PAIPR 7/16/99 2:28 PM Page i PAINT AND SURFACE COATINGS Theory and Practice Second edition Editors: R LAMBOURNE and T A STRIVENS Cambridge England PAIPR 7/16/99 2:28 PM Page ii Published by Woodhead Publishing Ltd, Abington Hall, Abington, Cambridge CB1 6AH, England First published 1987 Ellis Horwood Ltd Reprinted 1988 Reprinted in paperback 1993 Second edition 1999 Woodhead Publishing Ltd © 1999 Woodhead Publishing Ltd The authors have asserted their moral rights Conditions of sale All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher While a great deal of care has been taken to provide accurate and current information, neither the author, nor the publisher, nor anyone else associated with this publication shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 85573 348 X Typeset by Best-set Typesetter Ltd., Hong Kong Printed by TJ International, Cornwall, England PAIPR 7/16/99 2:28 PM Page iii Contents List of contributors x Preface to first edition xi Preface to second edition xiii Paint composition and applications — a general introduction R Lambourne 1.1 A short history of paint 1.2 Paint or surface coating? 1.3 The components of paint 1.4 Paint making 1.5 Methods of application 1.6 Paint markets 16 17 18 Organic film formers J Bentley 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Natural polymers 2.3 Oils and fatty acids 2.4 Oleoresinous media 2.5 Alkyd resins 2.6 Polyester resins 2.7 Acrylic polymers 2.8 Emulsion and dispersion polymers 2.9 Non-aqueous dispersion polymerization 2.10 Amino resins 2.11 Phenol formaldehyde resins 2.12 Epoxy resins 2.13 Isocyanates 2.14 Silicone resins 19 23 24 30 31 40 44 54 60 62 66 67 70 74 PAIPR 7/16/99 2:28 PM iv Page iv Contents 2.15 Vinyl resins 2.16 Water-borne systems 2.17 Resins for electrodeposition 2.18 High solids coatings 2.19 Radiation-curing polymers 2.20 Powder-coating compositions 2.21 Resin manufacture Bibliography References 75 76 80 82 84 85 86 87 87 Pigments for paint A G Abel 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Definition 3.3 Required qualities of pigments 3.4 Pigment classification 3.5 Pigment nomenclature 3.6 Further types of pigments and terms used 3.7 Particulate nature of pigments and the dispersion process 3.8 Manufacture of pigments 3.9 Toxicity and the environment 3.10 Choosing pigments 3.11 Physical forms of pigment 3.12 Notes on families of pigments References 91 91 92 105 108 109 114 119 124 125 127 129 165 Solvents, thinners, and diluents R Lambourne 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The market for solvents in the paint industry 4.3 Solvent power or solvency 4.4 Solvent effects on viscosity 4.5 Evaporation of solvents from coatings 4.6 Flashpoint 4.7 Toxicity and environmental pollution Acknowledgement References 166 167 168 178 179 180 181 183 183 Additives for paint R A Jeffs and W Jones 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Anti-corrosive pigment enhancers 5.3 Antifoams 5.4 Antisettling agents 5.5 Antiskinning agents 5.6 Can-corrosion inhibitors 5.7 Dehydrators/antigassing additives 5.8 Dispersion aids 5.9 Driers 185 186 186 187 188 188 189 189 190 PAIPR 7/16/99 2:28 PM Page v Contents 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 v Electrical properties Flash corrosion inhibitors Floating and flooding additives In-can preservatives In-film preservatives Insecticidal additives Optical whiteners Reodorants Ultraviolet absorbers Additive suppliers 192 192 192 193 194 194 195 195 195 196 The physical chemistry of dispersion A Doroszkowski 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Immersion and wetting of the pigment 6.3 Deagglomeration (mechanical breakdown of agglomerates) 6.4 Dispersion — colloid stabilization 6.5 Steric (or polymer) stabilization 6.6 Depletion flocculation and stabilization 6.7 Adsorption 6.8 Rate of flocculation References 198 199 203 205 219 224 227 234 240 Particle size and size measurement A Doroszkowski 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Definitions 7.3 Sampling 7.4 Methods of particle sizing 7.5 The best method? References 243 243 252 257 280 283 The industrial paint-making process