The biology of mangroves and seagrasses

The Biology of Mangroves and Seagrasses THE BIOLOGY OF HABITATS SERIES This attractive series of concise, affordable texts provides an integrated overview of the design, physiology, and ecology of the biota in a given habitat, set in the context of the physical environment Each book describes practical aspects of working within the habitat, detailing the sorts of studies that are possible Management and conservation issues are also included The series is intended for naturalists, students studying biological or environmental science, those beginning independent research, and professional biologists embarking on research in a new habitat The Biology of Streams and Rivers Paul S Giller and Björn Malmqvist The Biology of Soft Shores and Estuaries Colin Little The Biology of the Deep Ocean Peter Herring The Biology of Lakes and Ponds, 2nd Edition Christer Brönmark and Lars-Anders Hansson The Biology of Soil Richard D Bardgett The Biology of Polar Regions, 2nd Edition David N Thomas et al The Biology of Deserts David Ward The Biology of Caves and Other Subterranean Habitats David C Culver and Tanja Pipan The Biology of Alpine Habitats Laszlo Nagy and Georg Grabherr The Biology of Rocky Shores, 2nd Edition Colin Little, Gray A Williams, and Cynthia D Trowbridge The Biology of Coral Reefs Charles R.C Sheppard, Simon K Davy, and Graham M Pilling The Biology of Disturbed Habitats Lawrence R Walker The Biology of Freshwater Wetlands, 2nd Edition Arnold G van der Valk The Biology of Peatlands, 2nd Edition Håkan Rydin and John K Jeglum The Biology of African Savannahs, 2nd Edition Bryan Shorrocks and William Bates The Biology of Mangroves and Seagrasses, 3rd Edition Peter J Hogarth The Biology of Mangroves and Seagrasses THIRD EDITION Peter J Hogarth Department of Biology, University of York, York, UK The Biology of Mangroves and Seagrasses Third Edition Peter J Hogarth © Peter J Hogarth 2015 Published 2015 by Oxford University Press Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © Peter J Hogarth 2015 The moral rights of the author have been asserted First Edition published in 1999 Second Edition published in 2007 Third Edition published in 2015 Impression: All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Control Number: 2015930599 ISBN 978–0–19–871654–9 (hbk.) ISBN 978–0–19–871655–6 (pbk.) Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work Preface Flowering plants dominate the land, providing nutrition, shelter, and stability for a host of organisms, and the basis of all terrestrial ecosystems Of the hundreds of thousands of species of flowering plants, a mere 100 or so survive in the sea, about equally divided between mangroves and seagrasses Although not rich in species, both mangroves and seagrasses are, like their terrestrial counterparts, of major ecological importance To most people, mangroves call up a picture of a dank and fetid swamp, of strange-shaped trees growing in foul-smelling mud, inhabited mainly by mosquitoes and snakes Mud, methane, and mosquitoes are certainly features of mangrove forests—as, sometimes, are snakes They are not sufficient to deter mangrove biologists from investigating an ecosystem of great richness and fascination Mangroves are an assortment of tropical and subtropical trees and shrubs which have adapted to the inhospitable zone between sea and land: the typical mangrove habitat is a muddy river estuary Salt water makes it impossible for other terrestrial plants to thrive here, while the fresh water and the soft substrate are unsuitable for macroalgae, the dominant plants of hardbottomed marine habitats The mangrove trees themselves trap sediment brought in by river and tide, and help to consolidate the mud in which they grow They provide a substrate on which oysters and barnacles can settle, a habitat for insects, and nesting sites for birds Most of all, through photosynthesis, they supply an energy source for an entire ecosystem comprising many species of organism Mangroves are among the most productive and biologically diverse ecosystems in the world Seagrasses, although not true grasses, generally grow in a grass-like way, often locally dominating their environment in what are known as seagrass meadows They grow intertidally, like mangroves, but also subtidally to depths of tens of metres Like mangroves, too, seagrasses have adapted to conditions of high salinity and living in soft sediments They create a habitat, and represent a food source on which many other organisms depend With both mangroves and seagrasses I discuss the adaptations to their challenging environment, and the communities of organisms that flourish in and around mangrove forests and seagrass meadows, before turning to more general questions of evolution, biogeography, and biodiversity vi  Preface Mangroves and seagrasses are of considerable economic significance Apart from the direct collection of mangrove products, many commercially harvested species of fish, shrimp, and crab are sustained by mangroves and seagrasses, while both mangroves and seagrasses reduce coastal erosion and protect coastlines against wind and wave action Unfortunately, the importance of mangroves and seagrasses is not always appreciated, and recent years have seen massive degradation and destruction of both habitats, sometimes deliberate, and in other cases inadvertent Mangroves and seagrasses are vulnerable to climate change—but also, potentially, mitigate its adverse effects Conservation, restoration, and sustainable management of these important resources are therefore essential The impact of the continuing loss of mangroves and seagrasses seems almost too obvious to need pointing out Cassandra was fated to predict the future and to have her predictions ignored; biologists sometimes feel they have a similar role The productivity and diversity of these remarkable habitats therefore makes them of great interest to biologists and of considerable social and economic value, while degradation and destruction by human activities makes it more than ever essential to understand their significance Research has advanced considerably in recent years, and the time seems right for an attempt to present our current understanding of the mangrove and seagrass ecology My aim in writing this book is two-fold: to share my own enthusiasm for these remarkable ecosystems, and to explain how our understanding is unfolding Any author depends on the work of others, and I am grateful to numerous colleagues for their help in various ways In particular, I should like to thank Larry Abele, Liz Ashton, Patricia Berjak, Mike Gee, Rony Huys, Ong Jin Eong, Daphne Osborne, Mohammed Tahir Qureshi, and Di Walker for their help with this and previous editions Any errors that remain are, of course, entirely my own Writing books has its pleasures, particularly learning about areas of the subject with which one was previously not sufficiently familiar It also has its disadvantages, and most authors would at some stage agree with the heartfelt—­and, in this context, singularly apposite—words of the great American naturalist John James Audubon: ‘God save you the trouble of ever publishing books on natural science I would rather go without a shirt . .  