Cover.indd 11/15/2014 10:42:43 AM Cover.indd 11/15/2014 10:42:43 AM An Introduction to Contempor ary Inter national Law An Introduction to Contemporary International Law A P OL IC Y- OR IENT ED PER SPEC T I VE Thir d Edition Lung-chu Chen 1 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 © Oxford University Press 2015 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Chen, Lung-chu, author An introduction to contemporary international law : a policy-oriented perspective / Lung-chu Chen.— Third edition pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-19-022798-2 (hardback) : alk paper)—ISBN 978-0-19-022799-9 (pbk.) : alk paper) International law I Title KZ3110.C48 2015 341—dc23 2014026011 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper Note to Readers This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered It is based upon sources believed to be accurate and reliable and is intended to be current as of the time it was written It is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, accounting, or other professional services If legal advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought Also, to confirm that the information has not been affected or changed by recent developments, traditional legal research techniques should be used, including checking primary sources where appropriate (Based on the Declaration of Principles jointly adopted by a Committee of the American Bar Association and a Committee of Publishers and Associations.) You may order this or any other Oxford University Press publication by visiting the Oxford University Press website at www.oup.com In Affectionate Memory of Myres S. McDougal (1906–1998) and Harold D. Lasswell (1902–1978) Proponents of an International Law of Human Dignity Contents About the Author xv Preface to the Third Edition xvii Preface to the Second Edition xxiii Preface to the First Edition xxvii Part one | Delimitation of the Task International Law in a Policy-Oriented Perspective Myths and Realities about International Law Inadequacies of Traditional Approaches to International Law 11 The Policy-Oriented Approach of the New Haven School 14 Part two | Participants Nation-States 25 Statehood 25 The Principle of Self-Determination 31 External Self-Determination in Practice: The Cases of Québec and Kosovo 35 Self-Determination and World Order 37 The Theory and Practice of Recognition 40 Problems of Self-Determination and Recognition in Practice: The Evolution of Taiwan Statehood 46 International Governmental Organizations 61 The U.N System 62 International Organizations as Subjects of International Law 65 The United Nations and World Order 70 vii viii Contents Nongovernmental Organizations and Associations 77 Political Parties 77 Nongovernmental Organizations 79 Private Associations 85 The Individual 91 Part three | Perspectives Minimum World Order and Optimum World Order 101 Common Humanity and Diverse Identifications and Expectations 103 Contending Systems of World Order 104 Differing Perspectives Today 108 Religion and World Order 108 China and World Order 111 Third World Approaches to International Law (TWAIL) 114 People and Human Security at the Center of World Order 116 Part four | Arenas Establishment of and Access to Arenas of Authority 123 Establishment 124 Access 126 Compulsory Third-Party Decision Making 132 International Court of Justice (ICJ) 132 Ad Hoc Arbitral Tribunals 137 Dispute Settlement under the Convention on the Law of the Sea 138 Dispute Settlement in the World Trade Organization (WTO) 140 Investor-State Dispute Resolution 141 Part five | Bases of Power Control over Territory 149 Control and Use of the Sea 161 Basic Community Policy 162 Trends in Decision and Conditioning Factors 164 Internal Waters 167 The Territorial Sea 167 International Straits 169 Archipelagos 171 The Contiguous Zone 171 The Exclusive Economic Zone 172 The Continental Shelf 174 628 Index McNair, Lord, 318–19 MAD (mutual assured destruction), 455–56, 517 Malacca Strait, 177–78 Malaysia, 64, 158, 173, 176, 201 Mali, 529 Manchuria, 153, 308 Mandela, Nelson, 96 Mao Zedong, 112 marriage and nationality, 215, 219–20, 224, 226 Marshall, Thurgood, 292 Martens Clause, 396, 398n20 Marti, Jose, 345 Mauritania, 156 Medellín v. Texas (2007), 132, 311, 313 Mendlovitz, Saul H., 547 Mergé case (U.S. v. Italy, 1955), 227 Merkel, Angela, 404 Mexican nationals in the U.S., 131–32, 311 Mexico, 141, 151, 163, 174, 191, 371 Mexico v. U.S (Avena and Other Mexican Nationals 2004), 131, 311, 312–14 Micheletti, Roberto, Middle East, 8, 64, 110, 231 See also Specific countries Military Commissions Act (2006), 428 military instrument aggression, definition of, 380–81 basic community policy of peaceful change, 378–79 humanitarian intervention, 388–92, 398n20 humanitarian law and law of war, 392–97, 398n20 overview, 377 self-defense, 379–84 self-help, 384–88 See also Bush Doctrine; Caroline incident; Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua; Corfu Channel case; Geneva Conventions; Libya; nuclear weapons; outer space; Syria; U.N