F K Farkas 8.1 Introduction 8.2 The use of dispersants 8.3 Methods of optimizing millbases for dispersion 8.4 The instrumental formulating technique 8.5 Methods of dispersion and machinery 8.6 Mixing 8.7 Control techniques Acknowledgements References 286 286 288 290 309 325 327 329 329 Coatings for buildings J A Graystone 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Formulating considerations and constraints 9.3 Pigment–binder–solvent relationships 330 331 335 PAIPR 7/16/99 2:28 PM vi 10 11 12 13 Page vi Contents 9.4 The nature of paint binder 9.5 Colour delivery 9.6 Meeting the needs of the substrate 9.7 Masonry and cementitious substrates 9.8 Metallic substrates 9.9 Plastic as a substrate References 350 359 365 383 398 406 406 Automotive paints D A Ansdell 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Pretreatment 10.3 Priming 10.4 Surfacers 10.5 Anti-chip coatings 10.6 Inverted or reverse process 10.7 Automotive topcoats 10.8 In-factory repairs 10.9 Painting of plastic body components 10.10 Spray application 10.11 Stoving procedures 10.12 Performance/testing 10.13 Future developments Acknowledgements Bibliography 411 415 419 431 438 438 440 457 459 461 472 477 483 490 491 Automotive refinish paints A H Mawby 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Topcoat systems 11.3 Colour 11.4 Future developments Bibliography 492 494 497 500 501 General industrial paints G P A Turner 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Factors governing the selection of industrial painting processes 12.3 Industrial application and curing methods 12.4 Finishing materials and processes in selected industrial painting operations 12.5 Developments and trends in general industrial finishing References The painting of ships R Lambourne 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Corrosion 502 503 509 517 526 528 529 530 PAIPR 7/16/99 2:28 PM 14 15 16 17 Page vii Contents vii 13.3 Surface preparation 13.4 Blast primers 13.5 Paint systems for ships 13.6 The painting of off-shore structures References 533 534 534 547 549 An introduction to rheology T A Strivens 14.1 Introduction 14.2 History of viscosity measurements 14.3 Definitions 14.4 Methods of measurement 14.5 Interpretation of results References 550 551 552 560 567 574 The rheology of paints T A Strivens 15.1 Introduction 15.2 General considerations on paint rheology — paint application processes 15.3 Experimental methods for measuring paint rheology for application and flow-out after application 15.4 Paint rheology during manufacture and storage References Mechanical properties of paints and coatings T A Strivens 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Viscoelastic properties of polymers 16.3 Ultimate mechanical properties of polymers 16.4 Experimental methods for determining mechanical properties of coatings 16.5 Discussion of experimental methods 16.6 Technological tests for mechanical properties 16.7 Acoustic emission 16.8 Recent developments References Appearance qualities of paint — basic concepts T R Bullett 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Physics of reflection by paint/air interfaces 17.3 Light scattering and absorption by paint films 17.4 Colour of pigment mixtures and pigmented films 17.5 Changes in paint films 17.6 Fluorescence and phosphorescence 17.7 Colour appreciation 17.8 Further reading References 575 575 581 593 595 598 599 603 605 611 612 615 617 618 621 621 624 629 634 636 636 639 640 PAIPR 7/16/99 2:28 PM viii 18 19 20 21 Page viii Contents Specification and control of appearance T R Bullett 18.1 Gloss 18.2 Opacity of paint films 18.3 Specification and control of colour 18.4 Colour control in paint manufacture Acknowledgements References 642 647 652 657 657 657 Durability testing R Lambourne 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Chemical resistance testing 19.3 Testing mechanical properties of paints 19.4 Accelerated weathering 19.5 Natural weathering 19.6 Suppliers of accelerated weathering test equipment Acknowledgements References 658 661 668 675 686 692 692 693 Computers and modelling in paint and resin formulating J Bentley 