The Biology of Mangroves and Seagrasses THE BIOLOGY OF HABITATS SERIES This attractive series of concise, affordable texts provides an integrated overview of the design, physiology, and ecology of the biota in a given habitat, set in the context of the physical environment Each book describes practical aspects of working within the habitat, detailing the sorts of studies that are possible Management and conservation issues are also included The series is intended for naturalists, students studying biological or environmental science, those beginning independent research, and professional biologists embarking on research in a new habitat The Biology of Streams and Rivers Paul S Giller and Björn Malmqvist The Biology of Soft Shores and Estuaries Colin Little The Biology of the Deep Ocean Peter Herring The Biology of Lakes and Ponds, 2nd Edition Christer Brönmark and Lars-Anders Hansson The Biology of Soil Richard D Bardgett The Biology of Polar Regions, 2nd Edition David N Thomas et al The Biology of Deserts David Ward The Biology of Caves and Other Subterranean Habitats David C Culver and Tanja Pipan The Biology of Alpine Habitats Laszlo Nagy and Georg Grabherr The Biology of Rocky Shores, 2nd Edition Colin Little, Gray A Williams, and Cynthia D Trowbridge The Biology of Coral Reefs Charles R.C Sheppard, Simon K Davy, and Graham M Pilling The Biology of Disturbed Habitats Lawrence R Walker The Biology of Freshwater Wetlands, 2nd Edition Arnold G van der Valk The Biology of Peatlands, 2nd Edition Håkan Rydin and John K Jeglum The Biology of African Savannahs, 2nd Edition Bryan Shorrocks and William Bates The Biology of Mangroves and Seagrasses, 3rd Edition Peter J Hogarth The Biology of Mangroves and Seagrasses THIRD EDITION Peter J Hogarth Department of Biology, University of York, York, UK The Biology of Mangroves and Seagrasses Third Edition Peter J Hogarth © Peter J Hogarth 2015 Published 2015 by Oxford University Press Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © Peter J Hogarth 2015 The moral rights of the author have been asserted First Edition published in 1999 Second Edition published in 2007 Third Edition published in 2015 Impression: All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Control Number: 2015930599 ISBN 978–0–19–871654–9 (hbk.) ISBN 978–0–19–871655–6 (pbk.) Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work Preface Flowering plants dominate the land, providing nutrition, shelter, and stability for a host of organisms, and the basis of all terrestrial ecosystems Of the hundreds of thousands of species of flowering plants, a mere 100 or so survive in the sea, about equally divided between mangroves and seagrasses Although not rich in species, both mangroves and seagrasses are, like their terrestrial counterparts, of major ecological importance To most people, mangroves call up a picture of a dank and fetid swamp, of strange-shaped trees growing in foul-smelling mud, inhabited mainly by mosquitoes and snakes Mud, methane, and mosquitoes are certainly features of mangrove forests—as, sometimes, are snakes They are not sufficient to deter mangrove biologists from investigating an ecosystem of great richness and fascination Mangroves are an assortment of tropical and subtropical trees and shrubs which have adapted to the inhospitable zone between sea and land: the typical mangrove habitat is a muddy river estuary Salt water makes it impossible for other terrestrial plants to thrive here, while the fresh water and the soft substrate are unsuitable for macroalgae, the dominant plants of hardbottomed marine habitats The mangrove trees themselves trap sediment brought in by river and tide, and help to consolidate the mud in which they grow They provide a substrate on which oysters and barnacles can settle, a habitat for insects, and nesting sites for birds Most of all, through photosynthesis, they supply an energy source for an entire ecosystem comprising many species of organism Mangroves are among the most productive and biologically diverse ecosystems in the world Seagrasses, although not true grasses, generally grow in a grass-like way, often locally dominating their environment in what are known as seagrass meadows They grow intertidally, like mangroves, but also subtidally to depths of tens of metres Like mangroves, too, seagrasses have adapted to conditions of high salinity and living in soft sediments They create a habitat, and represent a food source on which many other organisms depend With both mangroves and seagrasses I discuss the adaptations to their challenging environment, and the communities of organisms that flourish in and around mangrove forests and seagrass meadows, before turning to more general questions of evolution, biogeography, and biodiversity vi Preface Mangroves and seagrasses are of considerable economic significance Apart from the direct collection of mangrove products, many commercially harvested species of fish, shrimp, and crab are sustained by mangroves and seagrasses, while both mangroves and seagrasses reduce coastal erosion and protect coastlines against wind and wave action Unfortunately, the importance of mangroves and seagrasses is not always appreciated, and recent years have seen massive degradation and destruction of both habitats, sometimes deliberate, and in other cases inadvertent Mangroves and seagrasses are vulnerable to climate change—but also, potentially, mitigate its adverse effects Conservation, restoration, and sustainable management of these important resources are therefore essential The impact of the continuing loss of mangroves and seagrasses seems almost too obvious to need pointing out Cassandra was fated to predict the future and to have her predictions ignored; biologists sometimes feel they have a similar role The productivity and diversity of these remarkable habitats therefore makes them of great interest to biologists and of considerable social and economic value, while degradation and destruction by human activities makes it more than ever essential to understand their significance Research has advanced considerably in recent years, and the time seems right for an attempt to present our current understanding of the mangrove and seagrass ecology My aim in writing this book is two-fold: to share my own enthusiasm for these remarkable ecosystems, and to explain how our understanding is unfolding Any author depends on the work of others, and I am grateful to numerous colleagues for their help in various ways In particular, I should like to thank Larry Abele, Liz Ashton, Patricia Berjak, Mike Gee, Rony Huys, Ong Jin Eong, Daphne Osborne, Mohammed Tahir Qureshi, and Di Walker for their help with this and previous editions Any errors that remain are, of course, entirely my own Writing books has its