through the whole of the Florida swamps in mosquito time than labor as I have with the pen.’1 For sustaining me throughout the labours with the pen (and for joining me in the Malaysian swamps in mosquito time) I should especially like to express my gratitude to Sylvia Hogarth, to whom this book is dedicated P.J.H  October 2014   Letter to J Bachman, 1834, quoted by Alice Ford (1957): The Bird Biographies of John James Audubon (Macmillan, N.Y.), pp vii–viii Contents Mangroves and Seagrasses 1.1 Mangroves 1.2 Seagrasses Mangroves and Their Environment 2.1 Adaptations to waterlogged soil 2.2 Coping with salt 2.3 The cost of survival 2.4 Inorganic nutrients 2.4.1 Nitrogen 2.4.2 Phosphorus 2.4.3 Nutrient recycling 2.4.4 Are mangroves nutrient limited? 2.5 Reproductive adaptations 2.5.1 Pollination 2.5.2 Vivipary 2.5.3 Fecundity and parental investment 2.5.4 Dispersal and settlement 2.6 Why are mangroves tropical? 17 23 26 27 29 29 30 32 32 33 36 37 41 Seagrasses and Their Environment 44 3.1 Growth and structure 3.2 Waves, currents, and sediment 3.3 Photosynthesis and respiration 3.4 Salinity 3.5 Nutrients 3.6 Reproduction 3.7 Propagule dispersal 44 46 47 48 50 51 53 Community Structure and Dynamics 55 4.1 Mangroves: form of the forest 55 viii  Contents 4.1.1 Species zonation 4.1.1.1 Propagule sorting 4.1.1.2 Physical gradients 4.1.1.3 Plant succession and species interactions 4.1.1.4 Geomorphological change 4.1.2 How different are mangroves from other forests? 4.1.3 Do mangroves create land? Mangroves as ecosystem engineers 4.2 Seagrass meadows 57 60 60 63 66 67 70 74 The Mangrove Community: Terrestrial Components 80 5.1 Mangrove-associated plants 5.2 Animals from the land 5.2.1 Insects 5.2.1.1 Insect herbivores 5.2.1.2 Termites 5.2.1.3 Ants 5.2.1.4 Mosquitoes and other biting insects 5.2.1.5 Synchronously flashing fireflies 5.2.1.6 Other insects 5.2.2 Spiders 5.2.3 Vertebrates 5.2.3.1 Amphibians 5.2.3.2 Reptiles 5.2.3.3 Birds 5.2.3.4 Mammals 80 81 82 82 86 87 89 90 91 92 92 93 94 98 102 The Mangrove Community: Marine Components 107 6.1 Algae 6.2 Fauna of mangrove roots 6.3 Invertebrates 6.3.1 Crustaceans 6.3.1.1 Crabs Leaf eating by crabs Are crabs selective feeders? Seedlings Tree-climbing crabs How important are herbivorous crabs? Fiddler crabs The physiology of living in mud 6.3.1.2 Other mangrove crustacea 6.3.1.3 Crustaceans as ecosystem engineers 107 108 110 110 111 112 114 117 118 118 119 122 126 127 Contents  ix 6.3.2 Molluscs 6.3.2.1 Snails 6.3.2.2 Bivalves 6.4 Meiofauna 6.5 Fish 129 129 132 132 135 Seagrass Communities 139 7.1 Epiphytes 7.2 Molluscs 7.3 Crustaceans 7.4 Echinoderms 7.5 Fish 7.6 Turtles 7.7 Marine mammals: dugongs, manatees, and sea otters 7.8 Birds 139 141 142 143 144 146 147 149 Measuring and Modelling 151 8.1 Mangroves 8.1.1 How to measure a tree 8.1.2 Biomass 8.1.3 Estimating production 8.1.4 What happens to mangrove production? 8.1.4.1 Microbial breakdown 8.1.4.2 Crabs and snails 8.1.4.3 Wood 8.1.4.4 The role of sediment bacteria 8.1.4.5 The fate of organic particles 8.1.4.6 Predators 8.1.5 Putting the model together 8.2 Seagrasses 151 152 152 155 158 159 161 162 163 164 165 166 168 Comparisons and Connections 170 9.1 How distinctive are mangrove and seagrass communities?170 9.2 Mangroves and salt marshes 171 9.3 Interactions 172 9.4 Outwelling 173 9.5 The fate of mangrove carbon 175 9.6 Mangroves, seagrasses, and coral reefs 178 9.7 Movement between habitats 179 9.7.1 Larval dispersal and return 179 9.7.2 Commuters 180 Index A abscisic acid (ABA)  33 Acanthaceae 3 See also Acanthus Acanthurus chirurgus 182 Acanthus  3, 20, 21, 32, 35–36, 65 accretion, shore  64, 66–67, 70, 72, 78, 216, 221 See also sedimentation acetylene 27 Acrostichum  3, 62, 65, 68, 127, 192, 208, 222 aureum  3, 191 speciosum 83 Adinia 164 Aëdes 89–90 alternans 89 amesii 89 pembaensis 89 vigilax 89 Aegialitis  3, 16, 20, 21, 36 Aegiceras  3, 16, 18, 20–21, 32, 35–36, 60, 73, 84, 92, 232 corniculatum 83 aeration of soil  8–9, 12–17, 25, 26, 27, 29, 72, 74–75, 78, 89, 122, 133, 141, 229 See also anaerobic conditions aerenchyma  12–15, 40, 47–48, 163 aerial roots  9–17, 25, 37, 40, 70–72, 78, 87, 153, 155, 163, 227–229, 243 See also pneumatophore Africa  101, 189, 197 East  4, 89, 118, 128, 130, 137, 162, 190, 192–193, 220, 242 See also Kenya, Tanzania South  31, 113, 157, 189, 193, 241 West  4, 96, 101, 118, 130, 148, 190–194, 198–200, 215, 220 See also Cameroon, Gambia age of seagrass clones  46, 52, 79 Aglaia 3 agouti (Dasyprocta) 102 Alaska 150 alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH)  16 algae  50, 72, 74–75, 77–78, 93, 107–109, 112, 114, 120–121, 129, 132, 135, 139, 140, 142, 144, 146, 149, 152, 156, 168, 177, 182, 207, 227–228, 233, 235, 241, 244 See also Bostrychia, Catanella, Enteromorpha, Gracilaria, Hormosira, microalgae, Ulva alligator  97–98, 165 alpheid shrimp, Alpheidae, Alpheus  127, 136, 143 Alpheus macellarius 143 Amazilia tzacatl 32 Amazon delta  55–56, 165 ammonia, ammonium  15, 27, 28, 50, 73, 128, 137–138, 174–175 amphibians 93–95 Amphibolis  6, 52, 54, 78 antarctica  51, 119 amphipods  89, 110, 134, 137, 140, 142, 145, 161, 164, 168 Amyema thalassium 81 Anadara  216, 223 anaerobic conditions  8–17, 25, 27–30, 38, 41–42, 47, 50, 54, 63, 68–70, 89, 104, 122–123, 131, 141, 171, 212, 227 anammox (anaerobic ammonium oxidation)  28 Anas acuta 149 penelope 149 anchovy  105, 135 Andaman islands  84 annelids  54, 109, 110, 192 See also archiannelid, oligochaete, polychaete, serpulid anoxia See anaerobic conditions antelope 102 ant-house plants, ant-plant  88 antioxidant 22 ants  87–89, 92 See also Atta, Oecophylla, Polyrhachis leafcutter 87–88 tailor  87–88, 91 weaver  87–88, 91 Apis mellifera (honeybee)  92 Apocrytes (mudskipper)  137 aquaculture  127, 183, 216, 218–219, 220, 224–226, 235–236 Arabia, Arabian Gulf, Arabian Sea  102, 103, 194, 230, 231, 241 See also Kuwait, Sinai, United Arab Emirates, Yemen Arachnids See spiders, mites Aratus pisonii  112, 113, 118 arbuscular-mycorrhizal (AM) fungi  29 Archaeozostera 204 archerfish 135 276  INDEX archiannelid 134 Arecaceae  3, 195 See also Nypa Argyrodes 92 Arius 180 Armases elegans 118 arthropods  92, 110, 133, 201–203 See also crustaceans, insects, spiders ascidian 109 Atlantic-Caribbean-East Pacific Region (ACEP)  3–4, 189–192, 195, 198, 207–208 Atlantic Ocean  2, 6–7, 39, 60, 109, 111, 127, 142, 144, 146, 171, 186, 189–195, 199, 201, 205, 241 ATP 16 ATPase 48 Atta (leafcutter ant)  87–88 Australia  3, 26, 29, 31–32, 57–58, 65, 76, 78, 81, 85–89, 92, 94–96, 99, 101–103, 105, 117–119, 132, 134, 140, 