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Software in the laboratory 20.3 Information technology and knowledge-based systems 20.4 Modelling and mathematical techniques 20.5 Molecular modelling 20.6 Resin formulating and processes 20.7 Resin scale-up and manufacture 20.8 Polymer properties, curing, and network properties 20.9 Solvents and solubility properties 20.10 Paint formulation and manufacture, and coating performance 20.11 Experimental analysis, design, and quality control Bibliography References 694 695 695 696 700 701 711 712 716 718 719 719 720 Health and safety in the coatings industry G R Hayward 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Raw materials and intermediates 21.3 Occupational exposure 21.4 Provision of information 21.5 The approved supply list 21.6 Hazard details 21.7 Safety data sheets 21.8 Labelling of substances and preparations 21.9 Classification and labelling for transport (conveyance) 21.10 Control of hazardous substances 21.11 New substances regulations 725 726 729 732 732 738 739 740 745 750 752 PAIPR 7/16/99 2:28 PM Page ix Contents 21.12 Food contact coatings 21.13 Major accident hazards 21.14 Environmental protection 21.15 Conclusions References Appendix 1: risk phrases Appendix 2: safety phrases Index ix 753 756 759 761 762 762 764 767 PAIPR 7/16/99 2:28 PM Page x List of contributors A G Abel D A Ansdell J Bentley T R Bullett A Doroszkowski F K Farkas J A Graystone G R Hayward R A Jeffs W Jones R Lambourne A H Mawby T A Strivens G P A Turner Industrial Manager (Technology), Clariant Specialties Ltd, Calverley Lane, Horsforth, Leeds LS18 4RP, UK Formerly Technical Manager, Automotive Products, ICI Paints Division, Slough SL2 5DS, UK Consultant, Paint Research Association, Teddington, Middlesex, UK Formerly Research Director, Paint Research Association, Teddington, Middlesex, UK Principal Research Scientist, Paint Research Association, Teddington, Middlesex, UK Consultant, FKF & Associates Principal Research Scientist, Paint Research Association, Teddington, Middlesex, UK Consultant, Hales End, Main Street, Laxton Village, E Northants NN17 3AT, UK Formerly Research Department, ICI Paints Division, Slough SL2 5DS, UK Formerly Research Department, ICI Paints Division, Slough SL2 5DS, UK Formerly Research Department, ICI Paints Division and Industrial Colloid Advisory Group, Bristol University, UK Director, Refinish Marketing, PPG Industries (UK) Ltd, Ladywood, Birmingham B116 0AD, UK Formerly Divisional Research Associate, ICI Paints Division, Slough SL2 5DS, UK Formerly Technical Manager, Industrial Coatings Research, ICI Paints Division, Slough SL2 5DS, UK PAIIndex 7/16/99 6:45 PM 770 Page 770 Index Brunswick green, see CI Pigment Green 15 Buildings coatings for, 330–406 see also under individual building components Bulk compression/deformation, 552 Burnt sienna, see CI Pigment Brown 6, Burnt umber, see CI Pigment Brown 6, p-t-Butylbenzoic acid, 33 CAB, see Cellulose acetate butyrate Cadmium red, see CI Pigment Orange 20; CI Pigment Red 108 Cadmium yellow, see CI Pigment Yellow 35, 37 Calcined clay, see CI Pigment White 19 Calcium borate primers, 406 Calcium carbonate stearate-coated antisettling agent, 187 in automotive surfacers, 437 see also CI Pigment White 18 Calcium driers, 191 Calcium molybdate, 163 Calcium plumbate, see CI Pigment Brown 10 Calcium sulphate, see Gypsum Calorimetry, surface area measurement by, 280 Can-corrosion inhibitors, 188 Can test, 289 Cans, beer and beverage, finishes for interiors, 523–4 Capillary flow viscometers, 563–4, 566, 581–2, 583 Capillary hydrodynamic fractionation (CHDF), particle sizing by, 268–9 Carbazole violet, see CI Pigment Violet 23 Carbon black, see CI Pigment Black 6, 7, Carcinogenic substances, 730, 735, 740, 744–5, 755 Cardura E10, 34, 53 Cast iron, 399 Castor oil, 25, 26 dehydrated, 25, 27 hydrogenated, 27, 187, 538 Catalytic chain transfer polymerization (CCTP), 23 Cave paintings, 1, 131 CCTP, see Catalytic chain transfer polymerization CDMCA Weatherometer®, 676–7, 678 Cellulose (in wood), 368 Cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB), 24, 51 resins, 448, 497 