pleasures, particularly learning about areas of the subject with which one was previously not sufficiently familiar It also has its disadvantages, and most authors would at some stage agree with the heartfelt—and, in this context, singularly apposite—words of the great American naturalist John James Audubon: ‘God save you the trouble of ever publishing books on natural science I would rather go without a shirt . . through the whole of the Florida swamps in mosquito time than labor as I have with the pen.’1 For sustaining me throughout the labours with the pen (and for joining me in the Malaysian swamps in mosquito time) I should especially like to express my gratitude to Sylvia Hogarth, to whom this book is dedicated P.J.H October 2014 Letter to J Bachman, 1834, quoted by Alice Ford (1957): The Bird Biographies of John James Audubon (Macmillan, N.Y.), pp vii–viii Contents Mangroves and Seagrasses 1.1 Mangroves 1.2 Seagrasses Mangroves and Their Environment 2.1 Adaptations to waterlogged soil 2.2 Coping with salt 2.3 The cost of survival 2.4 Inorganic nutrients 2.4.1 Nitrogen 2.4.2 Phosphorus 2.4.3 Nutrient recycling 2.4.4 Are mangroves nutrient limited? 2.5 Reproductive adaptations 2.5.1 Pollination 2.5.2 Vivipary 2.5.3 Fecundity and parental investment 2.5.4 Dispersal and settlement 2.6 Why are mangroves tropical? 17 23 26 27 29 29 30 32 32 33 36 37 41 Seagrasses and Their Environment 44 3.1 Growth and structure 3.2 Waves, currents, and sediment 3.3 Photosynthesis and respiration 3.4 Salinity 3.5 Nutrients 3.6 Reproduction 3.7 Propagule dispersal 44 46 47 48 50 51 53 Community Structure and Dynamics 55 4.1 Mangroves: form of the forest 55 viii Contents 4.1.1 Species zonation 4.1.1.1 Propagule sorting 4.1.1.2 Physical gradients 4.1.1.3 Plant succession and species interactions 4.1.1.4 Geomorphological change 4.1.2 How different are mangroves from other forests? 4.1.3 Do mangroves create land? Mangroves as ecosystem engineers 4.2 Seagrass meadows 57 60 60 63 66 67 70 74 The Mangrove Community: Terrestrial Components 80 5.1 Mangrove-associated plants 5.2 Animals from the land 5.2.1 Insects 5.2.1.1 Insect herbivores 5.2.1.2 Termites 5.2.1.3 Ants 5.2.1.4 Mosquitoes and other biting insects 5.2.1.5 Synchronously flashing fireflies 5.2.1.6 Other insects 5.2.2 Spiders 5.2.3 Vertebrates 5.2.3.1 Amphibians 5.2.3.2 Reptiles 5.2.3.3 Birds 5.2.3.4 Mammals 80 81 82 82 86 87 89 90 91 92 92 93 94 98 102 The Mangrove Community: Marine Components 107 6.1 Algae 6.2 Fauna of mangrove roots 6.3 Invertebrates 6.3.1 Crustaceans 6.3.1.1 Crabs Leaf eating by crabs Are crabs selective feeders? Seedlings Tree-climbing crabs How important are herbivorous crabs? Fiddler crabs The physiology of living in mud 6.3.1.2 Other mangrove crustacea 6.3.1.3 Crustaceans as ecosystem engineers 107 108 110 110 111 112 114 117 118 118 119 122 126 127 Contents ix 6.3.2 Molluscs 6.3.2.1 Snails 6.3.2.2 Bivalves 6.4 Meiofauna 6.5 Fish 129 129 132 132 135 Seagrass Communities 139 7.1 Epiphytes 7.2 Molluscs 7.3 Crustaceans 7.4 Echinoderms 7.5 Fish 7.6 Turtles 7.7 Marine mammals: dugongs, manatees, and sea otters 7.8 Birds 139 141 142 143 144 146 147 149 Measuring and Modelling 151 8.1 Mangroves 8.1.1 How to measure a tree 8.1.2 Biomass 8.1.3 Estimating production 8.1.4 What happens to mangrove production? 8.1.4.1 Microbial breakdown 8.1.4.2 Crabs and snails 8.1.4.3 Wood 8.1.4.4 The role of sediment bacteria 8.1.4.5 The fate of organic particles 8.1.4.6 Predators 8.1.5 Putting the model together 8.2 Seagrasses 151 152 152 155 158 159 161 162 163 164 165 166 168 Comparisons and Connections 170 9.1 How distinctive are mangrove and seagrass communities?170 9.2 Mangroves and salt marshes 171 9.3 Interactions 172 9.4 Outwelling 173 9.5 The fate of mangrove carbon 175 9.6 Mangroves, seagrasses, and coral reefs 178 9.7 Movement between habitats 179 9.7.1 Larval dispersal and return 179 9.7.2 Commuters 180 Index A abscisic acid (ABA) 33 Acanthaceae 3 See also Acanthus Acanthurus chirurgus 182 Acanthus 3, 20, 21, 32, 35–36, 65 accretion, shore 64, 66–67, 70, 72, 78, 216, 221 See also sedimentation acetylene 27 Acrostichum 3, 62, 65, 68, 127, 192, 208, 222 aureum 3, 191 speciosum 83 Adinia 164 Aëdes 89–90 alternans 89 amesii 89 pembaensis 89 vigilax 89 Aegialitis 3, 16, 20, 21, 36 Aegiceras 3, 16, 18, 20–21, 32, 35–36, 60, 73, 84, 92, 232 corniculatum 83 aeration of soil 8–9, 12–17, 25, 26, 27, 29, 72, 74–75, 78, 89, 122, 133, 141, 229 See also anaerobic conditions aerenchyma 12–15, 40, 47–48, 163 aerial roots 9–17, 25, 37, 40, 70–72, 78, 87, 153, 155, 163, 227–229, 243 See also pneumatophore Africa 101, 189, 197 East 4, 89, 118, 128, 130, 137, 162, 190, 192–193, 220, 242 See also Kenya, Tanzania South 31, 113, 157, 189, 193, 241 West 4, 96, 101, 118, 130, 148, 190–194, 198–200, 215, 220 See also Cameroon, Gambia age of seagrass clones 46, 52, 79 Aglaia 3 agouti (Dasyprocta) 102 Alaska 150 alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) 16 algae 50, 72, 74–75, 77–78, 93, 107–109, 112, 114, 120–121, 129, 132, 135, 139, 140, 142, 144, 146, 149, 152, 156, 168, 177, 182, 207, 227–228, 233, 235, 241, 244 See also Bostrychia, Catanella, Enteromorpha, Gracilaria, Hormosira, microalgae, Ulva alligator 97–98, 165 alpheid shrimp, Alpheidae, Alpheus 127, 136, 143 Alpheus macellarius 143 Amazilia tzacatl 32 Amazon delta 55–56, 165 ammonia, ammonium 15, 27, 28, 50, 73, 128, 137–138, 174–175 amphibians 93–95 Amphibolis 6, 52, 54, 78 antarctica 51, 119 amphipods 89, 110, 134, 137, 140, 142, 145, 161, 164, 168 Amyema thalassium 81 Anadara 216, 223 anaerobic conditions 8–17, 25, 27–30, 38, 41–42, 47, 50, 54, 63, 68–70, 89, 104, 122–123, 131, 141, 171, 212, 227 anammox (anaerobic ammonium oxidation) 28 Anas acuta 149 penelope 149 anchovy 105, 135 Andaman islands 84 annelids 54, 109, 110, 192 See also archiannelid, oligochaete, polychaete, serpulid anoxia See anaerobic conditions antelope 102 ant-house plants, ant-plant 88 antioxidant 22 ants 87–89, 92 See also Atta, Oecophylla, Polyrhachis leafcutter 87–88 tailor 87–88, 91 weaver 87–88, 91 Apis mellifera (honeybee) 92 Apocrytes (mudskipper) 137 aquaculture 127, 183, 216, 218–219, 220, 224–226, 235–236 Arabia, Arabian Gulf, Arabian Sea 102, 103, 194, 230, 231, 241 See also Kuwait, Sinai, United Arab Emirates, Yemen Arachnids See spiders, mites Aratus pisonii 112, 113, 118 arbuscular-mycorrhizal (AM) fungi 29 Archaeozostera 204 archerfish 135 276 INDEX archiannelid 134 Arecaceae 3, 195 See also Nypa Argyrodes 92 Arius 180 Armases elegans 118 arthropods 92, 110, 133, 201–203 See also crustaceans, insects, spiders ascidian 109 Atlantic-Caribbean-East Pacific Region (ACEP) 3–4, 189–192, 195, 198, 207–208 Atlantic Ocean 2, 6–7, 39, 60, 109, 111, 127, 142, 144, 146, 171, 186, 189–195, 199, 201, 205, 241 ATP 16 ATPase 