Charter; Millennium Development Goals, 75, 82, 356, 373–75, 475, 548 Milosevich, Slobodan, 518 minimum and optimum world order applying function and, 447, 458 Arab Spring and, 542 China and, 111–14 common interests and, 4, 40 contending systems of world order and, 104–8 goal of maintaining, 476, 540 identifications and expectations, 103–4 invoking function, 440 law of the sea and, 162–63 military instrument and, 377 NWICO and, 358 overview, 101–3 people and human security, 116–18 religion and world order, 108–11 TWAIL, 114–16 values, Western perspectives, 108 See also human security; world order mining, seabed, 179–80 Morocco, 156–57 movement of people asylum, 231–33 control of people and, 211–14, 237–38 extradition, 233–36 state control vs individual’s movement, 227–31 statelessness, 222–25 terrorism and, 236–37 See also nationality Movement of the Liberation of the Congo (MLC), 526 Moynier, Guastav, 510, 511 Mubarak, Hosni, 390, 463, 541 multinational corporations, 77, 80, 85–88 Muthaura, Francis Kirimi, 528 mutual assured destruction (MAD), 455–56, 517 Mutua, Makau, 115 M/V Saiga (St Vincent v. Guinea, 1997), 182 Namibia, 69, 308–9 nationalism, 27, 486, 544 nationality conferment of, 214–17 control of people and, 211–14, 237–38 definition of, 214 denationalization, 221–22 diplomatic protection and, 242 injury to individuals, 91 multiple, 225–27 Index naturalization, 214–17 principle of, 280, 281–82 statelessness and, 222–25 succession of states and, 490–92 voluntary expatriation, 217–18 withdrawal of, 217–22 See also jus sanguinis; jus soli; movement of people national liberation movements, 79–80 nation-states arena of authority and, 126 control over territory, 149–59 decision making process and, 95 external self-determination in practice, 35–37 IGOs and, 61, 66–67 individuals and, 96 international law and, 10–11, 23 investor-state dispute resolution, 141–43 invoking function, 439, 440 new vs old, 27–30 political parties and, 78–79 recognition in practice, 46–58 recognition theory/practice and, 40–46 responsibility of, 497–507 self-determination principle, 31–35 statehood and, 25–31, 264–66 United Nations and, world order and, 37–40 See also decision functions; authority, horizontal allocation of; bases of power; diplomatic instrument; international agreements; movement of people; nationality; succession of states NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), 9, 44, 63, 384, 390–91, 541 natural law school, 11 negotiations, direct, 449–50 Netherlands, 64, 151, 428–29, 486 New Haven School a continual process of authoritative decision, 16–17 authority and control, 17 constitutive decision, 17 contextual, 14 eight values, 16 factors affecting decision, the analysis of, 19 focus of inquiry, the delimitation of, 16 future trends, the projection of, 19–20 629 goals, the clarification of, 19 global constitutive process of authoritative decision, 14–21, 101 intellectual tasks, the performance of, 19–20 multi-method, 14 “New” New Haven School, 20–21 observational standpoint, the establishment of, 15 on clarification of common interests, 101 on values, 16, 17, 18–19, 38 past trends in decision, the description of, 19 perspectives and operations, 16–17 policy alternatives, the invention and evaluation of, 20 policy-oriented approach, 14–15 problem-solving, 14 problems, the formulation of, 15–16 process of effective power, 18 public-order decisions, 17 public-order goals, the explicit postulation of, 18–19 security, 16 self-determination test, 38–39 seven decision functions, 17–18 theory about international law, 14 See also arenas; bases of power; decision functions; effects; outcomes; participants; perspectives; strategies; values; world constitutive process of authoritative decision new world information and communication order (NWICO), 349–54, 358 New Zealand, 200, 443 NGOs (nongovernmental organizations) and associations arenas of authority and, 123 common interests and, 80–81 defined, 77 foreign policy and, 341 information function and, 408–9 invoking function, 439, 441 nongovernmental organizations, 79–85 political parties, 77–78 private associations, 85–89 promoting function and, 415–20 Nicaragua, 9, 134–35, 368, 383, 498 Nicaragua v. United States (1986), 451 Nigeria, 31, 230, 292–93 630 Index Nixon, Richard M., 50, 112 Nobel Peace Prize, 72, 80, 96 nongovernmental organizations and associations See NGOs Non-Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction (Resolution 1540), 73 non-state actors, laws of war and, 5–6 Noriega, Antonio, 368 North Africa, 8, 231 North Atlantic Treaty Organization See NATO North Korea, 362, 368, 409 North Sea Continental Shelf (1969), 428–29 Northwest Passage, 169–71, 199–200 Norway, 151, 168, 199, 200, 487 Nottebohm Case (Liech v. Guat 1955), 242–43 Nottebohm, Friedrich, 242–43 Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) Conference, 73–74 nuclear power accidents, 202–3, 407 Nuclear Security Summit (2010), 73 nuclear weapons, 71, 73–74, 104, 202, 343, 395–97, 398n20, 443, 455–56 nullum crimen sine lege, 512, 