Cellulose derivatives, 24 solubility parameters, 700 Cellulose nitrate, see Nitrocellulose Cement, 384–8 renderings, 488–9 see also Asbestos cement; Portland cement Cement paints, 393 Centrifugation paint application by, 509 particle sizing using, 264–5, 282 Centrimill, 319, 320 Cerium driers, 191 Chain growth (addition) polymerization, 23, 60 modelling, 698, 702–9, 712 radical-initiated, 44–6, 48–9, 703, 705, 707, 709 Chalk, see CI Pigment White 18 Chalking (paints), 9, 109 assessment, 684 Chalking into film, assessment, 686 CHDF, see Capillary hydrodynamic fractionation Chemical office software suites, 695 Chemical resistance testing, 480–1, 661–8 Chemicals (Hazard Information and Packaging for Supply) Regulations, see CHIP regulations Chemometrics, 699 Child-resistant packaging, 744 China clay, see CI Pigment White 19 CHIP regulations, 732, 744–5 Chlorinated rubbers, 10, 76, 398 marine paints based on, 538–40 metal primers based on, 405 Chromaticity, 630–1 differences, 638–9 Chromatographic methods of particle sizing, 266–9 Chrome green, see CI Pigment Green 15 Chrome yellow, see CI Pigment Yellow 34 Chromium oxide, see CI Pigment Green 17 Chromium oxide, hydrated, see CI Pigment Green 18 Chromophores, 94 CI Pigment Black (aniline black), 133–4 CI Pigment Black 6, 7, (carbon black), 106, 115, 131–3 manufacture, 119 particle size, 116 CI Pigment Black 10 (graphite), 133 CI Pigment Black 11 (black iron oxides), 119, 133 CI Pigment Black 16 (zinc dust), 164 CI Pigment Black 20 (anthraquinone black), 134 CI Pigment Black 31, 114 CI Pigment Black 32, 114 CI Pigment Blue 15 (a-copper phthalocyanine), 156 CI Pigment Blue 15 : (a-copper phthalocyanine, stabilized form), 156 CI Pigment Blue 15 : (a-copper phthalocyanine, stabilized against flocculation), 156 CI Pigment Blue 15 : (b-copper phthalocyanine), 116, 156 CI Pigment Blue 15 : (d-copper phthalocyanine), 156 CI Pigment Blue 16 (metal-free phthalocyanine), 156 CI Pigment Blue 27 (Prussian blue, milori, iron blue), 2, 94, 106, 154–5 CI Pigment Blue 29 (ultramarine), 94, 119, 154, 155 CI Pigment Blue 36 (cobalt blue), 155 CI Pigment Blue 60 (indanthrone), 154, 156–7 CI Pigment Blue 64, 157 CI Pigment Brown 6, (iron oxide brown, burnt sienna, burnt umber), 119, 134 CI Pigment Brown 10 (calcium plumbate), 164, 402, 405–6 CI Pigment Brown 23, 150 CI Pigment Brown 25, 150 CI Pigment Brown 33 (metal complex brown), 135 CI Pigment Green (phthalocyanine green), 158 PAIIndex 7/16/99 6:45 PM Page 771 Index CI Pigment Green 15 (chrome green, Brunswick green), 157 CI Pigment Green 17 (chromium oxide green), 157–8 CI Pigment Green 18 (hydrated chromium oxide), 158 CI Pigment Green 36 (phthalocyanine green), 158 CI Pigment Green 50 (cobalt green), 155 CI Pigment Metal 1, see Aluminium flake pigments CI Pigment Metal (zinc dust), 164, 401, 403, 532 CI Pigment Orange (dinitroaniline orange), 147 CI Pigment Orange 20 (cadmium red), 146 CI Pigment Orange 21 (lead chromate), 135–6 CI Pigment Orange 34, 144–5 CI Pigment Orange 38, 148–9 CI Pigment Orange 43 (perinone orange), 96, 145 CI Pigment Orange 61, 141 CI Pigment Orange 68, 141 CI Pigment Red (para red), 112 CI Pigment Red (toluidine red), 111–12, 147, 287 synthesis, 122 CI Pigment Red 48 : (2B toner), 110, 149, 153 CI Pigment Red 49 : (Lithol® Red), 110 CI Pigment Red 53 : (Lake Red C), 110 CI Pigment Red 57 : (Lithol® Rubine, Rubine toner), 110 CI Pigment Red 60 : (pigment scarlet 3B lake), 111 CI Pigment Red 101, 102 (red iron oxide, red ochre), 119, 146–7, 376 CI Pigment Red 104 (molybdate red, scarlet chrome), 117, 146 CI Pigment Red 105 (red lead), 2, 163, 378, 532 CI Pigment Red 108 (cadmium red), 146 CI Pigment Red 112, 147–8 CI Pigment Red 122 (quinacridone magenta), 113 CI Pigment Red 149, 114 CI Pigment Red 168 (dibromanthrone), 152 CI Pigment Red 170, 148, 153 CI Pigment Red 171, 150 CI Pigment Red 175, 150 CI Pigment Red 177, 152 CI Pigment Red 185, 150 CI Pigment Red 216 (pyranthrone red), 153 CI Pigment Red 224, 114, 151, 152 CI Pigment Red 242, 150 CI Pigment Red 254, 153 CI Pigment Violet (quinizarin lake), 111 CI Pigment Violet 19 (trans-quinacridone), 151 polymorphism, 95, 103 