 96 pedagogy complex 272, 273–6, 279–83 critical health 53, 65–73 definition/analysis 15–18 ethnicity and 190–9 national priorities 238 Olympic 90–9 of personalised learning 244–54 sport see sport pedagogy peer(s) 47, 150, 266, 333 pressure 72–3, 109 343 Z01_ARMO2587_01_SE_IND.QXD Index 2/25/11 9:44 AM Page 344 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Peer Teaching model 333 people (national priorities) 238 performance goals 118–19, 120, 121, 122, 124 person-centred model 142 personal, learning and thinking skills (PLTS) 249 personal education allowance (PEA) 218 personal education plan (PEP) 218 personal goals 118–19, 121 personal learning audit 294–5 personal philosophies (of PE teachers) 259–61 personal responsibility 261 personal and social development 146–8 personalisation (national priorities) 238 personalised learning 11, 16, 241, 244–54 Personalised System of Instruction 251 PESSCL strategy 80, 168, 218–19 PESSYP strategy 113, 146, 168, 218–19, 220, 221, 238, 273 physical activity/fitness 146 physical activity re-engagement programmes 168–74 physical capital 183–4, 185, 186, 208 physical competence, perceived 109–10 physical development (young learners) 144–5, 149–50 physical education 12 communities of practice 312–22 continuities/discontinuities 34–7 critical health pedagogy 65–73 disabled young people 153–62 disaffected youth 165–74 equipment 279 gender and 202–10 health education and 53–61 historical development 24–37 looked-after children 214–24 masculinisation of 31–4 mentoring 299–309 models-based practice 325–35 motivation 116–24 multi-activity model 260, 275–6, 277, 279, 283, 328–9 multi-model approach 329–31 needs of younger learners 140–51 Olympism and 90–9 personalised learning 250–4 planning quality programme 327–8 social class and 178–87 teacher (primary school) 271–84 teacher (secondary school) 258–68 vulnerable identitities 127–37 youth voices 105–13 Physical Education Association of Ireland (PEAI) 315, 317, 319 physical literacy 142 physical self-concept 120–1 Physical Self-Description Questionnaire 120 physical skills 145, 146 physicality 209 play/playtime 140–51, 267 Positive Futures 168 positive self-concept 120 positive youth development (PYD) 113 disaffected youth 165–6, 168, 173–4 looked-after children 216, 219–21 post-structural feminism 209–10 potential stage (of development) 317 poverty 219 power relations 253 gender 130, 203, 206, 207, 209, 210 prejudice see discrimination preoperational stage 46 Primary Link Teachers 273 primary school effective PE teachers 271–84 playtime 140–51 prior knowledge 46, 47, 50, 332 problem solving 30, 46–7, 59, 148, 216, 302 professional development continuous see continuous professional development health-related knowledge and 59–61 professional football (case studies) 133–6 professional learning communities 235, 296, 312–22 professional values (PE teachers) 259–61 proficient coach 292 programme planning 327–9 propagation, learning as 40 psychomotor development 277, 278, 280–1 psychosocial support 300 Public Service Agreement 12 221 Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) 56, 192, 221 Qualification and Curriculum Development Agency (QCDA) 221 Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) 261, 263 344 www.ebook777.com Z01_ARMO2587_01_SE_IND.QXD 2/25/11 9:44 AM Page 345 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com race inequalities 129 norms/representation 130–1, 136, 209 see also ethnic minorities; ethnicities Race Relations (Amendment) Act (2000) 193 racism 191–2, 193, 198–9 Ramadan 196–7 re-engagement 2, 15, 167–74 reflection 47, 234, 280, 283, 295–6 critical 14, 149, 154, 236–7, 261–2, 302, 306–7 reinforcement (reward) 42–3 relational learning theories 303–4 religion 191, 193–7, 199, 210 religious clothing/jewellery 193–5 religious festivals/fasting 196–7 repetition 43, 47 reproduction cycles 49 resilience 216, 217, 249 responsibilities, rights and 2, reward (reinforcement) 42–3 rights 2, 3, 15 rituals (role) 314 role models 111, 147, 158, 192, 217, 258 safety issues 193, 194, 195, 281, 282 Salt Lake Organizing Committee 93 ‘scaffolded construction’ 304 School Sport Coordinators 273 School Sport Partnerships 80, 207, 219 Scottish primary PE Project 273, 274–80 secondary school PE teachers (effectiveness) 258–68 self-concept, physical 120–1 self-determination theory 121–2, 124 self-directed learning 47 self-esteem 54, 109, 120, 123, 146–7, 169–70, 209, 214, 217, 278, 302 self-evaluations 123, 150 self-organisation 40 sensori-motor stage 46 Sikhs/Sikhism 191, 195, 196 single-sex classes 36–7, 109–10, 192, 206, 207 situated learning 47, 48, 50, 304 situational goals 119 skills 45, 145 -based approach 266, 267 knowledge and 264–5 physical 