free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com www.ebook777.com free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Christmas in Germany free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com This page intentionally left blank www.ebook777.com free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Christmas in Germany A Cultural History Joe Perry University of North Carolina Press Chapel Hill free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com © 2010 The University of North Carolina Press All rights reserved Designed and set in Garamond Premier Pro with MT Goudy Text Lombardic Capitals by Rebecca Evans Manufactured in the United States of America The paper in this book meets the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council on Library Resources The University of North Carolina Press has been a member of the Green Press Initiative since 2003 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Perry, Joe Christmas in Germany: a cultural history / Joe Perry p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-8078-3364-3 (cloth: alk paper) Christmas—German—History Germany—Social life and customs I Title GT4987.49.C453 2010 394.26630943—dc22 2010010137 Portions of chapter are revised versions of material that appeared in “The Nazification of Christmas: Politics and Popular Celebration in the Third Reich,” Central European History 38 (December 2005): 572–605; portions of chapter are revised versions of material that appeared in “The Madonna of Stalingrad: Mastering the (Christmas) Past and West German National Identity after World War II,” Radical History Review 83 (Spring 2002): 6–27 cloth 14 13 12 11 10 www.ebook777.com free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com For Joe & Frances free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com This page intentionally left blank www.ebook777.com free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Contents Acknowledgments xi Introduction Germany’s Favorite Holiday Chapter One Scripting a National Holiday 13 Chapter Two Contradictions in the Christmas Mood 65 Chapter Three Christmas in Enemy Territory 93 Chapter Four Under the Sign of Kauflust 139 Chapter Five Christmas in the Third Reich 189 Chapter Six Ghosts of Christmas Past 239 Conclusion The Nation around the Christmas Tree 283 Notes 291 Bibliography 339 Index 373 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com This page intentionally left blank www.ebook777.com free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Figures 1.1 Cover of Hugo Elm’s Golden Christmas Book, 1878 12 1.2 Christmas Eve with the von Droste-Hülshoff family, from the sketchbook of Jenny von Droste-Hülshoff, 1833 29 1.3 Edward Brüning, On Christmas Eve, from the family magazine Ueber Land und Meer/Deutsche Illustrirte, December 1888 35 1.4 Christmas “wish card” printed in Berlin, 1906 44 1.5 A Zick, Holy Night, frontispiece from The Christmas Book, 1899 45 1.6 Gifts around the Christmas Tree, lithograph, circa 1875 61 2.1 Worker’s Christmas, circa 1910 66 2.2 Anti-Christmas cartoon from Schlemiel, 1904 72 3.1 Cover of Der Schützengraben (The Trench), December 1915 94 3.2 Father Jakob Ebner in military uniform 104 3.3 Officers and enlisted men celebrate War Christmas 112 3.4 Bavarian War Christmas party 114 3.5 Christmas in a dugout on the western front 115 3.6 Air Force Squadron 292 celebrates Christmas on the western front, 1916 116 3.7 Military railroad workers receive Christmas packages on the eastern front 117 3.8 Postcard: “Christmas Greetings from the Front,” 1917 126 3.9 Postcard from Galicia, Christmas 1916 127 3.10 Private sketch: “Best Christmas Wishes, from Father, 1915” 128 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Home-Life in Germany (Brace), 30–31 Homemade gifts and ornaments, 89, 180, 283; mass-produced replacements of, 145; Nazi promotion of, 210, 211, 215, 226 Honecker, Erich, 280 “Horst Wessel Song,” 165, 186 Hösel, Robert, 179–80 Hull, Isabel, 59 Humboldt, Caroline von, 13–14, 15, 19 Humboldt, Wilhelm von, 13, 15, 19, 64 Hunger Marches, 182 Hymns See Carols and hymns Identity See National identity; Selfidentity Illustrated magazines, 3, 41, 56, 172; Christmas stories and, 48; holiday issues of, 45; War Christmas images and, 113 Imperial Germany (1871–1918), 6, 8, 9, 31, 288; antiprejudice laws and, 170; Christian calendar and, 70; Christmas books and, 41–42; Christmas tree and, 33; class divisions and, 68, 84; commercialization of Christmas and, 139, 143–55; German identity and, 53, 54, 62; Jewish identity and, 68–76; militarism and, 63; nationalization of Christmas and, 61–64; nostalgia for idealized Christmas of, 172, 174; ornament pricing and, 146; proclamation of, 54; Social Democrats and, 76–84, 181–82, 242; workers’ Christmas and, 84–92, 279 See also World War I Imperialism, 62 Individuality See Self-identity Industrialization, 144–45, 211–12; German exports and, 30, 146; publishing industry and, 41–42 See also Commercialization of Christmas Innerlichkeit (inwardness), 15 Innigkeit (inwardness), 121 Iron Curtain See Cold War Irving, Washington: “Bracebridge Hall,” 30 Jacobs, Gerhard, 246 Jesus: Catholic Christmas and, 58; Christmas customs and, 32, 36, 44–45; Christmas tree symbolism and, 