solvent resistance, 98 CI Pigment Violet 23 (carbazole violet), 154, 195 CI Pigment White (white lead), 130, 378, 532, 634 CI Pigment White (zinc oxide), 130, 532, 634 CI Pigment White (lithopone), 131 CI Pigment White 6, see Titanium dioxide pigments CI Pigment White (zinc sulphide), 131 CI Pigment White 11 (antimony oxide), 131 CI Pigment White 18 (calcium carbonate, chalk, 771 whiting, Paris white), 161, 437 CI Pigment White 19 (aluminium silicate, china clay, kaolin, calcined clay), 161, 436–7 CI Pigment White 21 (blanc fixe), 162, 436 CI Pigment White 22 (barytes), 162, 436 CI Pigment White 26 (talc, French chalk, asbestine), 161–2, 437 CI Pigment White 27 (silica), 162 CI Pigment White 32 (zinc phosphate), 164, 403 coatings, 417, 418 primers based on, 406 CI Pigment Yellow (Yellow G), 112, 138, 139 CI Pigment Yellow (Yellow 10G), 139 CI Pigment Yellow 12, 139–40 CI Pigment Yellow 24 (flavanthrone), 144 CI Pigment Yellow 34 (chrome yellow, lead chromate), 119, 135–6 CI Pigment Yellow 35, 37 (cadmium yellow), 136 CI Pigment Yellow 36 (zinc chromates), 163, 532 primers based on, 406 CI Pigment Yellow 42, 43 (raw sienna, yellow iron oxide, yellow ochre), 119, 136–7, 376, 377 heat stability, 105 CI Pigment Yellow 53, 137 CI Pigment Yellow 73 (Yellow 4GX), 139 CI Pigment Yellow 74 (Yellow 5GX), 139 CI Pigment Yellow 83, 113, 140 CI Pigment Yellow 97, 139 CI Pigment Yellow 101 (azomethine), 93 complexes, 141–2 related pigments, 114 CI Pigment Yellow 108 (anthrapyrimidine yellow), 143 CI Pigment Yellow 110, 141 CI Pigment Yellow 128, 141 CI Pigment Yellow 138 (quinophthalone), 143 CI Pigment Yellow 139 (isoindoline), 114, 142–3 CI Pigment Yellow 153, 141 CI Pigment Yellow 173, 141 CI Pigment Yellow 183, 110 CI Pigment Yellow 184 (bismuth vanadate), 138 CI Pigment Yellow 191, 110 CI Pigment Yellow 257, 110 CI Vat Orange 7, 96 CIE system of colour measurement, 629, 638–9 CIMAH Regulations, 757 Cissing, 15, 16 Cladding coatings for, 375 coil-coated steel, 522–3 protection by design, 370–1 Coagulation of dispersions modelling, 712 use of term, 208 Coal tar pitch, epoxy modifier, 70, 540–1 Coalescing aids, 341, 357, 718 Cobalt blue, see CI Pigment Blue 36 Cobalt driers, 29, 190 Cobalt green, see CI Pigment Green 50 Coconut oil, 25, 26 Coil-coaters, 512, 522–3 Colloidal shock, see Flocculation Colour automotive refinishes, 497–9 PAIIndex 7/16/99 6:45 PM 772 Page 772 Index pigmented films, 631–3 assessment of changes on weathering, 684 changes on drying, 635–6 specification and control, 652–7 pigments, 92–5, 126–7 Colour drift, 233 Colour Index International, 108–9 Colour matching, 12, 126–7, 638–9 automotive refinishing, 493, 499 instrumental, 654–7 standards for, 652, 653, 654 visual, 652–4 Colour perception, 629–31, 640 effects of illumination, 639, 640, 652–3 Colour prediction programs, 633 Colour vision, 639 anomalies, 637 changes with age, 652 fatigue and contrast, 637–8 COMAH Regulations, 757–9 Combustible materials, 727 ‘Compliant’ coatings, 21 Components of paint, 5–16 contributions to properties, 20 see also headings such as Additives; Film formers; Pigments; Solvents Computer modelling, 696–700 experimental analysis/design/quality control, 719 paint formulation/manufacture/use, 718 polymer properties, 712–16 resin formulation and processes, 701–11 resin scale-up/manufacture, 711–12 solvents and solubility, 716–18 Computer software coating formulation and performance, 37, 291–2, 718 colour prediction, 633 experimental design and analysis, 719 laboratory applications, 695 mathematical modelling, 696–700 molecular modelling, 700, 717 resin formulation/processing, 86, 701–12 solvent system formulation, 176, 178 Computers use in colour measurements, 655 use in paint and resin formulation, 694– 719 Concentric cylinder viscometer, 562–3 Concrete, 386–8 coatings for, 390 lightweight blocks, 389 Condensation polymerization, see Step growth polymerization Conditioning (pigments), 123–4 Cone and plate viscometer, 560–2, 582–3 Coning and quartering, 254, 255 Conjugated molecules, 93, 94, 95 Contact angles, measurement, 202–3 Contrast ratio, see under Opacity (hiding power), paints Control