514–15, 515 Nuremberg tribunal crimes against humanity recognized, 511 genocide and the, 521 ICTY and ICTR vs., 519 ideological instrument and the, 347–48 individual criminal responsibility and, 93, 247, 285, 509, 513–16 tribunal jurisdiction, 522–23 NWICO (new world information and communication order), 349–54, 358 Nyerere, Julius, 486 OAS (Organization of American States), 63, 125, 126, 257, 382, 383 OAU (Organization of African Unity), 156 Obama, Barack, 73, 184, 384 observational standpoint, establishment of the, 15 Ocampo, Luis Moreno, 527 Odhiambo, Okot, 526 OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), 86 OIC (Organisation of Islamic Cooperation), 110 oil spills, 204 Ongwen, Dominic, 526 OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries), 370 Open Society Institute, 80, 81 opinio juris, 428–29, 434 optimum order See minimum and optimum world order Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 86 Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), 110 Organization of African Unity (OAU), 156 Organization of American States (OAS), 63, 125, 126, 257, 382, 383 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 370 Otti, Vincent, 526 Outcomes See decision functions outer space, 104, 194–98, 410 Pacific Islands Forum (PIF), 63, 126 Pacific Ocean, 179 pacta sunt servanda, 328 pacta tertiis nec nocent nec prosunt, 332 Pakistan, 31, 75, 88, 173, 489 Pakistan v. India (1999), 135 Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), 79 Palestinian groups and territories, 9, 408, 453 Palestinian National Authority, 79–80 Palestinian statehood, 79–80 Panama, 44, 368 Pan Am Flight 103, 498 Pancha Shila principles, 106 Paquete Habana case (1900), 427–28 Paraguay, 257, 287 Pardo, Arvid, 104, 178 Paris Peace Conference of 1919, 511 parliamentary-diplomatic arenas, 124 participants See individuals; international governmental organizations (IGOs); nation-states; NGOs; passive personality principle, 283–84 PCA (Permanent Court of Arbitration), 182, 451 peaceful coexistence principle, 106, 112 peacekeeping operations, 72–73, 275, 453 peace treaties, 155 Pedra Braca, 158 Peña-Irala, Americo Norberto, 287 people and human security, 116–18 Index peremptory norm See jus cogens Perez de Cuellar, Javier, 74 Perez v. Brownell (1958), 219 performance process (agreements/treaties), 328–32 Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA), 182, 451 Permanent Court of International Justice, 133, 199, 272, 283, 450, 451, 506 Persian Gulf crisis (1990–91), 73 perspectives China and world order, 111–14 contending systems of world order, 104–8 identifications and expectations, 103–4 overview, 101–3 people and human security, 116–18 religion and world order, 108–11 self-determination, 38 TWAIL, 114–16 Western, 108 Peru, 307 Philippines, 64, 307 PIF (Pacific Islands Forum), 63, 126 Pinochet, Augusto, 287, 305–6 piracy, 177–78, 284–85, 510 PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization), 79 Poland, 107, 221 polar regions, 169–71, 198–201 Canadian law regarding, 455 policy-oriented approach global constitutive process of authoritative decision, 14–21, 101 interpretation of international agreements, 329–31 promoting function, 415–21 promotion of common interests, 101 self-determination test, 38–39 values and, 16, 17, 18–19, 38 See also New Haven School POLISARIO Front, 156 political parties, 23, 77–78, 341, 415 Political Question Doctrine, 57 pollution/environment air, 64 ASEAN and, 64 climate change, 206–9 global environment, 202–6 informal invocation and environmental protection, 443 631 intelligence and environmental management, 411 international rivers and, 190 marine, 162, 165, 177, 185, 204–6 PCA and, 182 space debris, 198 Tribunal for the Law of the Sea and, 182 Pol Pot, 516–17 Portugal, Brazil and, 215 positivist (analytical) school, 11 Potsdam Proclamation of 1945, 48, 54 Powell, Lewis, 292 power (value), 16, 30–31, 79–80, 81, 251, 350, 410 Preah Vihear Temple, 158 prescribing (lawmaking) function appraisal, 435–36 conferences and, 124 customary international law, 426–30 human rights and, 248–53 IGOs, 68–69, 431–32 individuals, 95 international agreements, 426 NGOs, 82, 83–84 overview, 423–24 process of, 424–25 U.N. role, 68–69, 431–35 See also applying function; international agreements; terminating function pressure groups, 81, 415 private associations, 77, 81, 85–89 problems, formulation of, 15–16 promoting function, 68, 82, 95–96, 124, 415–21 See also appraising function property, state, 492–94 proportionality Cuban quarantine, 382–83 humanitarian intervention, 392, 393 imminent danger and, 381 lawfulness test, 382 nuclear force and, 395 self-help and, 386, 388, 389, 454–55 Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Choi (2007), 525 Prosecutor v. Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo (2008), 526 Prosecutor v. Laurent Gbagbo (ongoing), 529 Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (2006), 525–26 632 Index Protection Force (UNPROFOR), 73 protection of people aliens, 244–46, 253, 259–63 consular protection of nationals abroad, 310–14, 315n26 diplomatic protection remedy for aliens, 241–44 global bill of human rights, 247–59 global human rights movement, 246–47 human rights and state responsibility, 259–63 popular sovereignty and, 264–66 universality of human rights vs cultural relativism, 263–64 protective principle, 280, 282–83 Prussia, 389 public order decisions/goals, 17–19, 89, 213, 536, 538–42 Qatar, 520 Québec and self-determination, 9, 35–37 Radio Free Asia (RFA), 345–46 radio spectrum, 353–54 Rainbow Warrior, 443 Reagan, Ronald, 9, 184, 198 rebus sic stantibus, 335, 391 recognition of governments, 26, 41–44 recognition of states constitutive theory, 26–27, 42 declaratory theory, 26–27, 42 diplomatic sanctions, 308–9 Kosovo, 36 as political act, 26 in practice, 46–58 theory and practice of, 40–46 rectitude, 16, 79, 80, 252 Red Cross, 83, 85 refugees, 84, 225, 231–32 regional organizations, 63–65, 126, 451, 453 Rehnquist, William, 292 religion and world order, 108–11 religious organizations, 80 Republic of Argentina v. Weltover (1992), 289–90 Republic of China (1955), 292 Republic of Crimea, 154 Republic of Kenya, 178, 528 Republic of Korea, 179, 307, 453 Republic of South Sudan, 11, 33 Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1951), 324–25 respect, 16, 79, 80–81, 251 responsibility to protect, 40, 264–66, 270, 388, 390, 440 See also protection of people Reisman, W. Michael, 365 Restatement (Third) of the Foreign Relations Law of the United States, 280, 427 RFA (Radio Free Asia), 345–46 right of innocent passage, 168–69 See also law of the sea right of transit passage, 169 See also law of the sea rivers, international, 189–92 Robertson, A. H., 127 Robinson, Mary, 96 Roling, B. V A., 30 Roman Catholic Church, 80 Roman Empire, 244 Romani (gypsies), 230 Romania, 137–38 Roman law on property, 150–51 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 318 Roosevelt, Theodore, 43 Rouhani, Hassan, 457 Ruggie, John, 88 rule-oriented approaches to international law, 12–14 Russia the Arctic and, 199 Crimea and, 154 denationalization in, 221 Georgia and, humanitarian interventions, 389 ICJ and, 133 Northwest Passage and, 199–200 nuclear testing, 73 Rome Statute and, 521 seabed mining, 179 Snowden refuge in, 235–36, 405 Soviet Union dissolution and, 462, 482, 487, 489 Syria and, 391 U.N. and, 71 Ruto, William Samoei, 528 Rwanda ethnic differences in, 518 Index humanitarian intervention in, 390 human rights abuses in, 265, 266 tribunal, 286, 517, 518–20 Sahara Arab Democratic Republic (SADR), 156–57 St Petersburg Declaration (1868), 393 Samantar v. Yousuf (2010), 289 sanctions applying function and, 448 diplomatic, 308–10 economic, 363–69 goals optimization, 455–58 trade, 141 treaty terminations, 465 U.N. and, 69, 453 Sang, Joshuar Arap, 528 Santissima Trinidad (1822), 288 Saudia Arabia, 157 Schneider, Jan, 202 Schooner Exchange v. M’Fadden (1812), 287–88 Schwarzkopb v. Uhl, District Director of Immigration (1943), 491 Schwebel, Judge, 397 Seabed Council, 181 sea law See law of the sea security, human, 116–18 Selden, John, 164 self-defense and military instrument, 153–54, 379–84 self-determination external self-determination in practice, 35–37 internal self-determination, 35–36, 110 principle of, 31–35, 275 recognition in practice, 46–58 recognition theory/practice and, 40–46 succession and, 484 Universal Declaration of Human Rights on, 269 world order and, 37–40 self-help, 378, 384–88, 389, 392, 454–55 Senkaku (Diaoyu) Islands, 113 September 11 attacks, 5–7, 88, 108, 216, 382, 539 Serbia, 35, 518 Seychelles, 178 Shababuddeen, Judge, 397 sharable resources (strategic resources) airspace, 192–94 633 climate change and global cooperation, 206–9 global environment, 202–6 international rivers, 189–92 outer space, 104, 194–98, 410 overview, 189 polar regions, 169–71, 198–201 Shimoda case (1964), 396 Singapore, 64, 158, 173 skill (value), 16, 79, 252, 350 Slovakia, 491 Smith, Ian, 308 Snowden, Edward, 235–36, 404–5 social networking, Soering v. United Kingdom (1989), 235, 258 Somalia, 64, 177–78, 286, 390 Soros, George, 81 Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain (2004), 290, 293 Souter, David, 293 South Africa African National Congress, 79 apartheid, 265 Bantustans, 484 economic sanctions against, 365–67 ICJ and, 308–9 media restrictions, 405 multinational corporations in, 87 Special Committee on the Policies of Apartheid of the Government of the Republic of, 128 U.N. and, 33–34, 69, 308–9, 344, 365–66 South-West Africa See Namibia South America, 159 South China Sea, 113, 173–74, 176, 410 Southern Rhodesia, 308–9, 364–65 sovereign immunity, 71, 280, 287–90 sovereignty China’s exaggerated notion of, 112–13 compulsory third-party decision and, 29 degrees of, 25 domestic jurisdiction vs international concern, 270–72 humanitarian interventions and, 389 invoking and applying functions and, 69 Islamic values and, 110 legal system emphasis on, 10–11, 68, 71, 91 peaceful coexistence and, 106 self-determination and, 31, 32, 49–50, 57 state vs popular, 264–66 TWAIL, 