129–30; cult of domestic piety and, 43–44; German Jewish Christmas observance and, 70; Madonna of Stalingrad drawing of, 250, 251, 252–53; Nazi ideology and, 216; Protestant post-Nazi images of, 245; as Social Democrat working-class hero, 68, 77–78, 81; War Christmas evocations of, 106, 109, 111, 135 See also Birth of Jesus; Christkind Jewish Enlightenment, 69, 72 Jews, 17, 59, 65, 67–76, 92, 155, 285; acculturation/assimilation of, 67, 69, 70, 73, 74; challenges of German Christmas for, 55, 67–71; department stores linked with, 143; Hanukkah alternative of, 67, 71, 72–75, 72, 92, 179; Nazi elimination from Christian tradition of, 216–17, 221; Nazi genocide of, 224; War Christmas and, 119–20, 136; war theology and, 106, 107; Winter Relief exclusion of, 206 See also Anti-Semitism Johann (archduke of Austria), 37 John, Gospel of, 250 Jolkafest (Soviet holiday), 259 Jolka-Tanne ( Jolka Tree), 259 Joseph Claus (man-beast), 34 Judaism See Jews Jürgs, Michael: Der kleine Frieden im großen Krieg, 93, 95 Bibliography 385 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Kaiserreich See Imperial Germany Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church (West Berlin), 250–53, 254, 275 Kappstein, Theodor, 172, 173 Kästner, Erich, 181, 182 Käthe Wohlfahrt Christmas Shop, 145 Kaufhaus des Westens department store (Berlin), 165 Kaufhaus Jandorf department store (Berlin), 168 Kauflust (urge to buy), 10, 139, 140, 143, 285; Christmas spirit and, 147; department store profits and, 169; women and, 175; workers and, 155 Keitel, Wilhelm, 225, 227 Kelly, Alfred, 85 Kerrl, Hans, 215–16, 225 Kilian, Augustinus (bishop of Limberg), 106 King Mammon (book), 80 Kirby, Dianne, 245 Klabauf (man-beast), 34, 36 Kleine Frieden im großen Krieg, Der ( Jürgs), 93, 95 “Kling Glöckchen klingelingeling” (song), 81 Knecht Ruprecht, 34, 89, 247, 275 Koch, Richard, 69 Köhler, Rosemarie: Weihnachten in Berlin, 1945-1989: Ein Erinnerungsbuch, 288 Kommune (counterculture group), 275 Konditorei (confectioners), 161 Konsalik, Heinz: The Doctor of Stalingrad, 255; The Heart of the Sixth Army, 255 Konsumgenossenschaften (Consumer collectives), 168–69 Konsum stores, 276 Körner, Paul, 182 Kotzde, Wilhelm, 48, 50 386 KPD See Communist Party of Germany Kracauer, Siegfried, 48, 50 Krampus (man-beast), 34, 36 Kremer, Hannes, 191 Kretschmann, Hans von, 99 Kriegsbriefe gefallener Studenten (Witkop), 120, 125, 132 Kriegsweihnachten See War Christmas Kügelgen, Wilhelm von, 28–29 Kühnhauser, Florian, 99 Kulturkampf, 58, 59 Kulturprotestantismus (cultural Protestantism), 18 Kulturvolk (people of culture), 62 Kupfer, Elsbeth, 276–77 Kupferberg champagne, 174 Kuratorium Unteilbares Deutschland (Trustees for an Undivided Germany), 247 Kurfürstendamm (West Berlin), 266 Labor organizations, 77–78, 82, 85, 142, 153 Lagarde, Paul de, 55 Lange, Helene, 172 Langwadt, Claudius, 171 Lässig, Simone, 69 Latin liturgy, 38, 39 Lead soldiers, 155 League of German Girls, 185, 206, 228 League of German Women’s Organizations, 123, 133 League of Nazi Women, 229 Lebkuchen (gingerbread cakes), 62, 156 Leed, Eric, 134 Leidensgemeinschaft (community of suffering), 97 Leipziger Illustrirte Zeitung, 41, 42, 53–54, 172; “Radio Christmas 1923” drawing, 177; Winter Relief coverage, 206, 207 Bibliography www.ebook777.com free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Lerner, Paul, 170 Levy, A., 71 Lewy, Guenter, 225 Liberius (pope), 55 Lichterkette (chain of light, 1992), 288 Lidtke, Vernon, 76–77 Liebel, Willy, 164 Liebenzeller Mission, 130 Liebesgaben (charitable gifts), 123 Light Must Return (Nazi propaganda booklet), 235, 237 Lights: Berlin chain of (1992), 288; department store marketing and, 175, 272; electric displays of, 152, 174, 217, 272; as West German Cold War symbol, 24 See also Candles Linsingen, Alexander von, 113–14 Literacy rates, 42 Literature, Christmas, 5, 15–24, 40–42, 48–54, 283; canonical texts of, 23; Catholic stories and, 46; didacticism and, 40–44, 60, 61; “how-to” books and, 283; national identity and, 40, 56–57, 62–64; national market for, 33; Nazis and, 135, 194, 200–201, 202–3, 214–15, 218, 221, 255; plots and settings of, 48–50, 153–54; political critiques and, 181; proletarian stories and, 49, 76–77, 79–83; radio broadcasts and, 179; rich-poor interactions in, 16, 18–19, 48; romantic stories and, 173; scholars’ Christmas-origin texts and, 54–57, 173, 194; socialist counter to, 79–80, 259, 261; War Christmas and, 101, 102–3, 125, 135, 235, 236, 237, 256; war memoirs and, 97–98, 102, 255–56 Little Lord, The (TV special), 273 “Little Match Seller” (Andersen), 52, 237 Lohmeyer, Julius, 48; German YouthChristmas Album, 42 “Lo! How a Rose E’er Blooming” (hymn), 38, 110, 230 Loki (Norse god), 57 Lorentz, Christa, 281 Love, 25, 26, 28, 30–31, 51–52 Love Is the Kingdom of Heaven (play), 153–54 Ludendorff, Erich and Mathilde, 134, 222; Weinachten im Lichte der Rassenerkenntnis, 222 Ludwig II (king of Bavaria), 100 Luke, Gospel of, 13, 17, 176 Lustgarten (Berlin), 163, 164 Luther, Martin, 17, 55, 75, 217, 221; apocryphal Christmas tree legend and, 32; “From Heaven Above to Earth I Come,” 39, 62, 177, 181, 262; Gabenbringer and, 36; “A Mighty Fortress Is Our God,” 131; “O How Joyfully,” 70, 241 Luther Bible, 13, 16–17 