48 Atta (leafcutter ant) 87–88 Australia 3, 26, 29, 31–32, 57–58, 65, 76, 78, 81, 85–89, 92, 94–96, 99, 101–103, 105, 117–119, 132, 134, 140, 142, 148, 159, 162–163, 167, 174–175, 190, 192–195, 193–195, 198, 205, 215, 220, 234, 240–241 northern 25, 59, 63, 71, 73, 99, 128, 155, 205, 237 Queensland 9, 51, 83, 96, 102, 114, 117, 135, 160, 174 seagrasses 76, 78, 140, 142, 148, 205 southern 37, 41 western 76, 78, 105, 140, 183 Avicennia 3, 10, 11, 14–23, 26, 30, 32, 35, 36–40, 37, 38, 42, 57–60, 62, 64, 65, 72, 73, 81, 82, 84–85, 92, 99, 103, 104, 107, 108, 114, 117, 119, 134, 155–158, 160, 163, 192, 195–196, 201, 208, 211, 221, 229–230, 235 alba 59, 200 bicolor 39, 60 germinans 16, 27, 38, 39, 42, 60, 66, 119, 198, 201, 241 intermedia 59 marina 3, 12, 13, 17, 19, 36–39, 61, 63, 65, 82–83, 85–86, 119, 154, 170, 191, 200, 208, 232, 233, 240 officinalis 200 Avicenniaceae 2–3 Axis deer, Axis axis 102 Aythya americana 150 B bacteria 8, 27, 28, 29, 80, 104, 114, 120, 121, 134, 135, 139, 141, 159, 161, 163–164, 166, 176, 178, 226, 229 See also cyanobacteria bacteria, nitrogen-fixing 15, 27–28, 30, 50, 107–108 Bahamas 57, 142, 175, 200 Balanus 108 Baltic Sea 46, 52, 209 bandicoot (Perameles, Isoodon) 102 Bangladesh 102, 165, 220 See also Sundarbans barnacles 108, 109, 129, 179, 235 basin mangroves 56–57 bats 32, 105–106, 172–173 Bay of Bengal 55, 66 bêche-de-mer (Holothuria) 144 bees 32, 92 See also Apis mellifera beetles (Coleoptera) 84–86, 87, 90–91, 99 See also chrysomelid, Coccotrypes, fireflies, scolytid Belize 30–31, 82, 84, 86, 110, 119, 181, 186 betaine 22 bicarbonate 47 Bignoniaceae 3 See also Dolichandrone, Tabebula biodiversity 152, 188–189 diversity of mangrove fauna 201–203 and ecosystem function 152, 168, 188, 206–210 genetic diversity of mangroves 189, 200–201, 222 local diversity of mangroves 197–200 mangrove 68–69, 170–171, 188–192, 197–200, 206–209 mangrove fauna 74, 109, 152, 186, 192, 201–203 regional diversity of mangroves 189–192 seagrass 5, 66–67, 139, 142, 203–206, 209–210 biogeography 2–7, 188–210 See also geographical distribution biomass 104, 114, 135, 139, 142, 161, 163, 166, 167, 180, 210 below ground 23, 29–30, 46, 155, 158 mangroves 9, 23, 25, 29, 73, 77, 85, 152–158, 163, 166, 174, 206–208, 211 seagrasses 46, 169, 209 bioturbation 54, 127–129, 143–144 birds in mangroves 32, 53, 72, 76–77, 84, 89, 90, 92, 98–102, 122, 131, 162, 165, 170, 217, 222–223, 233, 235 in seagrasses 149–150 bivalve molluscs 103, 108–109, 132, 134–135, 141, 163, 179–180, 219 See also mussels, oysters, piddocks, Pinna, shipworm Boiga dendrophila (mangrove snake) 95 Boleophthalmus (mudskipper) 137, 138 Bombiaceae 3 See also Camptostemon boring organisms See wood-borers Borneo 104, 216 Bostrychia 108 Brachydontes 164 Brachyura 110 See also crabs Brahmaputra delta 55, 58, 67 Branta bernicla 150, 209 Brazil 105, 119, 127, 138, 175, 194 See also Amazon bromeliad 80, 81 Bruguiera 3, 10, 11, 16, 19, 21, 22, 32, 36, 57, 59, 81, 101, 103, 117, 134, 162, 163, 193, 195, 208, 222 cylindrica 59 exaristata 86 INDEX 277 gymnorrhiza 22, 59, 62, 63, 65, 83, 86, 118 parviflora 22, 59, 62, 65, 86, 159 sexangula 59, 86 bryozoans 109 Bubalus (water buffalo) 102, 103, 232 Bubulcus ibis (Cattle egret) 98 buffalo, water 102, 103, 232 bugs (Hemiptera, Homoptera) 84, 87, 88, 91, 99 burrow, burrowing 29, 73–74, 89, 92, 95, 110–111, 113, 116, 126, 141, 143 burrows, crab 73, 89, 92, 110, 113, 116, 119–122, 124–125, 127–129, 136, 138, 143, 161–162 mudskipper 92, 136–138 butterflies 32, 89, 91–92 buttress root 103 See also aerial root C Caesalpinaceae 3 See also Cynometra, Mora Caesalpinia 80 caiman, Caiman crocodylus 96, 165 Calamus erinaceus 80 calcium carbonate 129, 131, 178, 239 California 142, 149, 150, 183, 191, 209 Callinectes sapidus 113 Caloglossa 108 camel 103 Cameroon 198–199 Camptostemon 3 carbohydrates 34, 159 carbon dissolved inorganic (DIC) 166–167, 174 dissolved organic (DOC) 159, 164, 166, 173 particulate organic (POC) 141, 161, 164, 166, 172–173, 179, 181 carbon assimilation 24, 47, 113–114, 121, 155–156, 171 See also photosynthesis carbon dioxide, CO2 9, 13–15, 24, 47, 166, 178, 212, 238–240 atmospheric CO2 rise 212, 238–240 carbon flux 114, 152–169, 173–179 carbon monoxide 19 carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio 84, 115–116, 118, 161 carbonate 50, 57, 129, 131, 178, 239 Cardisoma 112 Caribbean 28–29, 57, 85, 92, 109, 111, 118–119, 130, 145–147, 182, 190–194, 204–205, 221, 228–229 See also Atlantic-Caribbean-East Pacific region (ACEP) Cassiopeia 180 Casuarina 70 catalase 22 Catanella 108 catch per unit effort (CPUE) 233 catfish 135 cattle 214, 232 cellulase 113 cellulose 104, 108, 113, 147, 159, 162, 221 cellulose-digesting bacteria 104, 108 Central America 32, 38–39, 96, 100–102, 112, 130, 194, 216, 220 See also specific country Cerambycidae (beetle) 55 Ceratopogonidae 89 Cerberus 98 Cercopithecus 103 Ceriops 3, 18, 21, 32, 36, 39, 40, 59, 62, 87, 99, 117, 134, 160, 162, 193, 195, 208, 211, 232 australis 32, 63, 86 decandra 22 tagal 22, 59, 63, 83, 86, 114–115, 118 Cerithidea 129, 131, 134 Cervus duvauceli 103 Cetacea 102 See also dolphins, porpoises Chaerophon jobensis 105 Chaetodon capistratus 182 Chalinolobus gouldii 105 charcoal 213–214, 218, 222, 223 Chelonia mydas 146 chemical defences 84, 109, 145 chemoautotrophy 132, 141 China 154, 226, 235 chloride ions 17, 19, 35, 90, 93, 95 See also salt chlorophyll 13, 34, 140, 156, 200 Chlorophyta 108 Christmas Island 57, 66 chrysomelid beetle, Chrysomelidae 84, 87 ciliate protozoa 121, 133–134, 135 clams 141 Cleistocoeloma merguiensis 113, 123 Clibanarius (hermit crab) 126 panamensis 108 climate change 67, 201, 234, 236, 238–245 atmospheric CO2 rise 212, 238–240 sea level rise 57, 66–67, 221, 242–243 temperature rise 212, 240–242 threshold response 244 climbing plants 65, 69, 80 clonal growth of seagrasses 46, 52, 75, 78, 209 C/N ratio See carbon/nitrogen ratio coastal protection 79, 216–217, 218, 219, 234 cobra 94 coccid 84, 87, 91 Coccotrypes (scolytid beetle) 85 cockle (Anadara) 216, 223 cockroaches 92 cold tolerance of mangroves 2–4, 41–42, 227, 241, 244 Coleoptera 84–86, 87, 90–91, 99 colobine monkey 104–105 278 INDEX Colombia 229–230 colubrid snake 98 column roots 12, 15 See also aerial roots Combretaceae 3 See also Conocarpus, Laguncularia, Lumnitzera commensal 136 See also mutualism community structure of mangrove root fauna 108–110 mangrove fauna 80–138 mangroves 55–70 seagrasses 74–79, 139–150 competition, interspecific 24, 26, 41–43, 47, 60, 63, 67–70, 75–77, 99, 102, 105, 109, 116, 130, 143–144, 148, 162, 197–198, 207, 241 Congeria (mussel) 164 connectance, connectivity between habitats 172–187, 235 Conocarpus 3, 87 copepods 109, 133, 134, 135, 137, 142, 161 See also harpacticoids coral reef 50, 54, 57, 79, 145, 172, 178–179, 