115 634 Index Sovereignty over Clipperton Island (France v. Mexico 1931), 151 Soviet Jews emigration, 230 Soviet Union ABM Treaty and the, 334 Afghanistan and the, 72–73, 367–68 the Arctic and the, 199 boundaries of new states, 159 Chernobyl nuclear accident, 202 communism and, 78 denationalization and expulsion, 220 dictatorial regimes and the, 518 dissolution of the, 13, 34, 107, 462–63, 482, 487, 489, 517 East-West confrontation, 105–8 EU and the, 64 expropriation, 371 Human Rights Watch and the, 81 ICJ and the, 133 Korean Airlines Flight 007, 5, 449 Northwest Passage and the, 199–200 nuclear weapons, 395 U.K. and, 404 U.N. and, 72, 453 U.S. and the, 43, 382–83, 409, 516 space, outer, 104, 194–98 Spain, 9, 157, 176, 215, 244, 257, 287 Special Committee on Decolonization, 128 Special Committee on the Policies of Apartheid of the Government of the Republic of South Africa, 128 Sputnik I, 194 S.S Lotus decision (1927), 283, 397 statehood, 25–31, 264–66 See also nation-states; Taiwan (Formosa) State Immunity Act (1978), 290 statelessness, 222–25 Steele v. Bulova Watch Co (1952), 281 Stewart, Potter, 292 Stimson doctrine, 153, 308 Stimson, Henry L., 153 Stockholm Chamber of Commerce, 142 Stockholm Declaration, 203–4 straits, international, 169–71 Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars), 198 strategic resources See sharable resources strategies, 299 See also diplomatic instrument; economic instrument; ideological instrument; international agreements; military instrument succession of states archives (state), 494–95 basic community policy, 482–83 debts (state), 494 trends in decision and conditioning factors, 483–84 IGOs and, 488–90 international agreements and, 484–88 nationality and, 490–92 overview, 29, 481–82 property (state) and, 492–94 recognition and, 40–58 self-determination and, 35 Sudan (Darfur), 8, 11, 266, 274–75, 527 Sullivan, Leon (Sullivan principles), 366–67 sustainable development, 82, 124, 192, 204, 208, 369, 371, 373, 375, 417, 419, 473, 475, 543 Sweden, 487 Syria, 8, 266, 368, 391–92, 507, 541–42 Taiwan (Formosa) as a Japanese territory (1895–1952), 48 Allied military occupation, 48 before World War II, 47–48 Cairo Declaration, 48, 49, 52, 54 Chiang Kai-shek’s exiled KMT regime, 48, 54 China and, 9, 46–58, 113, 274 democratization and Taiwanization, 46, 55 economic miracle, 55 effective self-determination, 56 evolution of statehood, 27, 46–58 intertemporal law and, 48 James Crawford and, 27, 52–54, 55 Lin v. United States, 57 martial law (1949-1987) imposed by ROC exile regime, 48, 54, 55 plebiscite, 56 PRC (the People’s Republic of China), 46–47 Potsdam Proclamation, 48, 52 ROC (Republic of China), 46–47 San Francisco Peace Treaty, 46, 48, 49–50, 52, 53, 54, 57, 275 South China Sea dispute, 173 Taiwan Relations Act (TRA) (1979), 50–51 Index Treaty of Shimonoseki and, 48, 52 U.N General Assembly Resolution 2758, 56 United Nations and, 50, 55–56 U.S. derecognition of ROC, 51 See also peace treaties Taiwan Relations Act (TRA) (1979), 50–51 Taliban, 109 Tanganyika, 486 terminating function, 69, 82, 248, 258–59, 461–67 termination and change process (agreements/ treaties), 332–36 territorial sea, 167–69 territory acquisition/control of, 149–59 integrity, 40 principle of impact territoriality, 280, 281–83 principle of territoriality, 280, 281 statehood and, 26 See also succession of states terrorism, 88–89, 186, 236–37, 283, 286, 368, 383–84 Texaco Overseas Petroleum v. Libyan Arab Republic (1977), 433 Thailand, 64, 158, 173 Thant, U, 344 The Area, 178–80 third-party decision making ad hoc arbitral tribunals, 137–38 applying function, 450–51 generally, 29, 132 ICJ, 132–37 investor-state disputes, 141–43 law of the sea, 138–39 WTO, 140–41 Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III, 1973–82), 124 See also law of the sea third world approaches to international law (TWAIL), 114–16 Third World/developing and new countries, 27–31 climate change and, 209 economic order and, 369–73 examining resources of, 410 Group of Seventy-Seven, 30, 114, 180, 370 and the ICJ, 135 635 Internet access in, 355 mobile phones in, 355 new world information and communication order, 349–54 See also Millennium Development Goals Tibet, 113 Tito, Josip Broz, 519 torture Amnesty International and, 80, 83, 418 Argentina and, 257, 287 Cambodia and, 517 Committee against, 262 Convention against, 127, 254, 440–41, 472 freedom from, 252, 264, 287 invoking function and, 443 jus cogens, 435 Paraguay and, 257 Somalia and, 279, 289 United States and, 6, 279, 290 trade and commerce high seas and, 176–78, 409–10 IGOs and, 7–8 Middle Ages, 245 NGOs, 80 private associations, 86 TWAIL and, 116 See also World Trade Organization (WTO) transnational corporations See multinational corporations Trail Smelter case (1949), 203 treaties, river, 191–92, 194–95 treaties, unequal, 29 trends in decision and conditioning factors Chinese perspectives on international law and, 111–14 control of movement of people, 227–37 ideological instrument, 347–48 international agreements, 320–21 invention