Maccabees, 67, 72, 73, 75, 120, 136 Madonna of Stalingrad (Reuber drawing), 250, 251, 252–53 Madonna of Stalingrad, The (Pötzsch poems), 365 Mann, Thomas: Buddenbrooks, 34 “Maoz Tzur” (Hanukkah song), 74, 75 Marahrens, August (bishop of Hannover), 244–45 Marbach, Johannes, 54–55 Marketing and advertising, 5, 10; Christmas goods and, 139, 142, 143, 144, 146–47, 146, 285; Christmas mood and, 174–76, 177; critics of, 180; department stores and, 165, 166, 168, 170, 175; East Germany and, 276, 277; electric light displays and, 175, 272; professional model for, 147–51, 149; West Germany and, 269 Bibliography 387 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Markets, outdoor See Christmas markets Markmiller, Fritz, 196 Marshall Field’s (Chicago department store), 165 Marshall Plan, 248 Martineau, Harriet, 30 “Martyr’s Tablet” (West Berlin), 252 Mass culture, 143, 174, 176–77 Mass-produced goods See Commercialization of Christmas Mayer, Fridolin, 95, 108, 119 McLeod, Hugh, 79, 92 Media, 142, 282, 283; Cold War and, 246; Nazi use of, 194, 197–99 See also specific types Menorah, 70, 71, 73, 74, 75 Merkel, Ina, 279 Merry Christmas (film), 95 Meyer, Arnold, 47, 55 Meyer, Fritz, 124–25 Middle-class values, 2–3, 6, 23–26; changing notions and, 17; Christmas stories and, 16, 18–19, 23–24, 48–53, 64, 80; department stores and, 167, 168; domestic servants and, 86–89; German Christmas as invention of, 7, 8–9, 15, 31, 274, 284; German identity and, 53, 64; Hanukkah observance and, 67, 68–71, 74; lower middle class and, 141, 142, 169, 171; moral probity and, 25–26; Nazi Christmas guidelines and, 210; ritualization of, 24–25; romantic love and, 51–52; Social Democrat alternative culture and, 85; West German student protests against, 275; working-class drinking vs., 90 See also Bildungsbürgertum; Domestic piety, cult of; Family life Midnight mass, 14, 38, 58, 224; frontline celebration of, 109–10 388 “Mighty Fortress Is Our God, A” (Luther), 131 Miles, Clement, 14; Christmas in Ritual and Tradition, 3, 34, 283, 284 Milhaly, Jo, 123 Militarism: Christmas books and, 41, 63; German Christmas and, 59–61, 95, 102, 113, 118; German identity and, 8, 64, 95–96, 102–3, 174; wartime myths and, 134 See also War Christmas Mistletoe, 152 Mittelstand (lower middle class), 141, 142, 169, 171 Moeller, Robert, 248 Monument to the Battle of Peoples (Leipzig), Moritz-Henning, Ernst: Nun brennen viele Kerzen, 221 Mosse, George, 95 Motherhood, 21–22; Catholicism and, 46; dolls and, 60; Nazis deification of, 203, 210; post–World War I and, 173; “Silent Night” and, 39 Mühlhausen, Rudolf, 173 Mühsam, Erich, 181; “Holy Eve” (poem), 72–73 Mühsam, Paul, 70 Müller, Ernst, 72 Müller, Ludwig, 205 Mumming rituals, 14, 20, 34, 55, 89 Münster, Bishopric of, 37 Murderers Are Among Us, The (film), 239, 241, 242–43, 260, 282 Music, Christmas, 22, 62, 153; broadcasts of, 178, 261; East Germany and, 261, 263; family holiday rituals and, 39–40, 47; Nazi “Germanization” of, 218, 220–21, 230; religious services and, 38–39, 224; War Christmas and, 226 See also Carols and hymns Bibliography www.ebook777.com free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Myra, bishop of, 34 Mythologies (Barth), 136, 137 Napoleonic Wars, 2, 13, 17, 24, 40, 59 Nationale Frauendienst, 122, 123, 133 National identity, 3–4, 53–64; Catholic rituals and, 57–59; Christmas as celebration of, 6–7, 16, 17, 54, 61–62, 68, 70, 71, 84, 111, 137, 284; Christmas books and, 40, 56–57, 62–64; Christmas tree and, 33, 34, 53–54, 56, 129; commercialization of Christmas and, 143–44, 176; domestic piety linked with, 8, 59, 173, 284–86; German culture and, 56, 62, 143, 145, 178–79; German soul and, 1, 32; Heimat and, 53, 54, 96; media popularization of, 197; militarism and, 8, 64, 95–96, 102–3, 174; Nazi mythic past and, 189, 191, 194, 198, 210, 215–27; outsiders and, 92; pagan heritage and, 79; Protestantism linked with, 57–58, 62–64, 95–96, 216; radio broadcasts and, 178–79; Völkisch ideology and, 6; War Christmas and, 95–100, 102–3, 105–6 National Railway Authority, 217–18 National Socialist German Workers Party: founding ideology of, 191; invented holidays of, 201; Weimar era and, 181, 183, 184–88, 201 See also Nazi Germany National Socialist League of Women, 191 National Socialist People’s Welfare, 195, 206 National Socialist Teachers’ Union, 189, 196–97 National Socialist Women’s League, 195, 213–15 National Women’s Services, 122, 123, 132 Nativity scene (crèche), 37, 44–45, 46, 248; commercial manufacture of, 144, 145–46; Nazi version of, 217, 218; soldiers’ frontline Christmas and, 110 Nativity story See Birth of Jesus Naumann, Klaus, 288 Nazi Germany (1933–45), 7, 141, 142, 177, 189–238; Christmas kitsch of, 213, 288; church-state relations and, 6, 10–11, 193, 215–27; defeat of, 211, 238, 243, 260; invented traditions of, 193–205, 200–201; Jewish suppression by, 136, 216–17, 221, 224; mythic national past and, 173, 184, 189, 191, 193–94, 210, 219; postwar portrayals of, 239, 241–42, 244–45, 250–56, 260, 274, 287; pseudoracial ethnography and, 193–94, 201, 206; religious splintering of, 193, 252; restructuring of Christmas by, 9, 10–11, 184, 188, 287 (see also People’s Christmas); return of Christmas markets by, 163–64; revised Christianity of (see German Christian