142, 148, 159, 162–163, 167, 174–175, 190, 192–195, 193–195, 198, 205, 215, 220, 234, 240–241 northern  25, 59, 63, 71, 73, 99, 128, 155, 205, 237 Queensland  9, 51, 83, 96, 102, 114, 117, 135, 160, 174 seagrasses  76, 78, 140, 142, 148, 205 southern  37, 41 western  76, 78, 105, 140, 183 Avicennia  3, 10, 11, 14–23, 26, 30, 32, 35, 36–40, 37, 38, 42, 57–60, 62, 64, 65, 72, 73, 81, 82, 84–85, 92, 99, 103, 104, 107, 108, 114, 117, 119, 134, 155–158, 160, 163, 192, 195–196, 201, 208, 211, 221, 229–230, 235 alba  59, 200 bicolor  39, 60 germinans  16, 27, 38, 39, 42, 60, 66, 119, 198, 201, 241 intermedia 59 marina  3, 12, 13, 17, 19, 36–39, 61, 63, 65, 82–83, 85–86, 119, 154, 170, 191, 200, 208, 232, 233, 240 officinalis 200 Avicenniaceae 2–3 Axis deer, Axis axis 102 Aythya americana 150 B bacteria  8, 27, 28, 29, 80, 104, 114, 120, 121, 134, 135, 139, 141, 159, 161, 163–164, 166, 176, 178, 226, 229 See also cyanobacteria bacteria, nitrogen-fixing  15, 27–28, 30, 50, 107–108 Bahamas  57, 142, 175, 200 Balanus 108 Baltic Sea  46, 52, 209 bandicoot (Perameles, Isoodon) 102 Bangladesh  102, 165, 220 See also Sundarbans barnacles  108, 109, 129, 179, 235 basin mangroves  56–57 bats  32, 105–106, 172–173 Bay of Bengal  55, 66 bêche-de-mer (Holothuria) 144 bees  32, 92 See also Apis mellifera beetles (Coleoptera)  84–86, 87, 90–91, 99 See also chrysomelid, Coccotrypes, fireflies, scolytid Belize  30–31, 82, 84, 86, 110, 119, 181, 186 betaine 22 bicarbonate 47 Bignoniaceae 3 See also Dolichandrone, Tabebula biodiversity  152, 188–189 diversity of mangrove fauna  201–203 and ecosystem function  152, 168, 188, 206–210 genetic diversity of mangroves  189, 200–201, 222 local diversity of mangroves  197–200 mangrove  68–69, 170–171, 188–192, 197–200, 206–209 mangrove fauna  74, 109, 152, 186, 192, 201–203 regional diversity of mangroves  189–192 seagrass  5, 66–67, 139, 142, 203–206, 209–210 biogeography  2–7, 188–210 See also geographical distribution biomass  104, 114, 135, 139, 142, 161, 163, 166, 167, 180, 210 below ground  23, 29–30, 46, 155, 158 mangroves  9, 23, 25, 29, 73, 77, 85, 152–158, 163, 166, 174, 206–208, 211 seagrasses  46, 169, 209 bioturbation  54, 127–129, 143–144 birds in mangroves  32, 53, 72, 76–77, 84, 89, 90, 92, 98–102, 122, 131, 162, 165, 170, 217, 222–223, 233, 235 in seagrasses  149–150 bivalve molluscs  103, 108–109, 132, 134–135, 141, 163, 179–180, 219 See also mussels, oysters, piddocks, Pinna, shipworm Boiga dendrophila (mangrove snake)  95 Boleophthalmus (mudskipper)  137, 138 Bombiaceae 3 See also Camptostemon boring organisms See wood-borers Borneo  104, 216 Bostrychia 108 Brachydontes 164 Brachyura 110 See also crabs Brahmaputra delta  55, 58, 67 Branta bernicla  150, 209 Brazil  105, 119, 127, 138, 175, 194 See also Amazon bromeliad  80, 81 Bruguiera  3, 10, 11, 16, 19, 21, 22, 32, 36, 57, 59, 81, 101, 103, 117, 134, 162, 163, 193, 195, 208, 222 cylindrica 59 exaristata 86 INDEX  277 gymnorrhiza  22, 59, 62, 63, 65, 83, 86, 118 parviflora  22, 59, 62, 65, 86, 159 sexangula  59, 86 bryozoans 109 Bubalus (water buffalo)  102, 103, 232 Bubulcus ibis (Cattle egret)  98 buffalo, water  102, 103, 232 bugs (Hemiptera, Homoptera)  84, 87, 88, 91, 99 burrow, burrowing  29, 73–74, 89, 92, 95, 110–111, 113, 116, 126, 141, 143 burrows, crab  73, 89, 92, 110, 113, 116, 119–122, 124–125, 127–129, 136, 138, 143, 161–162 mudskipper  92, 136–138 butterflies  32, 89, 91–92 buttress root  103 See also aerial root C Caesalpinaceae 3 See also Cynometra, Mora Caesalpinia 80 caiman, Caiman crocodylus  96, 165 Calamus erinaceus 80 calcium carbonate  129, 131, 178, 239 California  142, 149, 150, 183, 191, 209 Callinectes sapidus 113 Caloglossa 108 camel 103 Cameroon 198–199 Camptostemon 3 carbohydrates  34, 159 carbon dissolved inorganic (DIC)  166–167, 174 dissolved organic (DOC)  159, 164, 166, 173 particulate organic (POC)  141, 161, 164, 166, 172–173, 179, 181 carbon assimilation  24, 47, 113–114, 121, 155–156, 171 See also photosynthesis carbon dioxide, CO2  9, 13–15, 24, 47, 166, 178, 212, 238–240 atmospheric CO2 rise   212, 238–240 carbon flux  114, 152–169, 173–179 carbon monoxide  19 carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio  84, 115–116, 118, 161 carbonate  50, 57, 129, 131, 178, 239 Cardisoma 112 Caribbean  28–29, 57, 85, 92, 109, 111, 118–119, 130, 145–147, 182, 190–194, 204–205, 221, 228–229 See also Atlantic-Caribbean-East Pacific region (ACEP) Cassiopeia 180 Casuarina 70 catalase 22 Catanella 108 catch per unit effort (CPUE)  233 catfish 135 cattle  214, 232 cellulase 113 cellulose  104, 108, 113, 147, 159, 162, 221 cellulose-digesting bacteria  104, 108 Central America  32, 38–39, 96, 100–102, 112, 130, 194, 216, 220 See also specific country Cerambycidae (beetle)  55 Ceratopogonidae 89 Cerberus 98 Cercopithecus 103 Ceriops  3, 18, 21, 32, 36, 39, 40, 59, 62, 87, 99, 117, 134, 160, 162, 193, 195, 208, 211, 232 australis  32, 63, 86 decandra 22 tagal  22, 59, 63, 83, 86, 114–115, 118 Cerithidea  129, 131, 134 Cervus duvauceli 103 Cetacea 102 See also dolphins, porpoises Chaerophon jobensis 105 Chaetodon capistratus 182 Chalinolobus gouldii 105 charcoal  213–214, 218, 222, 223 Chelonia mydas 146 chemical defences  84, 109, 145 chemoautotrophy  132, 141 China  154, 226, 235 chloride ions  17, 19, 35, 90, 93, 95 See also salt chlorophyll  13, 34, 140, 156, 200 Chlorophyta 108 Christmas Island  57, 66 chrysomelid beetle, Chrysomelidae  84, 87 ciliate protozoa  121, 133–134, 135 clams 141 Cleistocoeloma merguiensis  113, 123 Clibanarius (hermit crab)  126 panamensis 108 climate change  67, 201, 234, 236, 238–245 atmospheric CO2 rise   212, 238–240 sea level rise  57, 66–67, 221, 242–243 temperature rise  212, 240–242 threshold response  244 climbing plants  65, 69, 80 clonal growth of seagrasses  46, 52, 75, 78, 209 C/N ratio See carbon/nitrogen ratio coastal protection  79, 216–217, 218, 219, 234 cobra 94 coccid  84, 87, 91 Coccotrypes (scolytid beetle)  85 cockle (Anadara)  216, 223 cockroaches 92 cold tolerance of mangroves  2–4, 41–42, 227, 241, 244 Coleoptera  84–86, 87, 90–91, 99 colobine monkey  104–105 278  INDEX Colombia 229–230 colubrid snake  98 column roots  12, 15 See also aerial roots Combretaceae 3 See also Conocarpus, Laguncularia, Lumnitzera commensal 136 See also mutualism community structure of mangrove root fauna  108–110 mangrove fauna  80–138 mangroves 55–70 seagrasses  74–79, 139–150 competition, interspecific  24, 26, 41–43, 47, 60, 63, 67–70, 75–77, 99, 102, 105, 109, 116, 130, 143–144, 148, 162, 197–198, 207, 241 Congeria (mussel)  164 connectance, connectivity between habitats  172–187, 235 Conocarpus  3, 87 copepods  109, 133, 134, 135, 137, 142, 161 See also harpacticoids coral reef  50, 54, 57, 79, 145, 172, 178–179, 181–182, 236, 243 cork warts  14 cormorants 98 Costa Rica  36, 108 cotyledon 33–35 crabs  72, 74, 95, 98, 101–103, 109–128, 135–137, 140, 142, 