of policy alternatives and, 20 law of the sea, 164–67 nationality, 213–17 state responsibility, 499–500 succession of states, 483–95 tribunal arenas, 125 Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, 181, 186 tribunals, ad hoc arbitral, 137–38, 517–20 Trinidad and Tobago, 182 Truman, Harry S., 174 Tunisia, 8, 541 636 Index Tunis-Morocco Nationality Decrees (1923), 272 Turkey denationalization in, 221 humanitarian interventions, 389 Israel and, 443 Mandates system and, 92 passive personality principle and, 283–84 World War I and, 511, 512 Turner, Ted, 95 Tuvalu, 498 TWAIL (third world approaches to international law), 114–16 Uganda, 230, 526 Ukraine, 462 Underhill v. Hernandez (1897), 291 unequal treaties, 29 Union of International Associations at Brussels, 79 Union of South American Nations (USAN), 63 United Kingdom Antarctica and the, 200 arbitral tribunals and the, 137–38 Argentina and the, Bribery Act, 86 continental shelf, 176 Corfu Channel case, 203, 385 expatriation in the, 234, 235 Falkland Islands and the, 157 fisheries zones, 466–67 ICJ and the, 133 individual criminal responsibility and the, 512 Libya and the, 306, 391 nuclear material and the, 182 sovereign immunity in the, 290 Soviet Union and the, 404 Taiwan and the, 53 Torrey Canyon oil spill, 204 treaty termination and, 486 UNESCO and the, 354 United Nations agencies of, 63 on aggression, 347–48 Antarctica and the, 201 appraisal and review, 474–75 arenas of authority and the, 123 Cambodia and the, 517 China and the, 112 climate change and the, 207, 208–9 decolonization and the, 482 digital divide and the, 8, 356–57 diplomatic sanctions and the, 308–9 disputes and recourse to the, 452–54 economic instrument and the, 361–63, 364–69, 371, 372 on environmental concerns, 203–5 expansion of international concerns, 272–74 funding developing countries litigation before the ICJ, 135 Group of Seventy-Seven, 30, 114, 180, 370 humanitarian interventions and the, 71, 389–94 human rights and the, 249–53, 259 information freedom and the, 352–53 intelligence function and the, 405–6, 407–9, 412 international waters and the, 192 invoking function and the, 442, 444 Iran and the, 5, 453, 456–57 Kosovo secession and the, 36 law of the sea and, 165–69, 171–73, 174–82, 183–86 legal status of the, 65–67 media usage by the, 475–76 membership, 27, 30, 488–89 multinational corporations and the, 87, 88 NGOs and the, 79, 81–84 outer space policy, 195–97 peacekeeping operations, 72–73 prescribing (lawmaking) function role, 68–69, 432–36 promoting function and the, 415–16, 417–20 refugees and the, 231–32 registration process and the, 325 relationship to members, 10 Rwanda and the, 518 Secretariat, 62, 125, 126, 136, 317, 471 self-determination and the, 32–34, 40 South Africa and the, 69, 308–9 Soviet Union and the, 489 on state responsibility, 500 succession and the, 484, 488–89, 489–90 Syria and the, 541–42 system, 62–65 Taiwan’s membership in the, 56 terminating function and the, 462, 463, 465–66 Index on terrorism, 236–37 terrorism and the, 88–89 use of ideological instrument, 344 world order and the, 70–75 Yugoslavia and the, 490, 518 United Nations Charter on the applying function, 450–51, 452–54, 456–57 appraisal and review, 474–75 on appraising functions, 470–71 binding nature of the, 254–55 on denationalization, 222 on disarmament among members, 73 on domestic jurisdiction vs international concern, 271 global bill of rights, 94 on human rights, 247, 258, 260–70 on IGOs, 126 on invalidity of treaties, 327 on membership, 66–67 minimum order and the, 101–3 on NGOs, 81 nonuse of force principle, 113 obligations, 74 OIC and the, 110 on peaceful coexistence, 106 on privileges and immunities, 67 on purposes and principles of the U.N., 65 self-determination and the, 32, 56 self-executing agreements, 340 on self-help, 454–55 six principal U.N. organs, 62 as supreme law of world community, 332 Taiwan and the, 49–50, 54 on the terminating function, 463, 465 on treaty amendment and modification, 333 on use of force, 153, 154, 265, 379–86 United Nations Commission on Human Rights, 128–29 United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), 142 United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, 257 United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, 256–57, 262 637 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) (Rio de Janeiro, 1992), 124, 204, 473–74 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972), 124, 203 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (Midrand, 1996; Bangkok, 2000; Sao Paulo, 2004; Accra, 2008; Doha, 2012), 124 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), 86, 362 United Nations Decade for Women Conference (Nairobi, 1985), 124 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 117, 382 United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) appraising function and, 471 communications concerning human rights, 128–29 establishment of the, 62 on evaluation of U.N. functions, 474–75 information function and the, 405–6 membership of, 463 as parliamentary