181–182, 236, 243 cork warts 14 cormorants 98 Costa Rica 36, 108 cotyledon 33–35 crabs 72, 74, 95, 98, 101–103, 109–128, 135–137, 140, 142, 149, 151–152, 161, 165, 170, 180, 217, 218 See also in particular sesarmid, Uca burrows, burrowing 73, 89, 92, 110, 113, 116, 119–122, 124–125, 127–129, 136, 138, 143, 161–162 herbivory 30, 65–66, 74, 112–119, 143, 151–152, 158–162, 164 larvae 122, 165, 179–180 physiology 122–126 as seedling predators 65–66, 112, 117–119, 235 tree-climbing 118 Crassostrea (oyster) 109 Cretaceous 194–195, 204 crocodiles 92, 94, 96–98, 165 Crocodylus acutus (American crocodile) 96–97 niloticus (Nile crocodile) 96 porosus (estuarine crocodile) 96, 97, 165 Crustacea, crustaceans 53, 78, 110–128, 134, 142–143, 168, 184–185, 236, 239 See also in particular amphipods, copepods, crabs, isopods, shrimps crustaceans as ecosystem engineers 127–128 in mangroves 53, 78, 110–128, 134, 142, 184, 239 See also in particular amphipods, crabs, isopods, shrimp in seagrasses 142–143, 168, 236 cryptovivipary 35, 36 Cuba 103, 220 cultivation grazing 147, 148–149 cumaceans 134 currents 2–3, 39, 41, 46–47, 53, 56, 66, 70–72, 77–79, 136, 139, 158, 162, 173, 175, 179–180, 185, 205, 229, 236, 243 cyanobacteria 27, 28, 50, 107, 152 cyclone See hurricane Cygnus atratus (black swan) 150 cygnus (whooper swan) 150 Cymodocea 6, 53–54, 143, 204 rotundata 45 serrulata 51 Cymodoceaceae 6, 204 See also Amphibolis, Cymodocea, Halodule, Syringodium, Thalassodendron Cymodoceoidea 6 Cynometra 3 Cyprinodon 164 D Dactylocladus 70 dams, damming of rivers 56, 220, 229, 232 Dasyprocta (agouti) 102 daylength 41–42 Decapoda, decapods See crabs, shrimp deciduous 19–20 decollation 131 decomposition 27–29, 80, 114–115, 139, 141, 147, 158–161, 163, 166, 168–169, 172–173, 222, 244 deer 102 axis 102 key 102 swamp 103 defoliation 83, 85–86, 200, 221, 228 denitrification 27, 28, 30 deposit feeding 113, 119–122, 126, 127, 129–130, 137, 151, 162, 164, 166, 168, 172 depth limits of seagrasses 4, 46, 47–48, 50, 75 Derris 65, 80 desalination 18–19, 73–74 desiccation 33, 40, 75, 86, 108, 131, 137 Desulfovibrio (bacterium) 27 detritus, detritivores, mangrove 80, 121, 129–132, 134–135, 164–165, 171, 173, 176, 185, 210 See also leaf litter seagrass 139, 142–144, 147, 149–150, 168–169 diameter of trunk at breast height (DBH) 153 diapause 94 diatoms 107–108, 109, 118, 121, 142, 164 Dicaeum hirundinaceum (mistletoe bird) 81 Dicyathifer (shipworm) 132 dinitrophenol 19 INDEX 279 Diospyros 3 Diptera 32 See also Drosophilididae, midges, mosquitoes direct uses of mangroves See goods and services dispersal, larval 179–180 mangrove 36–41, 69, 190, 193–201, 207 seagrass 44, 52–54, 77, 204–205, 210 dissolved organic matter (DOM) See carbon distinctiveness of mangrove and seagrass habitats 67–70, 171–172 diversity and ecosystem function 206–210 diversity See biodiversity, genetic diversity DNA synthesis 33 DNRA (dissimulatory nitrogen reduction to ammonium) 28 Dolichandrone 3 dolphins 102 dredging 233, 237 Drosophilididae 32 duck 77, 149, 150 See also Anas redheaded 150 dugongs, Dugong dugon 53, 77, 102, 140, 147–149, 168–169, 173, 204 durian, Durio zibethinus 106 dwarf mangroves 26, 31, 58, 155, 157 E Ebenaceae 3 See also Diospyros echinoderms, Echinodermata 143–144, 168 economic value of mangroves 217–220 of seagrasses 237 ecosystem engineers crustaceans 127–128, 143 mangroves 70–74 seagrasses 77–79 ecosystem function and diversity 206–210 ecotourism 213, 217, 222, 234 effluent 218, 225–226, 232–233 egret 30, 98, 99 cattle 98 snowy 98 Egretta thula (Snowy egret) 98 Egypt See Red Sea, Arabian Gulf, Sinai ellobiids, Ellobiidae 196–197 embolism 42 encrusting organisms 28–29, 108–109, 132 See also epiphyte endodermis 19 energy flow See carbon flux Enhalus 6, 53, 204 acoroides 45, 52–53, 77 Enhydra lutris 149 Enteromorpha 108 enzymes 22, 27, 48, 94, 113, 159 See also alcohol dehydrogenase, ATPase, catalase, nitrogenase, superoxide dismutase enzymes: inhibition by salt 19, 48 Eocene 194–196, 204 Eonycteris spelaea (bat) 106 epigenetic variation 22 epiphytes on mangrove 28, 69, 72, 74, 80, 81, 108–109 seagrasses 139–140, 142, 143, 144, 168 Episesarma (crab) 127 versicolor 88, 111, 113, 118, 123, 127, 161 epizoites 28, 108–109 See also barnacles, oysters, sponges erosion, shore 46, 64, 66–68, 70, 72, 79, 172, 211–212, 216, 218, 222, 225, 232–234, 236, 244 estuary 4, 29, 44, 48, 56, 59, 61, 67, 70–71, 96, 97, 126, 129, 165, 171, 176, 179, 180, 184–185, 198, 212, 217, 222, 242–243 See also Amazon, Ganges, Indus, Sundarbans estuary, tide-dominated 56–57 ethanol 16 ethylene 27 Eudocimus ruber (Scarlet ibis) 98–99, 217 Euphorbiaceae 3 See also Excoecaria euryhaline species See salt tolerance eutrophication 140, 179, 237 evergreen 30 evolution of mangroves 192–197 of seagrasses 204–205 exclusion experiments 134–135, 144, 145, 159 Excoecaria 3, 16, 20, 21, 32, 36, 81, 82–83 agallocha 83–84 exploitation 211–226 export of organic matter See carbon flux, outwelling extracellular enzymes 159 F fantail 99–100 fauna of mangroves 80–138 of seagrasses 139–150 fecundity 32, 36–37, 54 feedback, ecological 70, 72, 74–75, 79, 141 feeding deterrents 81, 84, 143, 145 feeding guilds 99–102 Fejervarya cancrivora 93–95 Felis viverrima 102 ferns (Pteridaceae) 2, 3, 65, 80 See also Acrostichum ferrous, ferric ions 8, 9, 29 fiddler crab See Uca Fiji 96, 206 filter feeding 108, 109, 110, 132, 141, 151, 164, 165, 166, 185, 210 See also barnacles, bivalve molluscs, sponges 280 INDEX fireflies 84, 90–91 fish cat (Felis viverrima) 102 fisheries 146, 165, 172–173, 183–187, 212–213, 216, 219, 223, 233, 234 See also aquaculture fish in mangroves 92–96, 98–99, 101–102, 105, 111, 118, 135–138, 151, 164–165, 168, 170, 174, 180–182, 185–187 movement between habitats 180–182, 186–187 in seagrasses 53, 78, 139–140, 144–147, 182, 236 flatworms 133–134 flavoglycans 116 flavolans 115–116 flavonoid 75 flies (Diptera) 32 See also Drosophilididae, midges, mosquitoes flocculation 70–71 Florida 18, 27, 30, 50, 58, 64, 76–77, 87, 95, 110, 119, 128, 138, 145, 155, 164, 167–168, 174–176, 178, 183, 200–202, 208, 217, 221, 241–242 flowers, flowering 32, 36, 37, 44, 52–53, 69, 82, 85, 92, 98 See also pollination flycatcher 99–100 flying fox 94, 105–106 fodder 211, 213–215, 233, 236 food webs 151, 168–169 Foraminifera 134 forest structure 55–74 fossil evidence 194–197, 204–205, 243 freezing 2, 42 fresh water 5, 16, 18, 22–23, 27, 30, 39, 44, 48, 50, 56–57, 61, 67, 69–70, 89, 94, 96–98, 130, 148, 179, 184, 230, 232 freshwater wetland forest 69–70 fringe mangroves 31, 56, 212 frog 93–95 frost 2, 42 fruit bat 94, 105–106, 172 Fucales 107 functional groups 109, 151–152, 167–168, 206–207 fungi 29, 80, 87, 88, 114, 132, 139, 159, 161, 163 See also mycorrhizae future of mangroves and seagrasses 245 G Gambia 71 Ganges