149, 151–152, 161, 165, 170, 180, 217, 218 See also in particular sesarmid, Uca burrows, burrowing  73, 89, 92, 110, 113, 116, 119–122, 124–125, 127–129, 136, 138, 143, 161–162 herbivory  30, 65–66, 74, 112–119, 143, 151–152, 158–162, 164 larvae  122, 165, 179–180 physiology 122–126 as seedling predators  65–66, 112, 117–119, 235 tree-climbing 118 Crassostrea (oyster)  109 Cretaceous  194–195, 204 crocodiles  92, 94, 96–98, 165 Crocodylus acutus (American crocodile)  96–97 niloticus (Nile crocodile)  96 porosus (estuarine crocodile)  96, 97, 165 Crustacea, crustaceans  53, 78, 110–128, 134, 142–143, 168, 184–185, 236, 239 See also in particular amphipods, copepods, crabs, isopods, shrimps crustaceans as ecosystem engineers  127–128 in mangroves  53, 78, 110–128, 134, 142, 184, 239 See also in particular amphipods, crabs, isopods, shrimp in seagrasses  142–143, 168, 236 cryptovivipary  35, 36 Cuba  103, 220 cultivation grazing  147, 148–149 cumaceans 134 currents  2–3, 39, 41, 46–47, 53, 56, 66, 70–72, 77–79, 136, 139, 158, 162, 173, 175, 179–180, 185, 205, 229, 236, 243 cyanobacteria  27, 28, 50, 107, 152 cyclone See hurricane Cygnus atratus (black swan)  150 cygnus (whooper swan)  150 Cymodocea  6, 53–54, 143, 204 rotundata 45 serrulata 51 Cymodoceaceae  6, 204 See also Amphibolis, Cymodocea, Halodule, Syringodium, Thalassodendron Cymodoceoidea 6 Cynometra 3 Cyprinodon 164 D Dactylocladus 70 dams, damming of rivers  56, 220, 229, 232 Dasyprocta (agouti)  102 daylength 41–42 Decapoda, decapods See crabs, shrimp deciduous 19–20 decollation 131 decomposition  27–29, 80, 114–115, 139, 141, 147, 158–161, 163, 166, 168–169, 172–173, 222, 244 deer 102 axis 102 key 102 swamp 103 defoliation  83, 85–86, 200, 221, 228 denitrification  27, 28, 30 deposit feeding  113, 119–122, 126, 127, 129–130, 137, 151, 162, 164, 166, 168, 172 depth limits of seagrasses  4, 46, 47–48, 50, 75 Derris  65, 80 desalination  18–19, 73–74 desiccation  33, 40, 75, 86, 108, 131, 137 Desulfovibrio (bacterium)  27 detritus, detritivores, mangrove  80, 121, 129–132, 134–135, 164–165, 171, 173, 176, 185, 210 See also leaf litter seagrass  139, 142–144, 147, 149–150, 168–169 diameter of trunk at breast height (DBH)  153 diapause 94 diatoms  107–108, 109, 118, 121, 142, 164 Dicaeum hirundinaceum (mistletoe bird)  81 Dicyathifer (shipworm)  132 dinitrophenol 19 INDEX  279 Diospyros 3 Diptera 32 See also Drosophilididae, midges, mosquitoes direct uses of mangroves See goods and services dispersal, larval  179–180 mangrove  36–41, 69, 190, 193–201, 207 seagrass  44, 52–54, 77, 204–205, 210 dissolved organic matter (DOM) See carbon distinctiveness of mangrove and seagrass habitats  67–70, 171–172 diversity and ecosystem function  206–210 diversity See biodiversity, genetic diversity DNA synthesis  33 DNRA (dissimulatory nitrogen reduction to ammonium) 28 Dolichandrone 3 dolphins 102 dredging  233, 237 Drosophilididae 32 duck  77, 149, 150 See also Anas redheaded 150 dugongs, Dugong dugon  53, 77, 102, 140, 147–149, 168–169, 173, 204 durian, Durio zibethinus 106 dwarf mangroves  26, 31, 58, 155, 157 E Ebenaceae 3 See also Diospyros echinoderms, Echinodermata  143–144, 168 economic value of mangroves  217–220 of seagrasses  237 ecosystem engineers crustaceans  127–128, 143 mangroves 70–74 seagrasses 77–79 ecosystem function and diversity  206–210 ecotourism  213, 217, 222, 234 effluent  218, 225–226, 232–233 egret  30, 98, 99 cattle 98 snowy 98 Egretta thula (Snowy egret)  98 Egypt See Red Sea, Arabian Gulf, Sinai ellobiids, Ellobiidae  196–197 embolism 42 encrusting organisms  28–29, 108–109, 132 See also epiphyte endodermis 19 energy flow See carbon flux Enhalus  6, 53, 204 acoroides  45, 52–53, 77 Enhydra lutris 149 Enteromorpha 108 enzymes  22, 27, 48, 94, 113, 159 See also alcohol dehydrogenase, ATPase, catalase, nitrogenase, superoxide dismutase enzymes: inhibition by salt  19, 48 Eocene  194–196, 204 Eonycteris spelaea (bat)  106 epigenetic variation  22 epiphytes on mangrove  28, 69, 72, 74, 80, 81, 108–109 seagrasses  139–140, 142, 143, 144, 168 Episesarma (crab)  127 versicolor  88, 111, 113, 118, 123, 127, 161 epizoites  28, 108–109 See also barnacles, oysters, sponges erosion, shore  46, 64, 66–68, 70, 72, 79, 172, 211–212, 216, 218, 222, 225, 232–234, 236, 244 estuary  4, 29, 44, 48, 56, 59, 61, 67, 70–71, 96, 97, 126, 129, 165, 171, 176, 179, 180, 184–185, 198, 212, 217, 222, 242–243 See also Amazon, Ganges, Indus, Sundarbans estuary, tide-dominated  56–57 ethanol 16 ethylene 27 Eudocimus ruber (Scarlet ibis)  98–99, 217 Euphorbiaceae 3 See also Excoecaria euryhaline species See salt tolerance eutrophication  140, 179, 237 evergreen 30 evolution of mangroves  192–197 of seagrasses  204–205 exclusion experiments  134–135, 144, 145, 159 Excoecaria  3, 16, 20, 21, 32, 36, 81, 82–83 agallocha 83–84 exploitation 211–226 export of organic matter See carbon flux, outwelling extracellular enzymes  159 F fantail 99–100 fauna of mangroves  80–138 of seagrasses  139–150 fecundity  32, 36–37, 54 feedback, ecological  70, 72, 74–75, 79, 141 feeding deterrents  81, 84, 143, 145 feeding guilds  99–102 Fejervarya cancrivora 93–95 Felis viverrima 102 ferns (Pteridaceae)  2, 3, 65, 80 See also Acrostichum ferrous, ferric ions  8, 9, 29 fiddler crab See Uca Fiji  96, 206 filter feeding  108, 109, 110, 132, 141, 151, 164, 165, 166, 185, 210 See also barnacles, bivalve molluscs, sponges 280  INDEX fireflies  84, 90–91 fish cat (Felis viverrima) 102 fisheries  146, 165, 172–173, 183–187, 212–213, 216, 219, 223, 233, 234 See also aquaculture fish in mangroves  92–96, 98–99, 101–102, 105, 111, 118, 135–138, 151, 164–165, 168, 170, 174, 180–182, 185–187 movement between habitats  180–182, 186–187 in seagrasses  53, 78, 139–140, 144–147, 182, 236 flatworms 133–134 flavoglycans 116 flavolans 115–116 flavonoid 75 flies (Diptera)  32 See also Drosophilididae, midges, mosquitoes flocculation 70–71 Florida  18, 27, 30, 50, 58, 64, 76–77, 87, 95, 110, 119, 128, 138, 145, 155, 164, 167–168, 174–176, 178, 183, 200–202, 208, 217, 221, 241–242 flowers, flowering  32, 36, 37, 44, 52–53, 69, 82, 85, 92, 98 See also pollination flycatcher 99–100 flying fox  94, 105–106 fodder  211, 213–215, 233, 236 food webs  151, 168–169 Foraminifera 134 forest structure  55–74 fossil evidence  194–197, 204–205, 243 freezing  2, 42 fresh water  5, 16, 18, 22–23, 27, 30, 39, 44, 48, 50, 56–57, 61, 67, 69–70, 89, 94, 96–98, 130, 148, 179, 184, 230, 232 freshwater wetland forest  69–70 fringe mangroves  31, 56, 212 frog 93–95 frost  2, 42 fruit bat  94, 105–106, 172 Fucales 107 functional groups  109, 151–152, 167–168, 206–207 fungi  29, 80, 87, 88, 114, 132, 139, 159, 161, 163 See also mycorrhizae future of mangroves and seagrasses  245 G Gambia 71 Ganges river  55, 58, 67, 102, 212 gaps in vegetation, gap dynamics  40, 52, 65–67, 72, 77, 117, 208–209, 243–244 gas spaces See aerenchyma