arena, 125 self-denying policy, 128 on transnational corporations, 87 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 79–80, 125, 353, 354 United Nations Fact Finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict (2009), 408 United Nations Foundation, 95 United Nations General Assembly arbitration and, 137–38 ASEAN and the, 64 authority of the, 71–72 individual petitions and the, 128 on international criminal law, 516 new economic order and the, 370 as parliamentary arena, 125 prescribing (lawmaking) function role, 68–69, 432–36 legal effect of resolutions, 432–33 resolutions influence on nations, 68 role of the, 62 on war crimes, 285 United Nations Global Compact, 88 638 Index United Nations Goodwill Ambassadors, 96 United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 254, 257, 442 United Nations Human Development Report (UNDP), 117 United Nations Human Rights Commission, 256, 262 United Nations Human Rights Council, 88, 127–28, 253–54, 256, 262, 472 United Nations Millennium Declaration, 207 United Nations Millennium Development Goals, 75, 82, 356, 373–75, 475, 548 United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR), 73 United Nations Secretariat, 62, 125, 126, 136, 317, 471 United Nations Security Council authorization of force, 266 Darfur and the, 527 declarations of independence and the, 37 on the Falkland Islands, 157 ICC and the, 523, 531 ICJ and the, 133 Iranian hostages and the, 304 on Iraq invasion of Kuwait, 158 law of the sea disputes and the, 139 Libya and the, 391, 528, 542 membership of, 463 nation-states and decisions of the, Palestinian statehood and the, 79–80 as parliamentary arena, 125 peacekeeping and the, 8, 275 piracy and the, 178 role of the, 62 South Africa and the, 309 threat definition, 273 veto power, 71, 453 United Nations Trusteeship Council, 62, 125, 127, 128 United States ABM Treaty and the, 334 act of state doctrine and the, 291–94 Afghanistan and the, 341, 382 Alaska purchase, 154 Antarctica and the, 200 arbitral tribunals and the, 137–38 the Arctic and the, 199 borders at time of independence, 26 Bush Doctrine, 383–84 carbon emissions, 498 China and the, 50–52, 112, 113, 185, 302, 346, 410, 507 citizenship, 243–44 climate change and the, 209 compulsory jurisdiction and the, 452 continental shelf, 174 Cuba and the, 283, 292, 345, 382–83 denationalization in the, 219, 220–21 dictatorial regimes and the, 518 diplomatic relations and the, 302, 306, 307 economic sanctions by the, 366–69 energy policy, 206 expatriation in the, 218, 234, 235–36 extradition and the, 233 foreign nationals in the, 131–32, 311–14, 315n26 Grenada and the, 325 high seas and the, 176, 410 humanitarian interventions, 389 ICC and the, 520–21, 530 ICJ and the, 133–35, 451 ideological instrument and the, 345–46 IGF and the, 357 immigration to the, 216–17 impact territoriality principle and the, 283 individual criminal responsibility and the, 512 international law use by the, 257, 287 Iran and the, 5, 304–5, 368, 456, 507 Iraq invasion of Kuwait and the, 158 Israel and the, 506–7 lawlessness issues and the, Libya and the, 391 LOS Convention and the, 168, 180, 184–85 Mexico and the, 191 missile strikes and civilians, 498 multinational corporations, 87 nationals violating laws overseas, 281 Nicaragua and the, 383, 498 Northwest Passage and the, 170 nuclear testing, 73 nuclear weapons, 395 oil spills in the waters of the, 204, 205–6 Palestinian statehood and the, 80 pirates and the, 178 proximate waters, 163, 175 recognition practice, 43, 44 Index response to September 11 attacks, 5–7 Rome Statute and the, 520–21, 530 Seabed Council and the, 181 sovereign immunity in the, 288–89 Soviet Union and the, 43, 382–83, 409, 516 space shuttle, 198 surveillance by the, 404–5, 410, 411, 412 Syria and the, 391, 507 Taiwan and the, 50–52, 53, 57 treaty terminations, 465 UNESCO and the, 354 USS Pueblo seizure, 409 War on Terror, 6, 88 as world policeman, 10 World War II assets seized by, 505–6 WTO and the, 140 United States Congress communication of news and information and the, 346 international laws and, 428 South African sanctions, 366, 367 United States Constitution cruel and unusual punishment, 220–21 Full Faith and Credit Clause, 293 international agreements/law and the, 336–41, 427–28 Supremacy Clause, 340 on treaties and executive agreements, 318 United States Department of State, 88 Uniting for Peace Resolution, 71, 453–54 Universal Declaration of Human Rights authority of, 250, 434 Cairo Declaration of Human Rights in Islam and the, 110, 253 China and the, 113 commemoration of the adoption of the, 344 as customary law, 103 on denationalization, 222 denunciation and the, 464 efforts to build on the principles of the, 473 human dignity values and the, 94, 102 on information and knowledge, 351–52, 356 International League of Human Rights and the, 80–81 on nationality, 218, 260–61 new states and, 248 on open flow of information, 346 639 as quasi legislation, 434 racial discrimination convention and the, 348 on refugees, 232 on rights of individuals, 456 