river 55, 58, 67, 102, 212 gaps in vegetation, gap dynamics 40, 52, 65–67, 72, 77, 117, 208–209, 243–244 gas spaces See aerenchyma Gasteracanthidae (spiders) 92 gas transport 13–15, 47 gastropod molluscs (snails) 107, 109, 119, 129–132, 134, 142 See also Cerithidea, Littoraria, Littorinidae, Morula, Telescopium, Terebralia, thaidid, Ellobiidae gastrotrich 133–134 Gecarcinidae (land crabs) 112 Gecarcoidea (land crab) 112 geese 149, 150, 209 gei wai shrimp cultivation 218, 224, 226 gene expression in response to salt 19, 22, 33 genetic diversity 22, 200–201, 205, 209–210 geographical distribution, mangroves 2–4, 41–43, 189–197 seagrasses 4–7, 203–206 geographical isolation 57, 102, 200, 203 geometrid moth 87 geomorphological change 58, 66–67, 70 See also tectonic movement Germany 184 germination 33, 54 Gerres cinereus 182 Gerygone 99–100 chloronata 99, 100 laevigaster 99, 100 magnirostris 99, 100 gills 121, 123, 131, 138 global climate change 67, 201, 234, 236, 238–245 atmospheric CO2 rise 212, 238–240 sea level rise 57, 66–67, 221, 242–243 temperature rise 212, 240–242 threshold response 244 glycinebetaine 19, 48 glycolysis 16 goats 232 Gobiosoma bosci 144 goby 136, 144 Goniopsis 111 goods and services supplied by mangroves 212–226 Gracilaria 107 grapsid crab, Grapsidae 110, 119, 123, 170 See also Goniopsis, Metopograpsus, sesarmid Grapsoidea 110–112, 126 See also Grapsidae, Ocypodidae, Sesarmidae growth and nutrients 30–32, 227 of mangroves 24–26, 41, 56–57, 70, 85, 88, 109, 128, 208 of propagules and seedlings 33–38, 40, 73, 86, 208, 233 and salinity 17, 20–26, 61–63, 65, 73 seagrass 44–46, 49–52, 75–79, 141–142, 144–147, 149, 167–168, 237 grunt See Haemulon guano 30, 99, 106 INDEX 281 H habitat degradation 211, 221, 232 fragmentation 210 restoration 212, 234–236 haemoglobin 94 Haemulon parrai 182 flavolineatus 180, 182 plumieri 182 sciurus 181, 182, 186 Haliclona (sponge) 28–29 Halodule 6, 50, 54, 77, 148, 204 Halodule pinifolia 205 uninervis 51, 78, 205, 241 wrightii 49, 52, 53, 76–78, 150, 205 Halophila 4–6, 45, 47, 52–54, 75, 148, 204 johnsoni 52 ovalis 75, 148 ovata 45 Halophiloidea 6 harpacticoid copepod 133, 134, 135 haustorium 81 Hawaii 74, 142, 190 hawk 101 heavy metals 227, 233 Hemiptera 88 herbicide 210 herbivore deterrence 81, 84, 143, 145 herbivory 93, 134 bird 149–150 crab 88, 112–119, 126 dugong 147–149 fish 137, 144–145 insect 37, 82–88 mammal 102–105, 147–149 mangrove 42, 81, 82–88, 112–119, 129–131, 137, 156–163 seagrasses 48, 77, 140–150, 168– 169, 172 sea urchin 143–144 turtle 146–147 Heritiera 3, 67, 82–83, 85, 163 littoralis 83, 85–86 hermit crabs 108, 110, 126 heron 98, 122, 217 Herpestes (mongoose) 102 Heterozostera 6, 205 Holocene era 57, 242, 243 holothurians, Holothuria (sea cucumber) 144 Homoptera, homopteran bugs 84 Honduras 217, 220 honeybee (Apis mellifera) 92 honeyeaters 100–101 Hong Kong 83, 85 Hormosira 107 Humboldt Current 2, 41 hummingbirds 32, 99, 100, 101 hurricanes and typhoons 38, 54, 66, 67, 68, 143, 167, 208, 212, 216, 220, 221, 237, 243–244 hutia, Cabrera’s 103 Hydnophytum formicarium 138 hydraulic connectivity 42, 68 Hydrocharitaceae 5, 6, 52, 204 See also Halophila, Enhalus, Thalassia Hydrocharitioidea 6 hydrogen peroxide 22 hydroids 109 hydrology 30, 229–230, 232, 234, 243 hydroperiod 60, 61, 63 See also hydrology, tidal inundation Hydrophiidae (sea snakes) 94 Hymenoptera 201 See also ants, bees hypersalinity 17–18, 22, 48, 56, 61, 73 Hypochrysops (butterfly) 88 hypocotyl 33–35, 40 hypodermis 19 hyposalinity 48 I ibis 98–99 ibis, Scarlet (Eudocimus ruber) 98–99, 217 Idotea (isopod) 149 Ilyoplax 123 impacts on mangroves and seagrasses 211–237 See also fisheries, climate change, hurricanes India 4, 32, 57, 91, 96, 102, 129, 134, 165, 190, 193, 200, 216–217, 226, 231, 236 See also Sundarbans Indian Ocean 57, 109, 112, 189, 217 indirect use values 210 Indoaustriella 132 Indo-Malesia 4, 190–192 Indonesia 85, 91, 127, 143, 193, 226 Indo-Pacific, Indo-West Pacific 3–4, 6–7, 38, 60, 76, 87, 109, 119, 127, 129–130, 146–147, 172, 182, 186, 189–192, 194, 205, 216 Indus delta (Pakistan) 17, 26, 55, 103, 212, 222, 230–234, 236 inland mangroves 57, 66 insect herbivory 37, 82–88 insects 32, 72, 82–92, 99–101, 105–106, 137, 201–203 See also in particular ants, bees, beetles, bugs, fireflies, mosquitoes, termites interactions between ecosystems 170–187 invertebrates See in particular crustaceans, insects, molluscs Iridomyrmex 88 282 INDEX iron 8–9, 26 Isoodon (bandicoot) 102 isopod 9, 108–110, 140, 142, 143, 149, 168 See also Idotea, Sphaeroma J Japan 150, 175, 201, 204 jellyfish 180, 206 K Kandelia 3, 30, 32, 36, 39, 193 Kandelia candel 30 Kenya 127, 130, 134, 135, 162, 175, 178, 181, 219 kingfishers 98–99, 122, 217 kinorhynchs 133–134 knee roots 11 See also aerial roots Kryptolebias marmoratus (fish) 138 K-selection 68 Kuwait 236 L Labyrinthula zosterae 237 lactate 16, 122 Laguncularia 3, 21, 22, 36, 40, 42, 60, 87, 119, 128, 192, 208, 211 racemosa 27, 39, 60, 119, 199 lampyrid, Lampyridae 84, 90–91 land crab See Cardisoma, Gecarcinidae, Gecarcoidea, Ucides langur monkey 104–105 larval dispersal and settling 108, 110, 122, 135, 161, 165, 174, 179–180, 184–185, 224–226, 239 Lates calcarifer (barramundi) 233 latitude and species distribution 1, 3, 5, 41–42, 109, 154–155, 158, 169, 171, 204, 207, 242 latitudinal range of mangroves 1–4, 41–43, 57, 189, 194, 204, 240–241 of seagrasses 1, 4–5, 203–204, 241–242 leaf, leaves 14, 19–20, 23–25, 69, 72–73, 81, 84, 99, 103, 108, 128, 131, 152, 155–158 See also herbivory, leaf litter, photosynthesis leaf composition 84, 114–116 See also carbon/ nitrogen ratio, tannin litter 27, 57, 72, 85, 112–119, 130, 152, 156–162, 167, 174, 175 See also detritus miners 82, 143 senescence 19, 30, 73, 114–115 shedding 19, 22, 30, 33, 73, 81, 82, 156, 157 succulence 23, 81, 84 leatherjacket 144 leaves, seagrass 45–52, 75, 77, 139–150, 178–179, 205 Leguminosae 80 See also Caesalpina, Derris lenticels 12–15, 29, 108–109, 228 Lepidoptera 84, 88, 89 See also butterflies, moths lianes 80 lichens 80 light 13, 40, 44, 46–47, 65–66, 68–69, 75–76, 78, 140, 149, 155, 237, 243 See also photosynthesis lignin 146, 147, 154, 175 lignocellulose 159, 162 Littoraria angulifera 130 intermedia 130–131 pallescens 131 scabra 130–131 Littorinidae 196 See also Littoraria Liza (mullet) 135, 180 lizard 94, 96, 98 monitor 96, 217, 223 Lizashtonia hirsuta 133 longhorn beetle 86 Lophogobius 164 Loranthaceae (mistletoe) 81 lucinid bivalve, Lucinidae 132, 141 Lumnitzera 3, 36, 62, 99, 192 littorea 83 Lutjanus analis 182 apodus 182 griseus 182 mahogoni 182 lycaenid butterfly, Lycaenidae 88 lycosid spider Lycosidae 92 Lythraceae 3 See also Pemphis M Macaca sp (macaque monkey) 103 Macroglossus minimus 106 Macrophthalmus 123 hirtipes 142 setosus 126 maize 23 Malaysia 11, 