doctrine); social welfare and (see Winter Relief ); Volksgemeinschaft concept and, 11, 134, 135, 184, 193, 198, 205 See also War Christmas; World War II Nazi Party District Offices, 195–96 Nazi Security Service See SD (Security Service) Neopaganism, 184, 191, 193–94, 205, 210, 218, 219, 221, 222, 259; Catholic Church attack on, 224 Neo-Romanticism, 23 Neues Deutschland (East German newspaper), 260, 262, 266, 267, 276–77, 278 Newspapers See Press Bibliography 389 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Newsreels, 170, 247; Nazi use of, 197–98, 202, 206, 223, 228, 230, 241 Nickel, Marcus Adam, 27–28 1960s, 274–75, 280–82, 286 Nineteenth century, 9, 13–64, 65, 284; Christmas books and, 40–42, 48–54; Christmas tree and, 32–34, 35; Jewish revival of Hanukkah and, 67, 72–73; mood of early decades of, 17–31; Weihnachtsmann and, 34 Nolan, Mary, 84–85 Nordic myths, 10, 16, 57, 191; Nazi Christmas and, 193–94, 210, 219 Northwest German Broadcasting Corporation, 273 Nostalgia, 26–29, 121, 129, 172; as advertising motif, 174, 175; for Peace Christmas (1945), 243; War Christmas and, 10, 99–102, 129, 132 Nuremberg Laws (1936), 136 Nutcracker and the Mouse King, The (Hoffmann), 23–24, 25, 144; cultural significance of, 23, 283; emotional evocations and, 26–27; war toys and, 59 Nutcrackers, mass production of, 144–45, 257 Odin’s Sun Wheel, 210 “Oh Christmas Tree” (song), 17, 39, 81; Nazi revision of, 222; War Christmas revision of, 313 “Oh Come, Oh Come Emmanuel” (carol), 47 “O How Joyfully” (Falk), 17; East German film title parody of, 265; Martin Luther and, 70, 241; Nazi revision of, 222; parodies of, 181; War Christmas revision of, 130 “Oh, Savior, Tear Open the Heavens” (hymn), 221; counterculture version of, 274–75 390 On Christmas Eve (Brüning), 34, 35 Opel Kadett (car), 240, 269 Ornaments See Decorations and ornaments Orthodox Jews, 67, 68, 69, 71, 74 Ostwald, Hans, 163 Outdoor markets See Christmas markets Outsider groups, 9, 17, 65–92; boundaries with, 54; Catholic editorialists on, 59; War Christmas and, 135–36 See also Jews; Social Democrats; working class Pagan rites, 10, 14, 16, 36, 54–55, 57, 59, 79, 173, 216 See also Neopaganism; Winter solstice Pan-German League, Pantel, Gerhard, 187 Paulus, Friedrich, 255 Peace Christmas, 241–42, 243–66, 287; East Germany and, 257–65, 277–79; firsthand accounts of, 243–44 Peace on Earth! or: Deportation on Christmas Eve (proletarian play), 153 Pelzmärte (man-beast), 34 Pence, Katherine, 280 People’s Christmas (Nazi Germany), 10–11, 173, 192–238, 259; churchstate conflict over, 215–27; deChristianization of, 215; different names for, 230; elements of, 191–94; family celebration and, 195; Germanization of, 216–18; iconography of, 247; invention of, 237–38; neopagan influences on, 222; newsreels of, 197–98, 202, 223; obstacles to, 193; popularity of, 213; promotion of, 200–201; as racially correct, 214–15; segmented celebrations of, 195; street celebrations of, 199–200; values and Bibliography www.ebook777.com free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com goals of, 188; War Christmas and, 225–26, 229–30, 234–35; Winter Relief and, 205–15; women’s involvement in, 210–11 People’s Community See Volksgemeinschaft People’s League for Catholic Germany, 106 People’s Receiver (radio), 177 Perrot, Michelle, 17 Peter Feldhaus Company, 145 Petzold, Artur, 141–42 Peukert, Detlev, 172 Pezlnichol (man-beast), 34 Pfeffer, Friedrich, 141 Photography, 113, 115 Pianos, 30, 39–40 Pius XI (pope), 220 Pius XII (pope), 245 Plays: generic Christmas plots of, 153–54; military War Christmas themes of, 102–3; Nazi Christmas versions of, 218 Plivier, Theodor: Stalingrad, 255 Poinsettias, 152 Politics: Cold War Christmas and, 244– 46, 259, 260–64; early Christmas Eve shop-closing hours and, 139–41; German Christmas and, 7, 10–11, 53, 137, 242, 284–88; post–World War I Christmas myths and, 135–36; Weimar-era Christmas and, 180–88; working class and, 49, 90 See also Church and state; National identity; Social Democrats; War Christmas Popp, Adelheid, 76 Portraits of the Most Famous Heroes of Our Time (Christmas book), 41 Postcards, War Christmas, 125–27, 126, 127 Potsdamer Platz (Berlin), 152, 166, 169 Pötzsch, Arno: The Madonna of Stalingrad, 254 Poverty: church membership and, 92; feminization of, 49–50, 51; fictional idealization of, 48–49, 50–53; proletarian Christmas stories and, 80; Weimar era and, 181; working-class Christmas and, 68, 76, 80 See also Charity Prauss, Herbert, 246 Presents See Gift giving Press, 56, 142; Catholic Christmas stories and, 58–59; holiday issues of, 45; War Christmas portrayals and, 102, 106, 107–8, 113, 125 See also Illustrated magazines Prisoners of war, German, 248–49, 250, 252 Private sphere, 27, 64; broken boundaries of, 142–43; golden age of, 17–18; Nazi merger of ideology and consumption in, 212–13 See also Family life Prodigal Son, The (Nazi film), 203–5 Proletarian Christmas stories, 76–77, 79–83; stock characters in, 49, 80 Propaganda Ministry (Nazi), 195, 202, 234, 235, 237 “Protestant Customs among the Catholics” (1888 article), 37 Protestant ethic, 25–26 Protestantism: bourgeois domesticity and, 16–17, 18, 19, 20–23, 42–46, 173; Catholic tensions with, 57, 59, 119; central traditions of German