self-determination and the, 43, 269 on sovereignty, 265 on statelessness, 223–24 on transnational movement, 228 U.N Charter and the, 255 values and the, 249 on the will of the people, 33 universality principle, 284–87 Universal Postal Union, 68 Upper Volta (Burkina Faso), 486 Uruguay, 173 USAN (Union of South American Nations), 63 use of force ICJ on the, 385 nuclear, 395 U.N. on the, 73, 113, 153, 154, 265, 266, 379–86 See also military instrument USS Pueblo seizure, 409 USSR See Soviet Union uti possidetis (border determination), 159 values affection, 16, 79, 252 enlightenment, 16, 79, 80, 251, 344, 346–47, 357, 410 power, 16, 30–31, 79–80, 81, 251, 350, 410 rectitude, 16, 79, 80, 252 respect, 16, 79, 80–81, 251 skill, 16, 79, 252, 350 wealth, 16, 79, 80, 252, 350, 361, 375, 410 well-being, 16, 79, 80, 251–52 See also decision functions; human dignity; human rights; human security; individuals; international governmental organizations; minimum and optimum world order; New Haven School; NGOs; participants; self-determination; strategies; effects Vattel, Emmeric de, 92, 242, 245, 262, 536 Venezuela, 498 Vienna Conference on the Law of Treaties (1969), 124 640 Index Vienna Declaration, 254 Vietnam, 64, 173, 176 Vietnam War, 341 Vitoria, Francisco de, 245, 536 WARC (World Administrative Radio Conference), 353–54 war crimes, 93, 247, 284, 285, 511, 513–16 War Crimes Act (1996), 281 War on Terror, 6, 88 war victim protection, 85 war/wars China, 111–12 Franco-Prussian, 510 humanitarian law and law of war, 392–97, 398n20, 511, 514, 515, 519–20, 521 League of Nations and, 153 since 1989, 71 succession and, 483 Vietnam, 341 See also Cold War; military instrument; Nuremberg tribunal; World War I; World War II Washington, George, 43 Waters Pollution Prevention Act, 455 wealth (value), 16, 79, 80, 252, 350, 361, 375, 410 Webster, Daniel, 381 Weennantry, Judge, 397 Weis, Paul, 222 Weiss, Edith Brown, 203 well-being, 16, 79, 80, 251–52 Western perspectives China and, 111 Cold War and, 105–8 development of, 536–38 non-European states and the, 27–31, 109 TWAIL and, 114–15, 118 Western Sahara, 156–57 Western Sahara (1975), 158 West Germany, 64 Westphalian concept of law, 102, 111, 115, 430 White, Byron, 292 WikiLeaks, 404, 411 Wilhelm (kaiser), 512 Wilhelmina (queen), 512 Wilson, Woodrow, 32, 155 Wolff, Christian, 536 WOMP (World Order Models Project), 547 World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC), 353–54 World Bank, 7, 125, 142, 362 World Conference against Racism (Durban, 2001), 124 World Conference of the International Women’s Year, 473 World Conference on Human Rights (Vienna, 1993), 124 World Conference on Women (Beijing, 1995), 124 world constitutive process of authoritative decision conditions affecting world order, 542–45 development of, 535–38 future world order projections, 545–46 human dignity world order, 546–51 individuals and, 96 New Haven School approach, 14–21, 101 public order goals, 538–42 World Council of Churches, 80 World Food Conference (Rome, 1974), 124 World Health Organization (WHO), 125 World Jewish Congress, 80 World Muslim Conference, 80 world order conditions affecting, 542–44 future, 545–46 of human dignity, 546–51 self-determination and, 37–40 U.N. and, 70–75 See also minimum and optimum world order World Order Models Project (WOMP), 547 World Summit for Social Development (Copenhagen, 1995), 124 World Summit on Sustainable Development, or Earth Summit 2002 (Johannesburg), 124 World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS), 356 World Trade Organization (WTO), 63, 125, 140–41, 362 World War I aerial warfare, 193 criminal law post, 511–13 criminal law prior to, 520 ideological instrument and, 345, 347 tribunals and, 523 Index World War II compulsory naturalization during, 215 decolonization after, 34 human rights deprivations, 247 ideological instrument and, 345, 347 refugees, 84 sovereign immunity claims and, 290 tribunals and, 523 U.S. seizure of assets, 505–6 WSIS (World Summit on the Information Society), 356 W.S Kirkpatrick & Co v. Environmental Tectonics (1990), 292–93 Xinjiang, 113 641 Yale School of International Law See New Haven School Yalta Agreement, 318 Yearbook of International Organizations, 79 Yemen, 8, 88, 520 Yugoslavia denationalization in, 221 human rights abuses in, 265 nationality and, 491 recognition of breakaway republics, 44, 45 tribunal, 286, 517, 518–20 U.N. and, 8, 490 Zelaya, Manuel, Zoellick, Robert, 114 ... I especially wish to thank Maria-Alana Recine and Stephanie McQueen for outstanding research assistance Thanks also go to Ken Ayers, Susan Hennigan, Celena Mayo, and Cliff Scott for their assistance At... copy editor In Taiwan, I wish to thank Law Professor Chao-Yuan Huang of Taiwan University and Dr. Yann-huei Song of Academia Sinica for their invaluable suggestions and assistance At the Taiwan New... Preface to the Third Edition The purpose of the third edition of An Introduction to Contemporary International Law: A Policy-Oriented Perspective is to propose to readers an answer to the question: What