57, 58–59, 80, 90–92, 94, 99–101, 106, 117–119, 121–123, 126, 133, 135, 153, 159, 161, 164, 176–177, 180, 183, 185–186, 192–193, 208, 213, 216–218, 221–222 See also Matang mammals 72, 96, 102–106, 122, 147–149, 170 See also in particular bats, dugongs, manatees, monkey management 211–226, 229–236 manatees 53, 147–148 manganese 26 mangrove, mangroves associates 2, 191 basin 56–57 biodiversity 188–201 clearance 212–213, 222, 224–225, 245 INDEX 283 conversion 212, 218, 220, 221–222, 224–246 dwarf 26 as ecosystem engineers 70–74 faunal diversity 201–203 fecundity 32, 36–37 inland 57 introduction 74, 190, 191, 194, 196, 215, 232 management 211–226, 229–236 products 212–216 range expansion 43, 57, 193, 200–201, 234, 236, 241–242, 244 replanting 104, 106, 201, 212, 229, 233–236 restoration 212, 234–236 riverine 56–57 and salt marshes 171–172, 241, 244 snake 95 tide-dominated 56–57, 58 mannitol 19 mantis shrimp 126 marine components of mangrove fauna 107–138 Matang (Malaysia) 65, 153, 189, 211, 222–224 Mediterranean 6–7, 79, 141, 143, 145, 146, 183, 194, 245 Megachiroptera 105–106 See also flying fox, fruit bat meiofauna 121, 132–135, 161, 164, 176 Meliaceae 3 See also Aglaia, Xylocarpus Meliphagidae (honeyeaters) 101 Melita 164 Merguia (shrimp) 127 Mesocapromys angelcabrerai (Cabrera’s hutia) 103 Metaplax crenulata 123 elegans 123 methane 9, 240 Metopograpsus 111 Mexico 175 Mexico, Gulf of 42–43, 147, 150, 221 microalgae 120, 135, 142, 152, 156 Microchiroptera 105–106 See also bats midge, biting (Ceratopogonidae) 89–90 mimicry 81 Miocene 194–195, 205 mistletoe 81 modelling 151–169 molluscs 110, 127, 129–132, 133, 140–142, 149, 178, 192, 194, 196, 216, 218, 224, 239 bivalve 103, 108–109, 132, 134–135, 141, 163, 179–180, 229 See also in particular mussels, oysters, piddocks, Pinna, shipworm gastropod 107, 109, 119, 129–132, 134, 142 See also in particular Littoraria, neritid, Telescopium, Terebralia in seagrass 141–142, 204, 236–237 Monacanthidae 144 mongoose (Herpestes spp.) 102 monitor lizards 96, 217, 223 monkey 103–105, 122, 235 colobine 104–105 langur 104 leaf 104 macaque 103 proboscis 104–105 as seedling predators 103–104 Mora 3 Mormopterus loriae 105 Morula lugubris 108 mosquitoes 82, 89–90, 225 See also Aëdes moths 32, 83, 85, 87, 91–92 movement between habitats 179–182 Mozambique 58 mud lobster 65, 110, 127, 143 mudskippers 90, 95, 98, 135–138 mullet, Liza 135, 180 Murrayella 108 mussels 132, 141, 164 mutualism 29, 88, 138 See also symbiosis mycorrhizae, mycorrhizal fungi 29 Mycteria cinerea milky stork) 223 Myrmecodia 88 myrmecophytes 88 Myrsinaceae 3 See also Aegiceras Myrtaceae 3 See also Osbornia N Nanozostera 6, 205 Nasalis larvatus (proboscis monkey) 104–105 Neaxius acanthus 143 necromass 158, 160 nectar 20, 32, 87, 99–101, 106 Nectariniidae (sunbirds) 100–101 nematodes 110, 121, 133–135, 161 nemertean 110 Neosarmatium meinerti 113 smithi 112, 114–115 Nephila claviceps (golden silk spider) 92 neritid, Neritidae (gastropod) 142 Nerodia fasciata (mangrove snake) 95 net primary production (NPP) See primary production New Caledonia 190, 206 New Zealand 3, 31, 41, 142, 150, 190, 234, 241 Nicobar islands 84 Nigeria 127 nitrate 8, 15, 27–31, 73, 99, 128, 158, 174, 175 nitrification 15, 27–28 nitrite 27–29, 174 Nitrobacter 28 284 INDEX nitrogen 8, 15, 26–32, 45, 50–51, 76, 84, 88, 94, 109, 113–116, 121, 137–138, 145–147, 172, 174, 175, 227, 239 See also carbon/nitrogen ratio, nitrate, nitrite fixation, nitrogen-fixing bacteria 15, 27–28, 30, 50, 108, 174 nitrogenase 27 Nitrosomonas 28 Nitrospina 28 nitrous oxide 28 Noctilio leporinus 105 noctuid moth, Noctuidae 85 non-use values of mangroves 219 Nophopterix syntaractis (moth) 83, 85 North America 150, 171 See also specific country nursery area 135, 142, 145, 181–185 nutrients mangroves 15, 26–32, 34, 56, 65, 73, 85, 88, 98, 109, 128, 155, 158, 165, 167–168, 171–172, 174, 179, 219, 227, 229, 235, 237, 239 See also nitrate, phosphate seagrasses 45–46, 50–51, 76–79, 140, 141, 145–147, 149, 169, 171–172 Nycticeius greyi 105 Nyctophilus arnhemensis 105 Nypa 3, 32, 36, 67, 91, 194, 196 fruticans 191, 194, 196, 215 O ocypodid crab, Ocypodidae 110, 112, 119, 120, 123, 126, 128, 142 See also Ilyoplax, Macrophthalmus, Uca, Ucides Ocyurus chrysurus 182 Odocoileus (key deer) 102 Oecophylla smaragdina (weaver ant) 87–88, 91 oligochaetes, Oligochaeta 134–135 Ophiophagus hannah (king cobra) 94 Ophiusa (noctuid moth) 85 optimal foraging 121 Orcaella brevirostris 102 orchid 2, 80 origins of mangroves 192–197 seagrasses 204–205 Osbornia 3, 21, 36 osmoconformer 94–95, 125–126 osmoregulation 17–22, 93–98, 125–126 osprey 98 ostracods, Ostracoda 142 otter 102, 118, 147, 149, 213 outwelling 173–178, 183–184 overexploitation of mangroves 129, 211, 220–222, 224–226, 233 overgrazing 222, 232, 237 overwash mangroves 57 oxidative phosphorylation 16 oxygen, diffusion rate oxygenation of soil 8–9, 12–17, 25, 26, 27, 29, 72, 74–75, 78, 89, 122, 133, 141, 229 See also anaerobic conditions oyster 5, 72, 109, 132, 164, 229, 235 See also Crassostrea P Pacific Ocean 2, 6–7, 39, 57, 60, 189–194, 198, 200–201, 204–207, 220–221 See also AtlanticCaribbean-East Pacific region, Indo-Pacific paddock 108 Pakistan 220, 236 See also Indus delta Palaemonetes (shrimp) 164 Paleocene 194–195 palms, Palmae 80, 212 See also Calamus, Nypa Panama 31, 60, 99–102, 127, 130, 191, 194, 204, 228, 236 Panthera tigris (Bengal tiger) 102, 103 Papua New Guinea 55, 70, 81, 91, 101, 102, 130, 190, 198, 207 Paracleistostoma mcneilli 126 Parasesarma erythrodactyla 114 leptosoma 118 plicata 112, 113 Pardosa (lycosid spider) 92 parental investment 36–37 parrotfish 145, 181, 182 particulate organic matter (POM) See also carbon (POC) Parus major (great tit) 101 passerines 99, 101 pelicans 30, 98 Pelliciera 3, 36, 40, 195 rhizophorae 32, 39, 60 Pellicieraceae 3, 195 Pemphis 3 penaeid shrimp, Penaeidae 110, 126, 142, 183–185, 224–226 See also aquaculture, shrimps Penaeus 184 Penaeus latisulcatus 184 merguiensis 184 semisulcatus 184 Perameles (bandicoot) 102 pericarp 34, 35, 38 Periophthalmodon 137–138 Periophthalmus 137–138 cantonensis 137 chrysospilos 136 sobrinus 137 periostracum 132 Perisesarma eumolpe 113 onychophora 113, 123, 161 INDEX 285 Persian Gulf, Arabian Gulf 102, 103, 194, 230, 231, 241 pesticide 227, 233 Philippines 91, 135, 143, 144, 194, 226, 236, 242 Pholadidae (piddocks) 108 phosphate, phosphorus 9, 26–27, 29, 30–32, 50–51, 73, 76, 99, 128, 167, 172, 174–175, 227 photosynthesis, mangrove v 1, 13, 14, 15, 24, 25, 34, 35, 40, 41, 74, 107, 114, 151, 152, 155, 167, 238, 239, 240 algae 107, 152 seagrass 44, 46, 47–48, 75, 78, 139, 140, 142, 179, 237, 239 Phyllospadix 4, 6, 44, 75, 141, 204–205 iwatensis 205 japonicus 205 scouleri 205 serrulatus 205 torreyi 51 physical barriers to dispersal 189–195, 