of Industrial Major Accident Hazards (CIMAH) Regulations, 757 Control of Major Accident Hazards (COMAH) Regulations, 757–9 Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations, 750–2 Copolymerization processes, modelling, 702, 706–9, 710 Copper phthalocyanine pigments, 155–6 manufacture, 122–3, 124 polymorphism, 95, 155–6 Core/shell structures alkyd emulsions, 38 emulsion polymer dispersions, 58, 59, 358 Corrosion aluminium, 406 assessment, 685 scab, 424–5 test, 481–2 see also under Ferrous metals Corrosion resistance testing, 665 Corrosion-resistant paints, 2, 102, 394, 532 pigments for, 162–5, 401–3, 532 enhancers, 186 Corrosive substances, 729, 734, 739 symbol, 736 COSHH Regulations, 750–2 Couette flow viscometer, see Concentric cylinder viscometer Coulter principle, particle sizing using, 271–2 Coupling solvents, 352 Covering power, see Hiding power CPVC, see Critical pigment volume concentration Cracking, see Brittle failure Crawling, 16 Creep studies, 565–6, 600, 605 Creosote, 372 Critical pigment volume concentration (CPVC), 337 for dispersion binders, 340–1, 342 and oil absorption, 339–40 and pigment packing geometry, 339 and porosity, 341–3 as reference point, 338–9 Crosslinking, see under Polymers Crystal morphology, and rheology of millbases, 594 Crystal structure, and colour, 94–5 Curing, 22 acrylic resins, 52, 53 amino resins, 65 epoxy resins, 84 modelling, 702 industrial finishes, 505, 513–17, 519 polyester resins, 43, 44, 84 polyurethanes, 78, 84 powder coatings, 67, 78, 85–6 printing inks, 516 ultrasonic impedance studies, 609–11 see also Automotive finishes, stoving Curtain-coating, 512–13 Cyanoacrylate adhesives, labelling requirements, 743 Dacrymyces stillatus, see ‘Orange jelly’ fungus Danger signs, 746, 747 Data formats, 696 Debye forces, 169, 205 PAIIndex 7/16/99 6:45 PM Page 773 Index Decorative paints, see Architectural paints Defects of paints, 15–16 Deformation, modes of, 552 Degreasing treatment, 417 Dehydrators, 189 Depletion flocculation/stabilization, 224–7 Detergent resistance testing, 666, 667 Detergents, see Surfactants Deuteranomaly, 637 Diarylide pigments, 113 yellow, 139–40 Dibenzoyl peroxide, 729 polymerization initiator, 45–6, 47 Dibromanthrone, see CI Pigment Red 168 Dichroism, 631 Dielectric heating, 515 Diesel fuel resistance testing, 667 Diketopyrrolo-pyrrole (DPP) pigments, 114, 153 Dilatant materials, 556–7, 558 power law materials, 557–8 Diluents, 14, 21, 166 reactive, 82, 84, 354 see also Solvents Dinitroaniline orange, see CI Pigment Orange Dioxazine violet pigments, 113, 116, 154 Dip priming, 413–14, 419, 420–1 Disazo pigments, 106, 113, 139–40 condensation pigments, 106, 113 red, 150–1 yellow, 141 Disperse dyes, 96 Dispersion forces, see Surface forces Dispersion of pigments, 16–17, 117–18, 286 aids, 189–90 equipment for, 118–19, 309–24 attritors, 313, 315–16 high-energy dispersers, 319–22 pugs (heavy duty), 322–4 see also Mills and milling millbase optimization for, 288–90 instrumental method, 290–309 physical chemistry, 198–240 quality control colour strength, 327–8 fineness, 327 strength and hue determination, 328–9 rheological considerations, 593–4 Dispersion polymers, 54–60 Dispersions measurement of viscosity, 561–2 of pigments, colloid stabilization in, 205–19, 357 of polymers, 21–2 sampling, 255–6 see also Flocculation DLVO theory, 209, 211, 213–18 Doors, finishes for flush, 525 Dough moulded compound (DMC) plastics, 459 DPP pigments, see Diketopyrrolo-pyrrole pigments Driers, see Metal driers Dry hiding paints, 347, 635 Dry rot (Serpula lacrymans), 370 Drying (paints), 513–15 changes in characteristics during, 634–6 Drying oils, 773 early usage, metal primers based on, 405 modified, 27–8 polymerization, 28–9 Ductile failure (yielding), 601, 603–4, 605 Durability of automotive finishes, 477 testing, 482–3 of paints testing, 658–93 accelerated weathering, 482–3, 675–86, 691–2, 692 British Standard specifications, 659–61 chemical resistance testing, 661–8 mechanical properties, 668–74 natural weathering, 683–6, 686–92 test sample preparation, 661 of pigments, 102–4 Dyes, 96–7 adsorption, surface area measurement by, 