Christmas and, 5–6, 9, 16–17, 18, 27, 30, 31, 36, 47, 61–62, 63, 285; Christmas broadcasts and, 178, 273; Christmas carols and, 39, 62; Christmas sentimentalism and, 284; Christmas story perspective of, 51; Christmas tree and, 31, 32, 33, 34, 37, 129–30; Christmas Bibliography 391 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com worship and, 38, 43; Cold War and, 244, 245, 246, 250–53, 254, 257, 261, 262–65; commercialization of Christmas concerns of, 139–40, 141, 154–55; Communist protests and, 183–84; didactic Christmas books and, 41–42; Imperial Germany and, 31, 54, 57–58; meaning of Christmas and, 42–43; modernized piety and, 22–23; nationalism and, 62–64, 216; Nazis and, 193, 215, 216–17, 218, 219–20, 223, 224–26, 237, 244–45, 252; Stuttgart Declaration of Guilt (1945) and, 244–45; sumptuary laws and, 90–92; War Christmas and, 9, 102, 106–7, 119, 223, 224–25; Weihnachtsmann as gift bringer and, 36; women congregants and, 43; workers and, 78–79, 84, 92 Protestant Mother Church, 178 Protestant Upper Consistory See Evangelisches Oberkirchenrat Protze, Karl, 163 Prussia: Christmas traditions and, 9, 13–14, 18, 31, 36, 47, 54, 61–62, 63, 95, 284; expansion of, 32; German unification and, 54; militarism and, 59–60, 98; pickle-sticker infantry helmet of, 60, 61, 61, 113; Protestant nationalism and, 216; Protestant war theology and, 106–7; sumptuary laws and, 85, 90–92 See also Franco-Prussian War Prussian Angel (Heartfield), 181 Publishing industry, 41–42, 48 Pudelko, Walter, 203 Quempas Songbook, 226 Raasch, Artur, 277 Racial ideology: campaign against department stores and, 170, 185; Nazi correct Christmas and, 214–15, 216, 392 218, 238, 259, 287; Nazi genocidal policies and, 224; Nazi pseudoracial ethnography and, 193–94, 201, 206; Nazis normalization of, 188, 191, 192, 193, 194, 197, 211, 212; War Christmas and, 100; Winter Relief recipients and, 206, 209 Radio, 142, 176–79, 180, 261, 283; Nazi Christmas programs and, 192, 197, 199, 202; Nazi War Christmas and, 225–26, 230, 232–33, 237, 287 Ramschbasaren (junk bazaars), 170 Rarkowski, Josef, 222–23 Rauhnacht festival (Tyrol), 203–5 Reber-Gruber, Auguste, 189, 191, 193, 210 Rechlin, Karl: Christmas Market in Berlin — An Unwilling Customer, 1865 (Rechlin), 157, 158, 161–62 Red Bernau anti-Christmas demonstrations (1930), 183–84, 197 Red cabbage, 1, 62 “Red Christmas” (1918), 172 Red Cross, 115, 122, 123–24, 248 Reformation, 21, 36, 55, 205 See also Protestantism Reform Judaism, 68–70, 72–73; Christmas celebration and, 67, 69–70 Refugees, 243, 248–49 Reichstag, 140–41, 142 Reimann, Aribert, 121, 132 Reklame, Die (trade journal), 139, 147–48, 149 Religious traditions: army chaplains and, 103, 104, 105–6, 107; Christmas church attendance and, 219–20, 224, 283; Christmas tree symbolism and, 129–30; Communist Party attacks on, 182, 183; consumer culture as threat to, 139–40, 141, 143, 154–55, 285; contemporary German cafeteria-style approach to, 281–82; domestication Bibliography www.ebook777.com free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com of, 42–47; East German Christmas and, 260–65; feminization of, 43, 74; Jews and, 67, 68–74; national identity and, 57–59, 286; Peace Christmas and, 241–42, 243–44, 250, 287; radio ecumenical broadcasts and, 178; sentimentalism and, 44–46, 74; War Christmas frontline services and, 96, 99, 109–11, 119, 254–55, 256; War Christmas tensions and, 119–20, 222–23; war theology and, 105–7, 216; West German attitudes and, 244–45, 280–81 See also Catholicism; DeChristianization; Jews; Protestantism; Secularization Rellstab, Ludwig, 151 Restaurant H Jaeger (Berlin), 152 Reuber, Kurt: Madonna of Stalingrad drawing, 250, 251, 252–53, 254 Revolutions of 1848, 17, 59 Richarz, Monika, 69 Richert, Dominik, 118 Richter, Hans Werner, 273 Richter, Ludwig, 98, 101 Ringing church bells, 97–98, 178, 182, 218, 223, 230, 237; Stalingrad broadcast of, 232–33, 287 Ritschl, Albrecht, 59 Roast goose, 1, 62, 71, 268 Rogge, Bernhard, 99 Roper, Lyndal, 21 Rosenberg, Alfred, 210, 224; Myth of the Twentieth Century, 224 Rosenwein, Barbara, 4–5 Rote Fahne, Die (Communist newspaper), 182, 183 Rowdy celebration: wartime barracks parties and, 99, 100; working-class Christmas and, 68, 76, 89–90, 91, 159 Ru Claus (man-beast), 34 Rummmelzplatz (East Berlin), 257, 259 Ru Paul (man-beast), 34 SA (storm troopers), 183, 184–87, 191, 199, 199, 201, 218; chocolate decorations in shape of, 203; Winter Relief solicitations by, 209 Sahlins, Marshall, 144 St Andrew’s Day, 14 St Jerome’s Church (Cologne), 178 St Nicholas, 25, 34, 36, 41 Saldern, Adelheid von, 210 Sanders-Brahms, Helma: Germany, Pale Mother, 287 Santa Claus, 36, 37 Sauer, Hermann: Evaluation of the Church’s Responsibilities and Possibilities during War Christmas, 224–25, 226 Saxon Erzgebirge (Ore Mountains), 144–45 Scandinavia, 30 Schacht, Hjalmar, 164 Scheller, Thilo, 202–3, 235, 237; “The Dead Soldiers’ Homecoming,” 235, 237 Schemm, Hans, 202–3 Schikorsky, Isa, 124 Schleiermacher, Friedrich, 15, 18–23, 27, 42, 63, 64, 286; The Christian Faith, 20–23; The Christmas Celebration, 18–20; On Religion, 23 Schlemiel (Zionist humor magazine), 71, 72 Schleswig-Holstein, 54 Schoepplenberg, Sophie Pauline, 33 Scholem, Gershom, 70–71 Scholtz-Klink, Gertrud, 213–14, 215 