Gasteracanthidae (spiders)  92 gas transport  13–15, 47 gastropod molluscs (snails)  107, 109, 119, 129–132, 134, 142 See also Cerithidea, Littoraria, Littorinidae, Morula, Telescopium, Terebralia, thaidid, Ellobiidae gastrotrich 133–134 Gecarcinidae (land crabs)  112 Gecarcoidea (land crab)  112 geese  149, 150, 209 gei wai shrimp cultivation  218, 224, 226 gene expression in response to salt  19, 22, 33 genetic diversity  22, 200–201, 205, 209–210 geographical distribution, mangroves  2–4, 41–43, 189–197 seagrasses  4–7, 203–206 geographical isolation  57, 102, 200, 203 geometrid moth  87 geomorphological change  58, 66–67, 70 See also tectonic movement Germany 184 germination  33, 54 Gerres cinereus 182 Gerygone 99–100 chloronata  99, 100 laevigaster  99, 100 magnirostris  99, 100 gills  121, 123, 131, 138 global climate change  67, 201, 234, 236, 238–245 atmospheric CO2 rise   212, 238–240 sea level rise  57, 66–67, 221, 242–243 temperature rise  212, 240–242 threshold response  244 glycinebetaine  19, 48 glycolysis 16 goats 232 Gobiosoma bosci 144 goby  136, 144 Goniopsis 111 goods and services supplied by mangroves  212–226 Gracilaria 107 grapsid crab, Grapsidae  110, 119, 123, 170 See also Goniopsis, Metopograpsus, sesarmid Grapsoidea  110–112, 126 See also Grapsidae, Ocypodidae, Sesarmidae growth and nutrients  30–32, 227 of mangroves  24–26, 41, 56–57, 70, 85, 88, 109, 128, 208 of propagules and seedlings  33–38, 40, 73, 86, 208, 233 and salinity  17, 20–26, 61–63, 65, 73 seagrass  44–46, 49–52, 75–79, 141–142, 144–147, 149, 167–168, 237 grunt See Haemulon guano  30, 99, 106 INDEX  281 H habitat degradation  211, 221, 232 fragmentation 210 restoration  212, 234–236 haemoglobin 94 Haemulon parrai 182 flavolineatus  180, 182 plumieri 182 sciurus  181, 182, 186 Haliclona (sponge)  28–29 Halodule  6, 50, 54, 77, 148, 204 Halodule pinifolia 205 uninervis  51, 78, 205, 241 wrightii  49, 52, 53, 76–78, 150, 205 Halophila  4–6, 45, 47, 52–54, 75, 148, 204 johnsoni 52 ovalis  75, 148 ovata 45 Halophiloidea 6 harpacticoid copepod  133, 134, 135 haustorium 81 Hawaii  74, 142, 190 hawk 101 heavy metals  227, 233 Hemiptera 88 herbicide 210 herbivore deterrence  81, 84, 143, 145 herbivory  93, 134 bird 149–150 crab  88, 112–119, 126 dugong 147–149 fish  137, 144–145 insect  37, 82–88 mammal  102–105, 147–149 mangrove  42, 81, 82–88, 112–119, 129–131, 137, 156–163 seagrasses  48, 77, 140–150, 168– 169, 172 sea urchin  143–144 turtle 146–147 Heritiera  3, 67, 82–83, 85, 163 littoralis  83, 85–86 hermit crabs  108, 110, 126 heron  98, 122, 217 Herpestes (mongoose)  102 Heterozostera  6, 205 Holocene era  57, 242, 243 holothurians, Holothuria (sea cucumber)  144 Homoptera, homopteran bugs  84 Honduras  217, 220 honeybee (Apis mellifera) 92 honeyeaters 100–101 Hong Kong  83, 85 Hormosira 107 Humboldt Current  2, 41 hummingbirds  32, 99, 100, 101 hurricanes and typhoons  38, 54, 66, 67, 68, 143, 167, 208, 212, 216, 220, 221, 237, 243–244 hutia, Cabrera’s  103 Hydnophytum formicarium 138 hydraulic connectivity  42, 68 Hydrocharitaceae  5, 6, 52, 204 See also Halophila, Enhalus, Thalassia Hydrocharitioidea 6 hydrogen peroxide  22 hydroids 109 hydrology  30, 229–230, 232, 234, 243 hydroperiod  60, 61, 63 See also hydrology, tidal inundation Hydrophiidae (sea snakes)  94 Hymenoptera 201 See also ants, bees hypersalinity  17–18, 22, 48, 56, 61, 73 Hypochrysops (butterfly)  88 hypocotyl  33–35, 40 hypodermis 19 hyposalinity 48 I ibis 98–99 ibis, Scarlet (Eudocimus ruber)  98–99, 217 Idotea (isopod)  149 Ilyoplax 123 impacts on mangroves and seagrasses  211–237 See also fisheries, climate change, hurricanes India  4, 32, 57, 91, 96, 102, 129, 134, 165, 190, 193, 200, 216–217, 226, 231, 236 See also Sundarbans Indian Ocean  57, 109, 112, 189, 217 indirect use values  210 Indoaustriella 132 Indo-Malesia  4, 190–192 Indonesia  85, 91, 127, 143, 193, 226 Indo-Pacific, Indo-West Pacific  3–4, 6–7, 38, 60, 76, 87, 109, 119, 127, 129–130, 146–147, 172, 182, 186, 189–192, 194, 205, 216 Indus delta (Pakistan)  17, 26, 55, 103, 212, 222, 230–234, 236 inland mangroves  57, 66 insect herbivory  37, 82–88 insects  32, 72, 82–92, 99–101, 105–106, 137, 201–203 See also in particular ants, bees, beetles, bugs, fireflies, mosquitoes, termites interactions between ecosystems  170–187 invertebrates See in particular crustaceans, insects, molluscs Iridomyrmex 88 282  INDEX iron  8–9, 26 Isoodon (bandicoot)  102 isopod  9, 108–110, 140, 142, 143, 149, 168 See also Idotea, Sphaeroma J Japan  150, 175, 201, 204 jellyfish  180, 206 K Kandelia  3, 30, 32, 36, 39, 193 Kandelia candel 30 Kenya  127, 130, 134, 135, 162, 175, 178, 181, 219 kingfishers  98–99, 122, 217 kinorhynchs 133–134 knee roots  11 See also aerial roots Kryptolebias marmoratus (fish) 138 K-selection 68 Kuwait 236 L Labyrinthula zosterae 237 lactate  16, 122 Laguncularia  3, 21, 22, 36, 40, 42, 60, 87, 119, 128, 192, 208, 211 racemosa  27, 39, 60, 119, 199 lampyrid, Lampyridae  84, 90–91 land crab See Cardisoma, Gecarcinidae, Gecarcoidea, Ucides langur monkey  104–105 larval dispersal and settling  108, 110, 122, 135, 161, 165, 174, 179–180, 184–185, 224–226, 239 Lates calcarifer (barramundi) 233 latitude and species distribution  1, 3, 5, 41–42, 109, 154–155, 158, 169, 171, 204, 207, 242 latitudinal range of mangroves  1–4, 41–43, 57, 189, 194, 204, 240–241 of seagrasses  1, 4–5, 203–204, 241–242 leaf, leaves  14, 19–20, 23–25, 69, 72–73, 81, 84, 99, 103, 108, 128, 131, 152, 155–158 See also herbivory, leaf litter, photosynthesis leaf composition  84, 114–116 See also carbon/ nitrogen ratio, tannin litter  27, 57, 72, 85, 112–119, 130, 152, 156–162, 167, 174, 175 See also detritus miners  82, 143 senescence  19, 30, 73, 114–115 shedding  19, 22, 30, 33, 73, 81, 82, 156, 157 succulence  23, 81, 84 leatherjacket 144 leaves, seagrass  45–52, 75, 77, 139–150, 178–179, 205 Leguminosae 80 See also Caesalpina, Derris lenticels  12–15, 29, 108–109, 228 Lepidoptera  84, 88, 89 See also butterflies, moths lianes 80 lichens 80 light  13, 40, 44, 46–47, 65–66, 68–69, 75–76, 78, 140, 149, 155, 237, 243 See also photosynthesis lignin  146, 147, 154, 175 lignocellulose  159, 162 Littoraria angulifera 130 intermedia 130–131 pallescens 131 scabra 130–131 Littorinidae 196 See also Littoraria Liza (mullet)  135, 180 lizard  94, 96, 98 monitor  96, 217, 223 Lizashtonia hirsuta 133 longhorn beetle  86 Lophogobius 164 Loranthaceae (mistletoe)  81 lucinid bivalve, Lucinidae  132, 141 Lumnitzera  3, 36, 62, 99, 192 littorea 83 Lutjanus analis 182 apodus 182 griseus 182 mahogoni 182 lycaenid butterfly, Lycaenidae  88 lycosid spider Lycosidae  92 Lythraceae 3 See also Pemphis M Macaca sp (macaque monkey)  103 Macroglossus minimus 106 Macrophthalmus 123 hirtipes 142 setosus 126 maize 23 Malaysia  11, 57, 58–59, 80, 90–92, 94, 99–101, 106, 117–119, 121–123, 126, 133, 135, 153, 159, 161, 164, 176–177, 180, 183, 185–186, 