279–80 in Colour Index, 108 Dynamic mechanical analysis (coatings films), 601–3, 606–11 Eco-labelling, 21 Efflorescence, 383, 389, 392, 686 Egyptian Blue pigment, Elasticity modulus, 601 shear, 553–4, 606 Electrical properties of paint, modification, 192 Electro powder coating, 439–40 Electrodeposited films, 76 curing, 22 resins for, 80–2 Electrodeposition, 17 future developments, 489, 490 resins for use in, 80–2 see also Autophoretic deposition; Electropriming Electroendosmosis, in electrodeposition, 423 Electron beam curing, 84, 516–17, 525 Electron microscopy, particle sizing by, 259, 260, 282 Electrophoretic mobility of particles, 210–11, 212 Electropriming, 414–15, 422–31 Electrostatic spraying, 192, 465–70 Elutriation, particle sizing by, 265–6 Emulsion paints, 14, 128, 356–8 for masonry, 394–5 textured, 391, 395–6 stabilization, 218, 357 viscosity, 577, 578–9 wetting agents in, 288 Emulsion polymerization, 54–8 modelling, 709–10, 711, 712 redox initiation, 46, 57 Emulsion polymers, 10, 11, 54–60 Emulsions particle sizing by electron microscopy, 259 rheology of, 571 Enamel paints, 495, 496, 621 Entropic stabilization, see Steric stabilization Environmental considerations, see Safety, health and environment issues PAIIndex 7/16/99 6:45 PM 774 Page 774 Index Environmentally dangerous substances, 735, 758–9 symbol, 736 Epichlorhydrin, 68 Epoxy compounds, labelling requirements, 743 Epoxy paints for electrodeposition, 81, 425 high solids formulations, 82 marine paints, 537–8 masonry coatings, 398 Epoxy resins, 9–10, 67–70, 81 in alkyds, 34 epoxy esters, 69 in automotive surfacers, 433, 434 modelling of curing reactions, 702 polyester modifiers, 434–5 radiation curing, 84 Erichsen indentation test, 480, 614, 670, 671 Etch primers, 404–5 Ethylene glycol tinters, 363 European Directives, 761 Biocidal Products Directive, 753 Dangerous Preparations Directive, 732 Dangerous Substances Directive, 732, 752 on food contact coatings, 753–6 Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Directive, 760 on major accident hazards, 756–7 Plastics Food Contact Directive, 754–5, 756 Safety Data Sheets Directive, 732 ’Seveso’ Directives, 757–9 Solvents Directive, 760 European Standards masonry coatings, 391 wood coatings, 374, 376 wood preservatives, 373 Evaporation (solvents from coatings), 179–80, 579–80, 581 modelling, 716–17 Expert systems, 696 Explosive substances, 728–9, 734, 758 symbol, 748 Extenders, 11, 13–14, 92, 160–2, 346–7 in automotive surfacers, 436 and paint properties, 345 transparency, 99 Extensional deformation, 552 Extrusion (paint application), 510 Falling weight impact resistance test, 669–70 Fanal pigments®, 111 Farm implements, finishes for, 517, 520 Fatty acid process (alkyd manufacture), 32 Fatty acids, 24–6 maleinized, 27–8, 78, 81 Feret’s particle diameter, 244 Ferrous metals characteristics, 398–9 coatings for, 400–5, 510–11, 523 corrosion, 399–400, 418, 530–3 Field flow fractionation, particle sizing by, 269 Filiform corrosion, 400, 406 test for, 665 Fillers, and paint properties, 345 Film formers (binders), 6–11, 19–87, 340–1, 342, 350 for architectural paints, 334, 350–9 possible combinations, 351–4 properties related to PVC, 344–7 Fire-retardant paints, see Intumescent paints Fischer sub-sieve particle sizer, 266 Flaking, assessment, 685 Flame drying, 514 Flammable substances, 726–7, 728, 732, 749, 758 symbols, 737, 748 see also Solvents Flash corrosion inhibitors, 192, 404 Flashpoints (solvents), 180–1, 726, 727, 749 Flavanthrone, see CI Pigment Yellow 24 Flexibility testing, 614 automotive finishes, 480 Flip tone, 126, 159, 444–5, 449 Floating, 15, 16, 127 additives to control, 192–3 Flocculation (dispersions), 115–16, 208, 297, 299–300 assessment, 235–40 by electrolyte, 215, 217–18 by temperature change, 222 depletion, 224–7 rate of, 234–40 Flooding, 15, 16, 127 additives to control, 192–3 Florida exposure test (automotive finishes), 482, 686 Flow-coating, 509 Flow point technique (millbase formulations), 289 Fluorescence, 636 Fluorescent pigments, 92, 93 Flush pastes (pigments), 128 Foaming control, 186–7 Food contact coatings, 753–6 Fractal analysis, 699 