Schröter, Heinz, 254; Stalingrad —“To the Last Round,” 254–55 Schubert, J. D.: Berlin’s Christ Market in Breitestrasse, 156, 157–58, 159 Bibliography 393 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Schultz, Wolfgang, 211 Schulz, Pastor, 183–84 Schützengraben, Der (army newspaper), 94, 120–21, 129 Schwadtke, Paul: “Weihenacht” (”Sacred Night”), 221 Schwind, Moritz von, 36; “Herrn Winter,” 36 SD (Security Service), 213, 219, 228, 229, 230, 231, 233, 237 Secularization: Christmas customs and, 37, 40, 47, 68; Communism and, 26, 245, 259, 260, 262, 265; German Jews and, 67, 69; 1960s and, 274–75, 280–82, 286; Social Democrats and, 68, 77–80, 84; working class and, 92 SED See Socialist Unity Party Sedan Day, Sedgwick, Catherine, 30 Seidels Reklame (trade journal), 147, 150–51, 179 Self-identity, 2–3, 5, 11, 14, 26, 64, 143, 284, 285, 290 Self-improvement, 50 Senses, 4, 27, 28 Sentimentalism, 5, 15, 17, 27, 82, 247–48; Christmas books and, 40–42, 45, 48–49, 51, 52, 63; Christmas engagements or weddings and, 173; Christmas imagery and, 148, 149; Christmas observances and, 44–46, 47–48, 68, 88–89, 92, 262, 284, 286; feminization of religious life and, 43; Jewish Christmas alternatives and, 74, 76, 92; national middle class and, 64, 290; Nazi holiday and, 203, 210, 213, 228; private life and, 290; “proletarian” Christmas and, 76–77, 79, 92; War Christmas and, 100, 102, 115, 120, 123, 228, 232, 253 See also Christmas mood; Nostalgia 394 Separate spheres ideology, 17, 21, 25, 214 “Servant’s Christmas, The” (article), 87 Sheehan, Jonathan, 282 Shopping See Consumer culture Siegel, Jerrold, Siege of Paris (1870), 33, 59; first War Christmas and, 97–98 Siegl, Wigg, 273, 274 Siemens (company), 86, 269 “Silent Night” (carol), 17, 39, 62, 70, 71, 145, 164, 186, 218, 230; Nazi revision of, 218, 221; parodies of, 181; radio broadcasts of, 178; socialist revision of, 81–82; soldiers’ singing of, 108, 131–32, 232, 255; television documentary on, 273; War Christmas revision of, 130; World War I “Christmas truce” and, 93, 95, 124 Silver Sunday (shopping day), 141, 166, 171 Small shopkeepers: Christmas shoppers and, 139, 140, 141, 142; department store competition to, 169–70; display windows of, 147; Nazi support for, 212; Weimar economic crisis and, 171 Snowy landscapes, 121, 148, 197–98, 247 Social Democrats, 7, 59, 65, 76–84, 85, 90, 92, 186; carol revisions by, 81–82, 181–82, 274; charity parties and, 83; Christmas Eve store hours and, 139– 41, 142; Christmas market and, 163; Christmas parties and, 152–53; Christmas tree and, 56; counter-Christmas of, 67–68, 76–79, 82–84, 181, 182; critique of commercialized Christmas by, 155, 167; as East German Christmas influence, 242; Nazi-era exile group (see Sopade); newspaper of (see Vorwärts); proletarian Christmas stories of, 49, 76–77, 79–81, 286–87; War Christmas recollections and, Bibliography www.ebook777.com free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com 135–36; winter solstice and, 79, 81, 191, 194 Socialism See East Germany; Social Democrats Socialist German Student League, 275 Socialist Unity Party (East Germany), 242, 258, 260–61, 262, 264; “Christmas Miracle” and, 266, 267; consumer consumption and, 275–76, 278 Social strata, 5, 27, 285; Christmas activities and, 152–53, 159; Christmas shopping and, 141–42, 143; Christmas story portrayals of, 16, 18–19, 48, 51–53; department store choice and, 168–69; department store workers and, 169; downward mobility and, 171; fictionalized upward mobility and, 51–52; German Jews and, 69; German polarization and, 118; Imperial German divisions and, 68; War Christmas divisions and, 113–14, 115, 115, 116, 117–19, 135 See also Bildungsbürgertum; Middle-class values; Working class Society for German God Consciousness, 22 Sollmann, Wilhelm, 140–41 Solstice rituals See Winter solstice Songs: Hanukkah, 74, 75; Nazi, 202, 202–3, 214, 220, 221; patriotic, 131 See also Carols and hymns Sopade (Social Democratic Party in exile), 208, 213, 214–15 Soviet Union See Cold War Sozialistischer Deutscher Studentenbund, 275 SPD See Social Democrats Spee, Friedrich: “Oh, Savior, Tear Open the Heavens,” 221 Spiegel, Der (news magazine), 240, 246, 269–70 Sputnik tree ornaments, 265 SS (paramilitary unit), 197, 213, 227 Stalin, Joseph, 260 Stalinallee (East Berlin), 268, 276–77 Stalingrad (film), 287 Stalingrad (Plivier), 255 Stalingrad, Battle of (1941), 231–32, 234; postwar legend of, 250–56, 251, 287; “ring broadcast” and, 232–33, 287 Stalingrad — “To the Last Round” (Schröter), 254–55 Stalinstadt/Eisenhüttenenstadt, 262–65 Staudte, Wolfgang, 239, 241, 242 Steinhoff, Anthony J., 39 Stifter, Adalbert, 23, 48, 90 Stillich, Oskar, 86–87 Stitziel, Judd, 276 Stocknis, Rudolf, 60–61 Stolz, Alban, 37 Storm, Theodor, 23, 62; Unter dem Tannenbaum, 53–54 Storm troopers See SA Street fairs See Christmas markets Streicher, Jules, 213 Streizelmarkt (Dresden), 156 Strength through Joy (KdF), 192 Strzelewicz, Boleslaw, 81–82 Stumpf, Richard, 118–19 Sturmabteilung See SA Stuttgart Declaration of Guilt (1945), 244–45 Sulzbach, Herbert, 119, 132–33 Sumptuary laws, 85, 90–92, 153; Advent Sunday shopping and, 166; Christmas Eve store hours and, 91, 139–42, 171 Swastika tree ornaments, 186, 213, 217 Tanera, Carl, 97; Serious and