192–193, 208, 213, 216–218, 221–222 See also Matang mammals  72, 96, 102–106, 122, 147–149, 170 See also in particular bats, dugongs, manatees, monkey management  211–226, 229–236 manatees  53, 147–148 manganese 26 mangrove, mangroves associates  2, 191 basin 56–57 biodiversity 188–201 clearance  212–213, 222, 224–225, 245 INDEX  283 conversion  212, 218, 220, 221–222, 224–246 dwarf 26 as ecosystem engineers  70–74 faunal diversity  201–203 fecundity  32, 36–37 inland 57 introduction  74, 190, 191, 194, 196, 215, 232 management  211–226, 229–236 products 212–216 range expansion  43, 57, 193, 200–201, 234, 236, 241–242, 244 replanting  104, 106, 201, 212, 229, 233–236 restoration  212, 234–236 riverine 56–57 and salt marshes  171–172, 241, 244 snake 95 tide-dominated  56–57, 58 mannitol 19 mantis shrimp  126 marine components of mangrove fauna  107–138 Matang (Malaysia)  65, 153, 189, 211, 222–224 Mediterranean  6–7, 79, 141, 143, 145, 146, 183, 194, 245 Megachiroptera 105–106 See also flying fox, fruit bat meiofauna  121, 132–135, 161, 164, 176 Meliaceae 3 See also Aglaia, Xylocarpus Meliphagidae (honeyeaters)  101 Melita 164 Merguia (shrimp)  127 Mesocapromys angelcabrerai (Cabrera’s hutia)  103 Metaplax crenulata 123 elegans 123 methane  9, 240 Metopograpsus 111 Mexico 175 Mexico, Gulf of  42–43, 147, 150, 221 microalgae  120, 135, 142, 152, 156 Microchiroptera 105–106 See also bats midge, biting (Ceratopogonidae)  89–90 mimicry 81 Miocene  194–195, 205 mistletoe 81 modelling 151–169 molluscs  110, 127, 129–132, 133, 140–142, 149, 178, 192, 194, 196, 216, 218, 224, 239 bivalve  103, 108–109, 132, 134–135, 141, 163, 179–180, 229 See also in particular mussels, oysters, piddocks, Pinna, shipworm gastropod  107, 109, 119, 129–132, 134, 142 See also in particular Littoraria, neritid, Telescopium, Terebralia in seagrass  141–142, 204, 236–237 Monacanthidae 144 mongoose (Herpestes spp.)  102 monitor lizards  96, 217, 223 monkey  103–105, 122, 235 colobine 104–105 langur 104 leaf 104 macaque 103 proboscis 104–105 as seedling predators  103–104 Mora 3 Mormopterus loriae 105 Morula lugubris 108 mosquitoes  82, 89–90, 225 See also Aëdes moths  32, 83, 85, 87, 91–92 movement between habitats  179–182 Mozambique 58 mud lobster  65, 110, 127, 143 mudskippers  90, 95, 98, 135–138 mullet, Liza  135, 180 Murrayella 108 mussels  132, 141, 164 mutualism  29, 88, 138 See also symbiosis mycorrhizae, mycorrhizal fungi  29 Mycteria cinerea milky stork)  223 Myrmecodia 88 myrmecophytes 88 Myrsinaceae 3 See also Aegiceras Myrtaceae 3 See also Osbornia N Nanozostera  6, 205 Nasalis larvatus (proboscis monkey)  104–105 Neaxius acanthus 143 necromass  158, 160 nectar  20, 32, 87, 99–101, 106 Nectariniidae (sunbirds)  100–101 nematodes  110, 121, 133–135, 161 nemertean 110 Neosarmatium meinerti 113 smithi  112, 114–115 Nephila claviceps (golden silk spider)  92 neritid, Neritidae (gastropod)  142 Nerodia fasciata (mangrove snake)  95 net primary production (NPP) See primary production New Caledonia  190, 206 New Zealand  3, 31, 41, 142, 150, 190, 234, 241 Nicobar islands  84 Nigeria 127 nitrate  8, 15, 27–31, 73, 99, 128, 158, 174, 175 nitrification  15, 27–28 nitrite  27–29, 174 Nitrobacter 28 284  INDEX nitrogen  8, 15, 26–32, 45, 50–51, 76, 84, 88, 94, 109, 113–116, 121, 137–138, 145–147, 172, 174, 175, 227, 239 See also carbon/nitrogen ratio, nitrate, nitrite fixation, nitrogen-fixing bacteria  15, 27–28, 30, 50, 108, 174 nitrogenase 27 Nitrosomonas 28 Nitrospina 28 nitrous oxide  28 Noctilio leporinus 105 noctuid moth, Noctuidae  85 non-use values of mangroves  219 Nophopterix syntaractis (moth)  83, 85 North America  150, 171 See also specific country nursery area  135, 142, 145, 181–185 nutrients mangroves  15, 26–32, 34, 56, 65, 73, 85, 88, 98, 109, 128, 155, 158, 165, 167–168, 171–172, 174, 179, 219, 227, 229, 235, 237, 239 See also nitrate, phosphate seagrasses  45–46, 50–51, 76–79, 140, 141, 145–147, 149, 169, 171–172 Nycticeius greyi 105 Nyctophilus arnhemensis 105 Nypa  3, 32, 36, 67, 91, 194, 196 fruticans  191, 194, 196, 215 O ocypodid crab, Ocypodidae  110, 112, 119, 120, 123, 126, 128, 142 See also Ilyoplax, Macrophthalmus, Uca, Ucides Ocyurus chrysurus 182 Odocoileus (key deer)  102 Oecophylla smaragdina (weaver ant)  87–88, 91 oligochaetes, Oligochaeta  134–135 Ophiophagus hannah (king cobra)  94 Ophiusa (noctuid moth)  85 optimal foraging  121 Orcaella brevirostris 102 orchid  2, 80 origins of mangroves  192–197 seagrasses 204–205 Osbornia  3, 21, 36 osmoconformer  94–95, 125–126 osmoregulation  17–22, 93–98, 125–126 osprey 98 ostracods, Ostracoda  142 otter  102, 118, 147, 149, 213 outwelling  173–178, 183–184 overexploitation of mangroves  129, 211, 220–222, 224–226, 233 overgrazing  222, 232, 237 overwash mangroves  57 oxidative phosphorylation  16 oxygen, diffusion rate  oxygenation of soil  8–9, 12–17, 25, 26, 27, 29, 72, 74–75, 78, 89, 122, 133, 141, 229 See also anaerobic conditions oyster  5, 72, 109, 132, 164, 229, 235 See also Crassostrea P Pacific Ocean  2, 6–7, 39, 57, 60, 189–194, 198, 200–201, 204–207, 220–221 See also AtlanticCaribbean-East Pacific region, Indo-Pacific paddock 108 Pakistan  220, 236 See also Indus delta Palaemonetes (shrimp)  164 Paleocene 194–195 palms, Palmae  80, 212 See also Calamus, Nypa Panama  31, 60, 99–102, 127, 130, 191, 194, 204, 228, 236 Panthera tigris (Bengal tiger)  102, 103 Papua New Guinea  55, 70, 81, 91, 101, 102, 130, 190, 198, 207 Paracleistostoma mcneilli 126 Parasesarma erythrodactyla 114 leptosoma 118 plicata  112, 113 Pardosa (lycosid spider)  92 parental investment  36–37 parrotfish  145, 181, 182 particulate organic matter (POM) See also carbon (POC) Parus major (great tit)  101 passerines  99, 101 pelicans  30, 98 Pelliciera  3, 36, 40, 195 rhizophorae  32, 39, 60 Pellicieraceae  3, 195 Pemphis 3 penaeid shrimp, Penaeidae  110, 126, 142, 183–185, 224–226 See also aquaculture, shrimps Penaeus 184 Penaeus latisulcatus 184 merguiensis 184 semisulcatus 184 Perameles (bandicoot)  102 pericarp  34, 35, 38 Periophthalmodon 137–138 Periophthalmus 137–138 cantonensis 137 chrysospilos 136 sobrinus 137 periostracum 132 Perisesarma eumolpe 113 onychophora  113, 123, 161 INDEX  285 Persian Gulf, Arabian Gulf  102, 103, 194, 230, 231, 241 pesticide  227, 233 Philippines  91, 135, 143, 144, 194, 226, 236, 242 Pholadidae (piddocks)  108 phosphate, phosphorus  9, 26–27, 29, 30–32, 50–51, 73, 76, 99, 128, 167, 172, 174–175, 227 photosynthesis, mangrove v  1, 13, 14, 15, 24, 25, 34, 35, 40, 41, 74, 107, 114, 151, 152, 155, 167, 238, 239, 240 algae  107, 152 seagrass  44, 46, 47–48, 75, 78, 139, 140, 142, 179, 237, 239 Phyllospadix  4, 6, 44, 75, 141, 204–205 iwatensis 205 japonicus 205 scouleri 205 serrulatus 205 torreyi 51 physical barriers to dispersal  189–195, 204–205 physical gradients  24, 31, 60–63, 66–67, 70, 197–198, 207, 242 phytoplankton  89, 176, 185 piddocks 108 