204–205 physical gradients 24, 31, 60–63, 66–67, 70, 197–198, 207, 242 phytoplankton 89, 176, 185 piddocks 108 pigs 102 Pillucina 132 Pinna nobilis (giant fan mussel) 141 pintail duck 149 pioneer species 39, 63–64, 68–69 Pipistrellus tenuis 105 pistol shrimp See Alpheus plankton 71, 135, 176, 178–180, 185 Platanista gangetica (dolphin) 102 platyhelminth 110 Plumbaginaceae 3 See also Aegialitis pneumatophores 10, 11–17, 25, 28, 40, 70–74, 107–109, 111, 136, 163, 185, 211, 227–228, 232, 243 facultative 16, 17 pollen, pollination, mangrove 32, 39, 44, 69, 82, 92, 98, 101, 106, 194–195, 200 pollen, pollination, seagrass 44, 52–53, 78, 204 pollution 227–229 oil 227, 228–229, 233 sewage 227–228, 233 thermal 227 polychaete 109, 192 polymorphism 131 Polyrhachis sokolova (ant) 88–89 Pomadasys 180 porpoise 102 portunid, Portunidae 110, 113, 126 See also Callinectes, Scylla Posidonia 6, 45–46, 52, 53, 78, 79, 141, 143, 145, 204, 245 australis 77, 140 cretacea 204 oceanica 78, 145 Posidoniaceae 6, 204 Posidonoidea 6 Potamogetonaceae 5, 6, 52 potassium ions 48, 93, 95 prawn 126, 226 See also shrimp Presbytis (langur monkey) 104 primary production 107, 208 gross (GPP) 156 mangrove 1, 36, 41–42, 151–158, 165–166, 173–175, 177–178, 213, 235 net (NPP) 36, 41–42, 156–158, 161–162, 166, 169, 173 salt marsh 171–173 seagrass 50, 139–140, 142, 146, 168–169 Prionos ornata 133 proboscis monkey 104–105 Procyon cancrivorus (raccoon) 102 production, bacterial 159–161, 163–164 prokaryotes See bacteria, cyanobacteria proline 19, 48 propagule 33–40, 42, 58, 67, 69, 72, 74, 75, 85–86, 103, 112, 117–118, 120, 222, 232–235, 244 dispersal, mangrove 37–40, 69, 193, 195–200, 241 predation 40, 60, 65–66, 85, 103–104, 117, 119 sorting 60 prop root 15, 16, 107 See also aerial root Protozoa, Protists See also foraminifera, ciliate Pseudoapocrytes (mudskipper) 137 pseudofaecal pellets 120–121, 135 Pteridaceae (ferns) See also Acrostichum Pterocarpus 70 Pteroptyx (firefly) 90–91 cribellata 91 malaccae 90–91 tener 90 Pteropus (flying fox) 105–106 Puerto Rico 135, 200 pyralid moth, Pyralidae 83, 85 python 94 Q Queensland 9, 51, 83, 96, 102, 114, 117, 135, 160, 174 R rabbitfish 144 rabbitfish (Scaridae) 144–145, 181 raccoon (Procyon) 102 radula 129–131 rainfall 18, 20, 27, 56, 59, 94, 97, 101, 221, 228, 238, 240, 242 rainforest 2, 68, 101–102 286 INDEX ramets 45, 46, 75 Rana cancrivora See Fejervarya cancrivora rats 103 rays 145 redox potential 8–9, 30, 47–48, 75, 128 Red Sea 16–17, 57, 170, 241 remote sensing 154, 220, 232, 235 replanting of mangroves 104, 106, 201, 212, 229, 233–236 reproduction mangrove 32–37 seagrass 51–54 reptiles 94–98, 122 See also crocodile, snake, terrapin, turtle resilience, ecosystem 209, 210, 243–244 respiration 8, 111, 131, 138 bacterial 8, 167, 179 mangrove 9, 12, 15, 23, 40, 72, 108–109, 131, 156, 167 seagrass 47–48 restoration of mangroves 212, 234–236 Rhinoceros sundaicus 102 Rhipidura 99 rufiventris 99 Rhithropanopeus 164 rhizomes 44–46, 51–54, 77–79, 139, 141, 142 Rhizophora 3, 9–19, 21, 24, 32– 40, 42, 57, 59, 60, 65, 71, 82–89, 91, 99, 103, 108–110, 117, 119, 128, 134, 138, 153, 155–156, 160, 162–163, 169, 180, 192–196, 201, 208, 211, 222, 229, 234–235 apiculata 59, 62, 65, 83, 86, 159, 222, 233 harrisonii 39, 60, 198, 200 mangle 16, 27, 30–35, 39, 42, 60, 64, 66, 68, 74, 108, 138, 190, 199–201, 227 mucronata 35, 59, 61–62, 118, 159, 232–233 racemosa 199, 200 samoensis 190, 200 stylosa 32, 63, 82, 83, 86 x lamarcki 83 Rhizophoraceae 2–3, 33, 193–194 See also Bruguiera, Ceriops, Kandelia, Rhizophora rhizosphere 15, 29, 47, 74, 132 See also roots Rhodophyta 107–108 rias 57 rivers 27, 30, 55–58, 61, 67–68, 70, 102, 104, 158, 173, 175–176, 179, 184, 212, 229, 230, 232, 242 See also estuaries rivulus (fish) 138 robin, mangrove 100 rodents 102 See also hutia, Xeromys root 8–19, 23, 27–30, 33, 37–40, 72–74, 81, 108, 128, 152, 155–156, 158, 163, 194, 208, 216, 243–244 roots aerial 9–17, 25, 37, 40, 70–72, 78, 87, 153, 155, 163, 227–229, 243 See also pneumatophore root:shoot ratio 23, 30 Rubiaceae 3 See also Scyphiphora, Hydnophytum, Myrmecodia gas transport in 12–15, 16 root fouling organisms 108–110 seagrass 44–48, 50, 52, 54, 78, 139, 141–142, 146 Ruppia 4, Ruppiaceae 5, S sabellid (annelid worm) 109 salinity 1, 2, 5, 17–26, 29–30, 36, 42, 44, 55–56, 60–63, 66–74, 93–98, 122, 126, 128, 131, 151, 156, 167, 179–180, 197–198, 207, 212, 227, 232, 234, 239 See also salt tolerance gradient 24, 60–63, 66–67, 70, 73, 197–198, 207, 242 Salmacis sphaeroides (sea urchin) 144 salt exclusion 17–19, 21, 35, 48, 71, 73, 81 glands, salt secretion 17–18, 20–21, 71, 73, 84 marsh 2, 41, 43, 75, 121, 171–173, 180, 183, 204, 241, 244 sequestration, deposition 19–20, 21 tolerance 2, 17–26, 33, 35, 40–41, 48, 61, 67, 81, 108, 204, 226, 243 See also osmoregulation, salinity tolerance, animal 89–90, 93–95, 96–98, 131, 138 tolerance, seagrasses 48–50 Samoa 190, 206 sandflies 89 sardine 105 Sarpa salpa 145 satellite imagery 154, 220, 232, 235 scale insects (Coccoidea) 84, 87, 91 Scaridae (parrot fish) 144–145, 181 Scartelaos (mudskipper) 137—138 Scarus (parrot fish) 145 coeruleus 182 guacamaia 181, 182 iserti 182 scolytid beetles 85 Scylla (mud crab) 126, 129, 216, 225 Scyphiphora 3, 36 hydrophyllacea 83 sea cucumbers, holothurians 144 sea level rise 57, 66–67, 221, 242–243 sea slug 149 sea snakes (Hydrophidae) 92, 94–95, 98, 122 sea urchins 140, 143–144, 145, 147 seagrass biodiversity 4–6, 204–210 See also Amphibolis, Enhalus, Halodule, Halophila, Phyllospadix, Posidonia, Syringodium Thalassia, Thalassodendron, Zostera INDEX 287 biogeography 4–7, 203–206 birds 149–150, 209 communities 139–150, 168 dispersal 53–54 epiphytes 139–140, 142, 143, 144, 168 fauna 139–150, 181–182 fish 144–146 genetic diversity 46, 205, 209–210 growth and structure 44–46, 48–51, 75 impacts 236–237 photosynthesis 140, 142 physiology 47–51 reproduction 52–54 seagrasses as ecosystem engineers 77–79 seahorses 145 sediment compaction 66–67 in mangroves 11–12, 55–56, 64, 66–67, 70–74, 179, 212, 216, 232, 243 in seagrasses 1, 46, 54, 77–79, 236–237 seed bank 54, 77 seed dormancy 33–34, 54, 69 seedling 2, 11, 16, 18–19, 21–23, 30, 33–38, 40, 58, 65, 68, 69, 78, 85, 107–108, 112, 154, 208, 211, 222, 227–229, 232–235 See also propagules predation 66, 103, 117–119, 129 seeds mangrove 33, 34, 35, 69, 82, 85–86, 102, 215 See also propagules seagrass 44, 53–54, 74, 77, 205, 236 self-pollination See pollination Senegal 103, 148 serpulid 109 Sesarma 125, 128 meinerti 89 reticulatum 124 sesarmid crabs, Sesarmidae 74, 93, 110–119, 122–124, 126–128, 130, 137, 150–158, 161–162, 166, 167, 172, 192 See also Aratus, Armases, Cleistocoeloma, Neosarmatium, Parasesarma, Perisesarma, Sesarma, Sesarmoides Sesarmoides kraussi 113 settling velocity 70 shade, shade tolerance 38, 65–66, 