Humorous Memories of an Ordnance Office in 1870/71, 101 Tannenbaum See Christmas tree Bibliography 395 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Taverns, 85, 90, 153 Taylor, Charles, 2, 3, 26 Tchaikovsky, Pyotr Ilyich, 23 Technical University (Berlin), 283 Television, 261, 273, 283 Temporary holiday workers, 169 “Ten Christmas Commandments for the German Housewife” (1934), 211 Third Reich See Nazi Germany Third War Christmas (Nazi), 230 “This My Spirit Exalts the Lord” (hymn), 38–39 Thomas Church (Leipzig), 261 Thomy, Erika, 222 Three Kings Church (Frankfurt am Main), 273 Tieck, Ludwig, 23, 48, 50, 167–68, 285; “Christmas Eve,” 50, 159–61, 164 Tietz Department Store (Berlin), 138, 140, 150–51, 151, 164–65; customers’ social class and, 168 Tille, Alexander, 1, 11, 55, 55–56, 289 Tingel-Tangel (vaudeville), 85, 153, 162 Tin soldiers, 59, 61, 155 Tönnies, Ferdinand, 65 Toys, 5, 25, 247; gender roles and, 14, 24, 28, 59, 60, 61; Germanic Christmas past and, 56; marketing of, 150; Nazi guidelines for, 211; war theme of, 8, 24, 59–61; worker exploitation and, 155 Trenker, Luis, 200 Tucholsky, Kurt, 181 Turner, Victor, 289 Turnip Winter (1916), 131–32 Tyrol, 203–5 U-boats, 62 Ulbricht, Walter, Ultramontane movement, 27 Under the Sign of Peace (Baumann), 202 Under the Sign of the Cross (Nazi Christmas play), 218 Unemployment, 171, 181 United States, 36, 73, 197, 271; Christmas commercialization and, 180, 272, 278; German Christmas adoption in, 30–31, 56; as German Christmas card market, 146; post–World War II German occupation by, 247–48, 252 Unter dem Tannenbaum (Storm), 53–54 Urbanization, 49, 152, 158, 161, 162; working class and, 84–85 Verdun front, 104–5, 108, 110 Verlorene Sohn, Der (Nazi film), 203–5 Verweltlichung See Secularization Victimization narratives, German, 248, 250, 252–53 Vienna, 68, 76 Vienna Conference (1815), 32 Vierbeck, Doris, 88–89 Vietnam War, 274 Vilsmaier, Joseph, 287 Virgin Birth, 59 Virgin Mary, 21–22, 37, 205; cult of motherhood and, 46; Madonna of Stalingrad drawing of, 250, 251, 252–53 Volk, 6, 9, 16, 55, 75, 106, 284; Catholicism and, 46, 58; Christmas tree symbolism and, 129; family linked with, 173; Nazi emphasis on, 200, 201, 203, 205, 206, 211, 216, 218 Volk holidays, 164 Volksgemeinschaft (People’s Community), 11, 134, 135, 184, 193, 198, 205; family Christmas and, 210; religious factions and, 215, 217; soldiers’ winterclothing drive and, 230; Winter Relief and, 209 Volkskirche (Nazi national church), 193 396 Bibliography www.ebook777.com free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Volkstestament, Der (Nazi-revised Gospels), 217 Volksverein für das katholische Deutschland, 106 Volkswagen, 269 Volksweihnachten See People’s Christmas Von Wegen Heilige Nacht! (catalogue), 288 Vorfreude (radio program), 177–78 Vorwärts (SPD newspaper), 67–68, 73, 77–78, 79, 83, 89, 155; Christmas story in, 80; on commercialized Christmas, 167; department store advertising in, 168 Vossische Zeitung (Berlin daily), 151–52, 166 Wagner, Richard, 57 Wallich, Hildegard, 61 War Christmas, 9, 59–60, 92, 93–137, 287–88; army chaplains and, 94, 96, 103, 104, 105–6, 107, 226; charity drives and, 121–22; Christmas trees and, 33, 93, 94, 96, 97, 110, 112; clichés of, 97–98, 108, 253, 256; critiques of, 117, 123–24; crying soldier trope and, 132, 133, 136; cult of death and, 135–36, 234–37; first celebration of, 97; fundamental tropes of, 111, 121; idealized postwar memories of, 134–35; idealized visual images of, 113; institutional networks and, 106–7, 121–24; letters and diaries and, 98–99, 100, 101, 105–11, 116–19, 120, 121–22, 124–25, 129, 132–33, 136, 226, 253, 254; memoirs and, 97, 100, 101, 102, 242; mythic elements of, 35–36, 99, 105, 120–21, 135–36, 237, 253–56; Nazi past and, 241–42, 260, 287–88; Nazi versions of, 135, 136–37, 222–37, 250, 251, 252–55, 287–88; nostalgia marketing and, 101–2; official versions of, 121–22, 231–32; picture postcards and, 125–27; political use of, 286–87; popular response to, 118–19; postwar recollections of, 134–37, 253–55; social/religious tensions and, 118–20; songs of, 130–32, 226; theological tenets of, 105–7, 216; troop celebrations and, 100–101, 108–9, 111, 112, 113–18, 114, 115, 116, 117, 229, 253, 256; World War I “Christmas truce” and, 93, 95, 105 “War Christmas Tree Song,” 130–31 War criminals, 239, 241, 242 War Hanukkah, 107, 119–20, 136 War Letters from Fallen Students (Witkop), 120, 125, 132 War toys, 8, 24, 59–61, 155 “Watch on the Rhine” (song), 131 Weber-Kellermann, Ingeborg, 40, 97, 288 Weddings and engagements, 26, 173, 178 Wehrmann, Frodi Ingolfson, 191 Weihnachtsbücher See Christmas books Weihnachtsgratifikation See Bonus, Christmas Weihnachtsknechte (Christmas trolls), 20 Weihnachtsmann, 5–6, 9, 15, 17, 34, 36, 41, 47, 123, 179; costume/activities of, 283; counterculture and, 275; East Germany and, 262; horrible attendant of, 34, 36; Nazis and, 203; sales-campaign imagery of, 148; Social Democrat critics of, 155 Weihnachtsmarkt See Christmas markets 156 Weihnachtsmarseillaise (carol), 81 Weihnachtsstimmung See Christmas mood Weihnachtswanderung See Christmas stroll Bibliography 397 free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Weihnukka (hybrid holiday), 67, 76, 92 Weimar era (1919–33), 7, 