pigs 102 Pillucina 132 Pinna nobilis (giant fan mussel)  141 pintail duck  149 pioneer species  39, 63–64, 68–69 Pipistrellus tenuis 105 pistol shrimp See Alpheus plankton  71, 135, 176, 178–180, 185 Platanista gangetica (dolphin)  102 platyhelminth 110 Plumbaginaceae 3 See also Aegialitis pneumatophores  10, 11–17, 25, 28, 40, 70–74, 107–109, 111, 136, 163, 185, 211, 227–228, 232, 243 facultative  16, 17 pollen, pollination, mangrove  32, 39, 44, 69, 82, 92, 98, 101, 106, 194–195, 200 pollen, pollination, seagrass  44, 52–53, 78, 204 pollution 227–229 oil  227, 228–229, 233 sewage  227–228, 233 thermal 227 polychaete  109, 192 polymorphism 131 Polyrhachis sokolova (ant)  88–89 Pomadasys 180 porpoise 102 portunid, Portunidae  110, 113, 126 See also Callinectes, Scylla Posidonia  6, 45–46, 52, 53, 78, 79, 141, 143, 145, 204, 245 australis  77, 140 cretacea 204 oceanica  78, 145 Posidoniaceae  6, 204 Posidonoidea 6 Potamogetonaceae  5, 6, 52 potassium ions  48, 93, 95 prawn  126, 226 See also shrimp Presbytis (langur monkey)  104 primary production  107, 208 gross (GPP)  156 mangrove  1, 36, 41–42, 151–158, 165–166, 173–175, 177–178, 213, 235 net (NPP)  36, 41–42, 156–158, 161–162, 166, 169, 173 salt marsh  171–173 seagrass  50, 139–140, 142, 146, 168–169 Prionos ornata 133 proboscis monkey  104–105 Procyon cancrivorus (raccoon)  102 production, bacterial  159–161, 163–164 prokaryotes See bacteria, cyanobacteria proline  19, 48 propagule  33–40, 42, 58, 67, 69, 72, 74, 75, 85–86, 103, 112, 117–118, 120, 222, 232–235, 244 dispersal, mangrove  37–40, 69, 193, 195–200, 241 predation  40, 60, 65–66, 85, 103–104, 117, 119 sorting 60 prop root  15, 16, 107 See also aerial root Protozoa, Protists See also foraminifera, ciliate Pseudoapocrytes (mudskipper) 137 pseudofaecal pellets  120–121, 135 Pteridaceae (ferns)  See also Acrostichum Pterocarpus 70 Pteroptyx (firefly)  90–91 cribellata 91 malaccae 90–91 tener 90 Pteropus (flying fox)  105–106 Puerto Rico  135, 200 pyralid moth, Pyralidae  83, 85 python 94 Q Queensland  9, 51, 83, 96, 102, 114, 117, 135, 160, 174 R rabbitfish 144 rabbitfish (Scaridae)  144–145, 181 raccoon (Procyon) 102 radula 129–131 rainfall  18, 20, 27, 56, 59, 94, 97, 101, 221, 228, 238, 240, 242 rainforest  2, 68, 101–102 286  INDEX ramets  45, 46, 75 Rana cancrivora See Fejervarya cancrivora rats 103 rays 145 redox potential  8–9, 30, 47–48, 75, 128 Red Sea  16–17, 57, 170, 241 remote sensing  154, 220, 232, 235 replanting of mangroves  104, 106, 201, 212, 229, 233–236 reproduction mangrove 32–37 seagrass 51–54 reptiles  94–98, 122 See also crocodile, snake, terrapin, turtle resilience, ecosystem  209, 210, 243–244 respiration  8, 111, 131, 138 bacterial  8, 167, 179 mangrove  9, 12, 15, 23, 40, 72, 108–109, 131, 156, 167 seagrass 47–48 restoration of mangroves  212, 234–236 Rhinoceros sundaicus 102 Rhipidura  99 rufiventris 99 Rhithropanopeus 164 rhizomes  44–46, 51–54, 77–79, 139, 141, 142 Rhizophora  3, 9–19, 21, 24, 32– 40, 42, 57, 59, 60, 65, 71, 82–89, 91, 99, 103, 108–110, 117, 119, 128, 134, 138, 153, 155–156, 160, 162–163, 169, 180, 192–196, 201, 208, 211, 222, 229, 234–235 apiculata  59, 62, 65, 83, 86, 159, 222, 233 harrisonii  39, 60, 198, 200 mangle  16, 27, 30–35, 39, 42, 60, 64, 66, 68, 74, 108, 138, 190, 199–201, 227 mucronata  35, 59, 61–62, 118, 159, 232–233 racemosa  199, 200 samoensis  190, 200 stylosa  32, 63, 82, 83, 86 x lamarcki 83 Rhizophoraceae  2–3, 33, 193–194 See also Bruguiera, Ceriops, Kandelia, Rhizophora rhizosphere  15, 29, 47, 74, 132 See also roots Rhodophyta 107–108 rias 57 rivers  27, 30, 55–58, 61, 67–68, 70, 102, 104, 158, 173, 175–176, 179, 184, 212, 229, 230, 232, 242 See also estuaries rivulus (fish)  138 robin, mangrove  100 rodents 102 See also hutia, Xeromys root  8–19, 23, 27–30, 33, 37–40, 72–74, 81, 108, 128, 152, 155–156, 158, 163, 194, 208, 216, 243–244 roots aerial  9–17, 25, 37, 40, 70–72, 78, 87, 153, 155, 163, 227–229, 243 See also pneumatophore root:shoot ratio  23, 30 Rubiaceae 3 See also Scyphiphora, Hydnophytum, Myrmecodia gas transport in  12–15, 16 root fouling organisms  108–110 seagrass  44–48, 50, 52, 54, 78, 139, 141–142, 146 Ruppia  4, Ruppiaceae  5, S sabellid (annelid worm)  109 salinity  1, 2, 5, 17–26, 29–30, 36, 42, 44, 55–56, 60–63, 66–74, 93–98, 122, 126, 128, 131, 151, 156, 167, 179–180, 197–198, 207, 212, 227, 232, 234, 239 See also salt tolerance gradient  24, 60–63, 66–67, 70, 73, 197–198, 207, 242 Salmacis sphaeroides (sea urchin)  144 salt exclusion  17–19, 21, 35, 48, 71, 73, 81 glands, salt secretion  17–18, 20–21, 71, 73, 84 marsh  2, 41, 43, 75, 121, 171–173, 180, 183, 204, 241, 244 sequestration, deposition  19–20, 21 tolerance  2, 17–26, 33, 35, 40–41, 48, 61, 67, 81, 108, 204, 226, 243 See also osmoregulation, salinity tolerance, animal  89–90, 93–95, 96–98, 131, 138 tolerance, seagrasses  48–50 Samoa  190, 206 sandflies 89 sardine 105 Sarpa salpa 145 satellite imagery  154, 220, 232, 235 scale insects (Coccoidea)  84, 87, 91 Scaridae (parrot fish)  144–145, 181 Scartelaos (mudskipper)  137—138 Scarus (parrot fish)  145 coeruleus 182 guacamaia  181, 182 iserti 182 scolytid beetles  85 Scylla (mud crab)  126, 129, 216, 225 Scyphiphora  3, 36 hydrophyllacea 83 sea cucumbers, holothurians  144 sea level rise  57, 66–67, 221, 242–243 sea slug  149 sea snakes (Hydrophidae)  92, 94–95, 98, 122 sea urchins  140, 143–144, 145, 147 seagrass biodiversity  4–6, 204–210 See also Amphibolis, Enhalus, Halodule, Halophila, Phyllospadix, Posidonia, Syringodium Thalassia, Thalassodendron, Zostera INDEX  287 biogeography  4–7, 203–206 birds  149–150, 209 communities  139–150, 168 dispersal 53–54 epiphytes  139–140, 142, 143, 144, 168 fauna  139–150, 181–182 fish 144–146 genetic diversity  46, 205, 209–210 growth and structure  44–46, 48–51, 75 impacts 236–237 photosynthesis  140, 142 physiology 47–51 reproduction 52–54 seagrasses as ecosystem engineers  77–79 seahorses 145 sediment compaction 66–67 in mangroves  11–12, 55–56, 64, 66–67, 70–74, 179, 212, 216, 232, 243 in seagrasses  1, 46, 54, 77–79, 236–237 seed bank  54, 77 seed dormancy  33–34, 54, 69 seedling  2, 11, 16, 18–19, 21–23, 30, 33–38, 40, 58, 65, 68, 69, 78, 85, 107–108, 112, 154, 208, 211, 222, 227–229, 232–235 See also propagules predation  66, 103, 117–119, 129 seeds mangrove  33, 34, 35, 69, 82, 85–86, 102, 215 See also propagules seagrass  44, 53–54, 74, 77, 205, 236 self-pollination See pollination Senegal  103, 148 serpulid 109 Sesarma  125, 128 meinerti 89 reticulatum 124 sesarmid crabs, Sesarmidae  74, 93, 110–119, 122–124, 126–128, 130, 137, 150–158, 161–162, 166, 167, 172, 192 See also Aratus, Armases, Cleistocoeloma, Neosarmatium, Parasesarma, Perisesarma, Sesarma, Sesarmoides Sesarmoides kraussi 113 settling velocity  70 shade, shade tolerance  38, 65–66, 72–75, 85 sheep 232 shell erosion  131–132 shipworm (mollusc)  108, 132, 163 shrimp  110, 126–127, 