208 Sky Sports Living for Sport 165–6, 169–70, 172, 173–4, 222–3 Index social capital 168, 182–3, 220 social class 26–7, 67, 110, 129–31, 136, 208 barrier to learning 178–87 social cognition learning model 46 social cohesion 220 social comparison processes 122–3, 124 social competence, perceived 109–10 social constructivism 46 social development 146–8, 277–8 social exclusion 166, 168, 178, 182–3, 185, 187, 217, 251 social inclusion 147–8, 179 social interaction 41 mentoring 306–7 social justice 247, 254, 329 social model (of disability) 156–7, 161 social practice, learning as 300, 303–4 social reproduction 130, 131, 186 social roles 49 social theories of learning 41, 48–50, 303–4 social worker (role) 218 socialisation 49, 130, 146 gendered 111–12 socio-economic status 110, 180, 183–4 sociocultural perspective 58–9, 61, 304, 329 SPARKS programme 273 Specialist Sport Colleges 80 sport needs of young learners 140–51 -specific knowledge 290–1, 295 value/experience of 1–2 youth voices 105–13 see also youth sport Sport: Raising the Game 79 Sport Education model 168, 196, 251, 267, 277, 330, 333 Sport England 113, 218, 221, 273 Sport for Peace 168 sport pedagogy 129, 210, 235 definitions 2–3, 13–15, 18–20 dimensions 13–14, 275 historical foundation 24–37 Olympism and 91, 92, 94–8 purpose/rationale 11–12, 21 Sporting Future for All, A 79 Sports Coach UK 159, 234, 251, 306 sports media 129–31 sportsmanship 147 stability skills 145 345 Z01_ARMO2587_01_SE_IND.QXD Index 2/25/11 9:44 AM Page 346 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com stereotyping disability and 159 gender and 204, 206, 208, 209 racism and 198–9 stimulus-response model 41–2, 43, 44 structural feminism 209 structured PE sessions 281–2 student learning outcomes 240 subject knowledge 264–5, 332 Super Size Me 69 support structures 112, 240, 314 surface learning 44, 279 Swedish gymnastics 25, 27, 30, 31 symbols (role) 314 Tactical Games model 333 taken-for-granted assumptions 186 task goals 118–19, 120, 121, 124 teacher-centred approach 30, 31, 279 teaching/teachers attributes of 108–9 career-long development 229–41 coaches and (differences) critical friends 320, 321–2 definition of pedagogy 3, 14, 59, 61, 291 knowledge 332 models-based practice 325–35 PE (in primary school) 271–84 PE (in secondary school) 258–68 personalised learning 244–54 responsibilities/experience 2, 3, styles 250–1, 264–8, 283–4, 330 training see training Teaching Games for Understanding 267 Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility 168 teamwork 49 technical knowledge 264, 265 tennis (by numbers) 28–9, 36 thinking 45 critical 47, 133, 148, 277, 281, 283 time factor (PE in schools) 56–7 training 261, 266–7 see also continuous professional development Training and Development Agency (TDA) 190–1, 192, 238, 263, 266 transfer, learning as 40 transmission model 45 ‘troubleshooting’ role 267 Turnen system (Germany) 31–2, 33 understanding 264–5, 267, 275–8 unemployment 216 United Nations 77, 83, 220 Upton County Primary School 28, 29 Urban Schools Project 312–13, 315 values 97–8, 259–61, 331 victim blaming 58, 69–73 ‘victory narrative’ 25, 37 voices, youth (listening to) 105–13 volunteer coach mentoring 306–8 volunteer sport leaders 113 vulnerability (sporting bodies) 127–37 white feminism 209–10 whole-school approach 59 Wooden, John 289, 293 ‘Work Strands’ (PESSYP) 238–9 World Health Organization 67 young people needs (in PE/sport) 140–51 rights 2, 3, 15, 215 see also children Youth Matters 168 youth sport communities of practice 312–22 critical health pedagogy 65–73 disabled young people in 153–62 disaffected youth in 165–74 effective coaches 287–96 gender and 202–10 learning about health through 53–61 listening to youth voices 105–13 looked-after children in 214–24 motivation 116–24 needs of younger learners 140–51 Olympism 90–9 personalised learning 250–4 policy (comparative analysis) 77–87 social class and 178–87 Youth Sport Trust 79, 113, 159, 169, 218, 273 youth voices 105–13 Zambia (youth sport policy) 77, 83–6 ‘zone of proximal development’ 46 346 www.ebook777.com ... education and youth sport, and between teaching and coaching Indeed, as was noted in the Introduction, any distinctions can appear relatively meaningless to young sports participants An attempt... Acknowledgements xvii Introduction Section PEDAGOGY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND YOUTH SPORT What is sport pedagogy and why study it? 11 Kathleen Armour Why sport pedagogy? So, what is sport pedagogy? Pedagogy. .. education and youth sport 190 191 192 192 193 193 196 197 198 199 199 202 Anne Flintoff Introduction Why are PE teaching and sports coaching (still) gendered and why does it matter anyway? Towards