10, 170–88; battle for Christmas and, 180–88, 259; Christmas shopping hours and, 139–40, 171; commercialization of Christmas and, 143, 174–76, 179–80; department stores and, 170–71; economic problems of, 170–72, 176; gender roles and, 173–74; holiday broadcasts and, 176–79; Nazi festivals and, 201; socialist Christmas and, 77, 81, 242, 279; Winter Relief program of, 181, 208 Weineke, Friedrich, 227 Weinert, Erich, 181; “The New Star,” 261 Weintraub, Stanley: Silent Night: The Story of the World War I Christmas Truce, 95 Werner, Friedrich, 225 Wertheim Department Store (Berlin), 140, 164–65, 169; customers’ social class and, 168 “We Salute You in Victory Laurels” (song), 118 West Berlin, 245, 250–53, 254, 257, 258, 275; shopping corridor of, 266 West Germany, 239, 242–57, 266, 268–75; Christmas in, 10, 11, 242–43, 244–45, 248–50, 260, 261, 280–81, 287; counterculture and, 274–75; critics of values of, 273; East German gift packages and, 270–72; Economic Miracle of, 240, 243, 266, 268–75; postwar revisionism of, 250–54, 274; secularization and, 280–81; War Christmas stories and, 242, 256–57 Westphalia, 32–33 Wetz, Richard, 179, 180; Christmas Oratorio on Old German Poems, 179 WHW See Winter Relief 398 Widows and orphans, 50–51, 79 Wildt, Michael, 268, 280 Wilhelm I (emperor of Germany), 62 Wilhelm II (emperor of Germany), 8, 62, 77; War Christmas and, 96, 101, 102, 103, 106 Wilke, Karola, 221 Williams, Graham, 93 Wimmelwolf, 63, 64 Window displays, 139, 147, 150–51, 151, 161, 163, 170, 175, 180, 277 Winter Relief (Nazi), 190, 192, 195, 196, 198, 199, 205–9, 207, 214, 215, 228, 230–31, 231, 238; critics of, 208–9; welfare philosophy of, 206 Winter Relief (Weimar), 181, 208 Winter solstice, 1, 16, 57, 63, 172; Nazis and, 191, 192, 195, 202–5, 218, 224, 225, 227, 238, 259; Social Democrats and, 79, 81, 191, 194 Wise Men, 217, 218 Wish cards, 44, 44 Witkop, Philip, 120; Kriegsbriefe gefallener Studenten, 120, 125, 132 Wolters, Gottfried, 221 Women: Christmas activities of, 87–88, 173–74, 175, 176; as department store customers, 165, 175, 176; as department store workers, 169; holiday radio broadcasts for, 179; live-in domestics and, 86–87; national identity and, 103, 173–74; Nazi era and, 192, 210–11, 213–15, 226–27, 233, 237; post–World War I “surplus” of, 173; religious observance and, 43, 264; World War II losses by, 248 See also Gender roles Women’s Fatherland Society, 123 Women’s organizations: Nazified Christmas and, 213–15; Nazi Winter Relief and, 206, 207, 214, 215; War Christmas and, 122–23, 133 Bibliography www.ebook777.com free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Worker’s Christmas in Song, The, 81 “Worker’s Silent Night” (carol), 81–82 Working class, 49, 65; Christmas bonus and, 85–86, 141, 173, 278; Christmas customs and, 56, 66, 68, 76, 80–81, 82, 85–92, 152–54, 159, 286–87; Christmas Eve store hours and, 139–40, 141; Christmas outdoor markets and, 162, 163; Christmas story portrayals of, 49; church attendance by, 182; commercialization of Christmas and, 49, 84–85, 155; department stores and, 167, 168, 169; domestic employment and, 87–89; East German Christmas events and, 261, 263, 279; holiday radio broadcasts for, 179; Jesus linked with, 68, 77–78, 81; Nazi Christmas events and, 196, 196, 199; Nazi Winter Relief and, 205–15; sumptuary laws and, 90–92; wages of, 146 Working Group for the Reinvigoration of Berlin’s Inner-City, 163–64 World War I, 9, 64, 93–97, 103–37, 229, 231, 256, 286, 288; carol singing and, 131–32; Christmas mood deterioration and, 118–19; Christmas 1918 and, 172–73; Christmas visual images and, 112, 113, 114, 115; death cult and, 135–36, 234, 237; field hospital Christmas and, 108; militaristic tree ornaments and, 62; postwar memories of, 134–35; Prussian helmet and, 60, 113; war theology and, 106–7, 216; World War I “Christmas truce” and, 93, 95, 105, 106 World War II, 222–37, 286; death cult and, 234–37; home-front Christmas and, 229, 233–34, 233; Nazi defeat in, 211, 238, 243, 260; Nazi propaganda and, 135, 228–29; People’s Christmas and, 193, 225–26; postwar themes of, 239, 241–53 Wöss, Fritz, Dogs, Do you Want to Live Forever?, 255 Wunschbögen See Wish cards Wurm, Theophil, 244–45 Würzburg, bishop of, 224 Wylie, Ida A. R., 3, Yankee Candle Company (Amherst, Mass.), 145 Young Pioneers, 262 Young Plan (1929), 184–85 Yule festival (Nazi), 197, 211, 225, 230 Zalar, Jeffrey, 41, 46 Zetkin, Klara: The Christmas Book of Equality (ed.), 80–81 Zick, A.: Holy Night, 45 Zille, Heinrich, 171 Zinck, Paul, 173 Zionism, 67, 68–69, 71; Hanukkah and, 73, 75, 120 Zöberlein, Hans, 136–37 Zuckermann, Hugo, 75 Zweig, Alfred, 136 Bibliography 399 ... Carolina Press has been a member of the Green Press Initiative since 2003 Library of Congress Cataloging -in- Publication Data Perry, Joe Christmas in Germany: a cultural history / Joe Perry p cm Includes... Schubert and Halle, The Berlin Christ Market in Breite Strasse, 1796 156 4.6 After Karl Rechlin, Christmas Market in Berlin — An Unwilling Customer, 1865 157 4.7 Anti -Christmas cartoon, Rote Fahne,... reported in 1911 that “there is no country in the world where Christmas is so intensely ‘Christmasy,’ as in the Fatherland”; and in his authoritative Christmas in Ritual and Tradition (1912), British