137, 140, 142, 143, 145, 164, 165, 172, 180, 183–185, 212, 224–226 shrimp aquaculture, fisheries  172, 183–185, 212–213, 216, 218, 224–226, 233, 235 siganid, Siganidae  144 Sinai (Egypt)  16–17, 57 Singapore  91, 99 sipunculan  110, 135 Smaragdia 142 snails  107, 109, 119, 129–132, 134, 142 See also gastropods snakes 94–98 See also sea snakes sodium ions  17, 19, 48, 93–95, 98 See also salt soil aeration  8–9, 12–17, 25, 26, 27, 29, 72, 74–75, 78, 89, 122, 133, 141, 229 See also anaerobic conditions Sonneratia  3, 11, 19, 21, 32, 36, 62, 67, 91, 104, 106, 134, 211, 235 alba  22, 24–25, 59, 61, 63, 106, 159 caseolaris  91, 106 griffithi 59 lanceolata  22, 24–25, 61 ovata 106 Sonneratiaceae 3 South Africa  31, 113, 157, 189, 193, 241 South America  2, 41, 55, 87, 102, 190, 193, 194, 241 See also Amazon; Brazil, Venezuela Southeast Asia  93–96, 99, 100–104, 121, 127, 131–132, 136, 148, 155, 190–191, 193–195, 204–205, 215, 220, 224 See also Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam Sparisoma 145 chrysopterum 182 Spartina 171 species/area relationship  197–199, 202–203 species richness  65, 68, 69, 76, 99–102 See also biodiversity zonation  57–67, 70, 108, 122–123, 201, 242 and geomorphological change  66–67 mangroves 57–67 and physical gradients  57, 60–63 and plant succession  63–66, 67, 70 and propagule sorting  60 Sphaeroma  9, 108–109 Sphyraena barracuda 182 spiders  92, 99, 137 See also Gasteracanthidae, lycosid, Nephila, Pardosa sponges  28–29, 74, 78, 109 See also Haliclona, Tedania Squilla choprai 126 Sri Lanka  186, 194 stable isotopes  18, 114, 129–130, 132, 173, 176–178, 181, 184, 185 starch  35, 40 Sterculiaceae 3 See also Heritiera stilt root  See also aerial root stomata, stomatal conductance  14, 24, 33, 47, 81, 238 stomatopods, Stomatopoda  126 288  INDEX stork  30, 98 storms  31, 46, 52, 64, 77, 216, 221, 225, 238, 240 See also hurricanes and typhoons stress, environmental  22, 25, 68, 84, 131, 209, 237, 244 See also anaerobic conditions, desiccation, osmotic, salinity; temperature Strombus gigas (queen conch)  142 suberin 19 succession  63–68, 70, 134, 143, 145, 161, 167 sulphate 9 sulphide  9, 16, 132, 138, 141, 227 sunbirds 100–101 Sundarbans  55, 66, 102–103, 165, 212 superoxide, superoxide dismutase  22 superphosphate 30 Surinam 101 sustainable management  65, 211, 213, 222–226 See also Matang swan, black (Cygnus atratus) 150 whooper (Cygnus cygnus) 150 swimming crab See also portunid symbiosis  27, 29, 108, 132, 141 Synapta maculata (holothurian)  144 Syngnathidae (seahorses, pipefish)  145 Syringodium  6, 54, 204 filiforme 49–50 isoetifolium 205 T Tabebula 3 Tachyurus 180 tadpole 93–94 tailor ant See also Oecophylla Taiwan 226 tannin  29, 84, 115–118, 134, 145, 159, 173, 176, 214–215 Tanzania 58 Taphozous flaviventris 105 georgianus 105 tardigrade 133–134 taxonomy of mangroves  2–3 of seagrasses  4–6 tectonic movement  66, 70, 108, 193–197, 242 Tectura depicta (limpet)  142 Tedania (sponge)  28–29 Telescopium  129, 216 temperature  2–4, 41–43, 111, 116, 124–125, 131, 138, 209, 227, 239–240 See also global warming effects of low temperature  2, 42, 227, 241 and species distribution  2–3, 41–42, 171, 189, 209, 240–241 Terebralia palustris  129–130, 134, 162 Teredinidae  108, 132, 163 termites  86–87, 108, 163 terrapin 94 terrestrial components of mangrove community  80–106 See also birds, insects, mammals, reptiles, spiders Tertiary 194–195 Tethys sea  66, 197, 204 thaidid molluscs, Thais  109, 129 Thailand  64, 91, 148, 175, 226 Thais kiosquiformis 108 Thalassia  6, 53–54, 77, 145, 178, 204 hemprichi  53, 54, 76–77, 144, 148, 205 testudinum  49–50, 76–77, 146, 169, 205 Thalassina, thalassinid (mud lobster)  65, 110, 127, 143 Thalassioideae 6 Thalassocharis 204 Thalassodendron  6, 54, 178, 204 threats to mangroves  212–213, 220–222, 224–234, 243 to seagrasses  236, 237, 243 tide-dominated estuaries  56–57 tides, tidal fluctuation  8, 9, 12, 14–17, 27, 31, 37, 39, 48, 52, 55–57, 60, 62, 71–72, 75, 88–89, 92, 98–99, 102–103, 108, 111, 116, 119–123, 125–128, 130–131, 135–136, 156–159, 162, 170, 173, 175, 179–180, 183, 221, 224, 226 tiger, Bengal  102, 103 timber extraction  211, 213–214, 218, 222–223, 230 tit, great (Parus major) 101 tortricid moth  87 tourism See also ecotourism transpiration  18, 20, 24, 33, 47, 238–239 trepang (Holothuria) tricarboxylic cycle 16 Trichecus manatus (manatee)  147–148 senegalensis 147–148 Trinidad  98–99, 101 Tripneustes gratilla (sea urchin)  144 Trochiliidae (hummingbirds)  101 trophic relay  174, 181, 184 tropical distribution of mangroves  41–43 tsunamis  212, 217 tunicate 109 Turbellaria 133–134 turtlegrass See Thalassia testudinum turtles  53, 140, 146–147, 148, 149, 168 typhoons See hurricanes and typhoons U Uca  92, 103, 110, 113, 119–125, 126, 128, 134, 137, 165, 172, 179, 180 dussumieri  121, 123 lactea  120, 121, 124 INDEX  289 polita 120 pugnax 121 rosea 123 tangeri 103 triangularis 123 vocans 120 Ucides  112, 119, 162 ultraviolet (UV) radiation  75, 140 Ulva  209, 228 understorey vegetation  11, 68, 70, 78, 102, 209 United Arab Emirates  12, 230 United States  31, 234 See also Alaska, California, Florida, Hawaii urea  30–31, 94–95 uses of mangroves  210–236 of seagrasses  236–237 use values  218–219 V Vanda (orchid)  80 Varanus indicus (monitor lizard)  96, 217, 223 Venezuela  66, 110 vervet monkey Cercopithecus 103 Vietnam  175, 220–221, 225–226 vivipary, mangrove  33–36, 40 See also propagules seagrass 54 W Wadden Sea (Netherlands)  149–150 waders 98 warblers  99, 100 water buffalo  103 water loss, animals  98, 125, 131, 137 mangrove  20, 23, 33, 47, 236 See also transpiration water run-off, seepage from land  16, 18, 27, 30, 61, 168 water uptake  18–19, 23, 24, 81, 239 waterlogging  8–17, 25–26, 30, 41, 63, 69–70, 122, 127, 171 See also anaerobic conditions wave action affecting mangroves  46–47, 56–57, 66, 70, 74, 75, 77, 79, 172, 216–217, 228, 230, 233 affecting seagrasses  46, 75, 77, 79, 139, 143, 172, 236–237 West Indies  57 white-eye 100 wigeon (Anas penelope) 149 wood-borers  9, 86–87, 108–109, 132, 163 wood, decomposition  162–163 woodpeckers 99 X Xanthidae, xanthid crabs  119 See also Rhithropanopeus Xeromys myoides (rat)  103 xylem  14, 18, 19, 42, 81 Xylocarpus  3, 11, 19, 20, 21, 32, 35–36, 163, 240 australensis 83 australoasicus 86 granatum  10, 11, 59, 83, 86 mekongensis 10 molluccense 59 Y Yemen 57 Z zinc  26, 227 zonation See species zonation Zostera  4–6, 46, 48, 52, 54, 75, 77, 79, 142, 148, 204, 205, 210 asiatica  45, 205 capricorni  45, 51, 75, 150 caulescens 205 japonica 205 marina  3, 7, 44, 46, 53, 78 muelleri  45, 241 noltii  149, 242 Zosteraceae  6, 204, 205 See also Phyllospadix, Zostera, Nanozostera, Heterozostera Zosteroidea 6 ... habitat The Biology of Streams and Rivers Paul S Giller and Björn Malmqvist The Biology of Soft Shores and Estuaries Colin 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