72–75, 85 sheep 232 shell erosion 131–132 shipworm (mollusc) 108, 132, 163 shrimp 110, 126–127, 137, 140, 142, 143, 145, 164, 165, 172, 180, 183–185, 212, 224–226 shrimp aquaculture, fisheries 172, 183–185, 212–213, 216, 218, 224–226, 233, 235 siganid, Siganidae 144 Sinai (Egypt) 16–17, 57 Singapore 91, 99 sipunculan 110, 135 Smaragdia 142 snails 107, 109, 119, 129–132, 134, 142 See also gastropods snakes 94–98 See also sea snakes sodium ions 17, 19, 48, 93–95, 98 See also salt soil aeration 8–9, 12–17, 25, 26, 27, 29, 72, 74–75, 78, 89, 122, 133, 141, 229 See also anaerobic conditions Sonneratia 3, 11, 19, 21, 32, 36, 62, 67, 91, 104, 106, 134, 211, 235 alba 22, 24–25, 59, 61, 63, 106, 159 caseolaris 91, 106 griffithi 59 lanceolata 22, 24–25, 61 ovata 106 Sonneratiaceae 3 South Africa 31, 113, 157, 189, 193, 241 South America 2, 41, 55, 87, 102, 190, 193, 194, 241 See also Amazon; Brazil, Venezuela Southeast Asia 93–96, 99, 100–104, 121, 127, 131–132, 136, 148, 155, 190–191, 193–195, 204–205, 215, 220, 224 See also Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam Sparisoma 145 chrysopterum 182 Spartina 171 species/area relationship 197–199, 202–203 species richness 65, 68, 69, 76, 99–102 See also biodiversity zonation 57–67, 70, 108, 122–123, 201, 242 and geomorphological change 66–67 mangroves 57–67 and physical gradients 57, 60–63 and plant succession 63–66, 67, 70 and propagule sorting 60 Sphaeroma 9, 108–109 Sphyraena barracuda 182 spiders 92, 99, 137 See also Gasteracanthidae, lycosid, Nephila, Pardosa sponges 28–29, 74, 78, 109 See also Haliclona, Tedania Squilla choprai 126 Sri Lanka 186, 194 stable isotopes 18, 114, 129–130, 132, 173, 176–178, 181, 184, 185 starch 35, 40 Sterculiaceae 3 See also Heritiera stilt root See also aerial root stomata, stomatal conductance 14, 24, 33, 47, 81, 238 stomatopods, Stomatopoda 126 288 INDEX stork 30, 98 storms 31, 46, 52, 64, 77, 216, 221, 225, 238, 240 See also hurricanes and typhoons stress, environmental 22, 25, 68, 84, 131, 209, 237, 244 See also anaerobic conditions, desiccation, osmotic, salinity; temperature Strombus gigas (queen conch) 142 suberin 19 succession 63–68, 70, 134, 143, 145, 161, 167 sulphate 9 sulphide 9, 16, 132, 138, 141, 227 sunbirds 100–101 Sundarbans 55, 66, 102–103, 165, 212 superoxide, superoxide dismutase 22 superphosphate 30 Surinam 101 sustainable management 65, 211, 213, 222–226 See also Matang swan, black (Cygnus atratus) 150 whooper (Cygnus cygnus) 150 swimming crab See also portunid symbiosis 27, 29, 108, 132, 141 Synapta maculata (holothurian) 144 Syngnathidae (seahorses, pipefish) 145 Syringodium 6, 54, 204 filiforme 49–50 isoetifolium 205 T Tabebula 3 Tachyurus 180 tadpole 93–94 tailor ant See also Oecophylla Taiwan 226 tannin 29, 84, 115–118, 134, 145, 159, 173, 176, 214–215 Tanzania 58 Taphozous flaviventris 105 georgianus 105 tardigrade 133–134 taxonomy of mangroves 2–3 of seagrasses 4–6 tectonic movement 66, 70, 108, 193–197, 242 Tectura depicta (limpet) 142 Tedania (sponge) 28–29 Telescopium 129, 216 temperature 2–4, 41–43, 111, 116, 124–125, 131, 138, 209, 227, 239–240 See also global warming effects of low temperature 2, 42, 227, 241 and species distribution 2–3, 41–42, 171, 189, 209, 240–241 Terebralia palustris 129–130, 134, 162 Teredinidae 108, 132, 163 termites 86–87, 108, 163 terrapin 94 terrestrial components of mangrove community 80–106 See also birds, insects, mammals, reptiles, spiders Tertiary 194–195 Tethys sea 66, 197, 204 thaidid molluscs, Thais 109, 129 Thailand 64, 91, 148, 175, 226 Thais kiosquiformis 108 Thalassia 6, 53–54, 77, 145, 178, 204 hemprichi 53, 54, 76–77, 144, 148, 205 testudinum 49–50, 76–77, 146, 169, 205 Thalassina, thalassinid (mud lobster) 65, 110, 127, 143 Thalassioideae 6 Thalassocharis 204 Thalassodendron 6, 54, 178, 204 threats to mangroves 212–213, 220–222, 224–234, 243 to seagrasses 236, 237, 243 tide-dominated estuaries 56–57 tides, tidal fluctuation 8, 9, 12, 14–17, 27, 31, 37, 39, 48, 52, 55–57, 60, 62, 71–72, 75, 88–89, 92, 98–99, 102–103, 108, 111, 116, 119–123, 125–128, 130–131, 135–136, 156–159, 162, 170, 173, 175, 179–180, 183, 221, 224, 226 tiger, Bengal 102, 103 timber extraction 211, 213–214, 218, 222–223, 230 tit, great (Parus major) 101 tortricid moth 87 tourism See also ecotourism transpiration 18, 20, 24, 33, 47, 238–239 trepang (Holothuria) tricarboxylic cycle 16 Trichecus manatus (manatee) 147–148 senegalensis 147–148 Trinidad 98–99, 101 Tripneustes gratilla (sea urchin) 144 Trochiliidae (hummingbirds) 101 trophic relay 174, 181, 184 tropical distribution of mangroves 41–43 tsunamis 212, 217 tunicate 109 Turbellaria 133–134 turtlegrass See Thalassia testudinum turtles 53, 140, 146–147, 148, 149, 168 typhoons See hurricanes and typhoons U Uca 92, 103, 110, 113, 119–125, 126, 128, 134, 137, 165, 172, 179, 180 dussumieri 121, 123 lactea 120, 121, 124 INDEX 289 polita 120 pugnax 121 rosea 123 tangeri 103 triangularis 123 vocans 120 Ucides 112, 119, 162 ultraviolet (UV) radiation 75, 140 Ulva 209, 228 understorey vegetation 11, 68, 70, 78, 102, 209 United Arab Emirates 12, 230 United States 31, 234 See also Alaska, California, Florida, Hawaii urea 30–31, 94–95 uses of mangroves 210–236 of seagrasses 236–237 use values 218–219 V Vanda (orchid) 80 Varanus indicus (monitor lizard) 96, 217, 223 Venezuela 66, 110 vervet monkey Cercopithecus 103 Vietnam 175, 220–221, 225–226 vivipary, mangrove 33–36, 40 See also propagules seagrass 54 W Wadden Sea (Netherlands) 149–150 waders 98 warblers 99, 100 water buffalo 103 water loss, animals 98, 125, 131, 137 mangrove 20, 23, 33, 47, 236 See also transpiration water run-off, seepage from land 16, 18, 27, 30, 61, 168 water uptake 18–19, 23, 24, 81, 239 waterlogging 8–17, 25–26, 30, 41, 63, 69–70, 122, 127, 171 See also anaerobic conditions wave action affecting mangroves 46–47, 56–57, 66, 70, 74, 75, 77, 79, 172, 216–217, 228, 230, 233 affecting seagrasses 46, 75, 77, 79, 139, 143, 172, 236–237 West Indies 57 white-eye 100 wigeon (Anas penelope) 149 wood-borers 9, 86–87, 108–109, 132, 163 wood, decomposition 162–163 woodpeckers 99 X Xanthidae, xanthid crabs 119 See also Rhithropanopeus Xeromys myoides (rat) 103 xylem 14, 18, 19, 42, 81 Xylocarpus 3, 11, 19, 20, 21, 32, 35–36, 163, 240 australensis 83 australoasicus 86 granatum 10, 11, 59, 83, 86 mekongensis 10 molluccense 59 Y Yemen 57 Z zinc 26, 227 zonation See species zonation Zostera 4–6, 46, 48, 52, 54, 75, 77, 79, 142, 148, 204, 205, 210 asiatica 45, 205 capricorni 45, 51, 75, 150 caulescens 205 japonica 205 marina 3, 7, 44, 46, 53, 78 muelleri 45, 241 noltii 149, 242 Zosteraceae 6, 204, 205 See also Phyllospadix, Zostera, Nanozostera, Heterozostera Zosteroidea 6 ... habitat The Biology of Streams and 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