Fraunhofer diffraction principle, use in particle sizing, 273–4 Free energy of adsorption, 229–32 French chalk, see CI Pigment White 26 Fungi, attack on wood, 369–70 Fungicides in gloss paints, 381, 382 in in-film preservatives, 194 in masonry coatings, 397 in preservative primers, 380 in varnishes, 377 in woodstains, 376 Fuzzy logic, 700 Gas adsorption, surface area measurement by, 278–9 Gassing (aluminium primers), 380 Gel permeation chromatography, 266–7 Geometric medians, conversion, see Hatch–Choate transformation equations Glass flake (barrier pigment), 402 Glass transition temperature, 600–1 modelling, 697, 702 Glazing, protection by design, 370–1 Gloss assessment of changes on weathering, 684 assessment of sheen, 646–7 classification, 642–3 PAIIndex 7/16/99 6:45 PM Page 775 Index measurement by image distinctness, 645–6 by specular reflection, 643–5 Gloss paints, 377–8, 381–2 effects of erosion, 624 Glycidyl methacrylate, 67–8 Glycol pastes, 363 Glycoluril formaldehyde resins, 62–3 Grafting, 46 Graphite, see CI Pigment Black 10 Gravel resistance, see Stone chip resistance Green pigments, 157–8 Grinding (pigments), 286 effect on colour strength, 296, 299, 300, 301 Grit blasting, 533 Group transfer polymerization, 23 Growth rings (wood), 367 Gypsum cement retarder, 386 plasters based on, 389 Hamaker constants, 206, 207 Hansa® yellows, 138–9 Hansen solubility parameter system, 172–6, 700, 717 Hardness testing, 612–14, 617–18, 670–2 automotive finishes, 480 Hardwood, 366, 367 Harmful substances, 729, 734, 738 symbol, 736 Hatch–Coate transformation equations, 251–2 Hazard symbols, 736, 737, 746, 747, 749 subsidiary, 748 Hazards, 725–6, 751 from raw materials and intermediates, 726–9 of major accidents, 756–9 occupational exposure in paint industry, 729–32 in pigment handling, 124–5 solvent exposure, 182 see also under Safety, health and environment issues Hazchem scheme, 749, 750 Health considerations, see Safety, health and environmental issues Heartwood, 367, 372 Heat balance (resin production), estimation, 705–6, 711 Heats of immersion, determination, 280 Heavy duty coatings, 547–9 Hemi-solvents, 179, 228 Heraeus Xenotest® accelerated weathering machines, 681–2 Hexamethoxymethyl melamine (HMMM) resins, 66, 83 Hexamethylene diisocyanate (HMDI), 71, 72 adducts, 72, 73, 74 Hiding power, see Opacity High alumina cement, 388 High polymer process (alkyd manufacture), 32 High solids coatings, 41, 82–4, 483–5, 490 High-speed dispersion, 319–24 millbase optimization for, 289–90 Historical background paints, 1–3 viscosity measurements, 551 775 HMDI, see Hexamethylene diisocyanate HMMM resins, see Hexamethoxymethyl melamine resins Homogeneous deformation, 552 Hookean elastic bodies, 554 House (household) paints, see Architectural paints Humidity resistance test (automotive finishes), 481 Hydrodynamic chromatography, 255 particle sizing by, 267–9, 282 Hydrogen bonding, 169, 172, 202 Hydrometer, particle sizing using, 262–3 Hydroperoxide theory (polymer oxidation), 353 Hydrosols, 358 Hyperdispersants, 189–90 Image analysers, 259 Impact resistance testing, 584–5, 614–15, 669–70 automotive finishes, 480, 614–15 Impedance tests coatings mechanical properties, 609–10 paint rheology, 585–6 Impressed current method (corrosion protection), 532 In-can preservatives, 193–4 In-film preservatives, 194 In-store tinting systems, 359, 360–5 dispensing technology, 361–3 tinters and bases, 363–5 Indanthrone, see CI Pigment Blue 60 Indentation hardness testing, 480, 605–6, 612–13, 614, 617–18, 670, 671–2 Indicative limit values, 731–2 Induction heating, paint drying by, 514 Industrial finishes, 6, 18, 502–27 aircraft, 524–5 anti-pollution and safety measures, 526–7 application methods, 505, 509–13, 518 beer and beverage can interiors, 523–4 curing methods, 505, 513–17, 519 economic pressures, 506, 527 factors governing selection, 503–8 finished result, 505–6, 508 required output rate, 506–7, 508 substrate, 503–5, 508 failure, 659 farm implements, 517, 520 flush doors, 525 markets, 503, 504 panel radiators, 520–1 paperback book covers, 526 refrigerators, 521–2 steel cladding, 522–3 Infectious substances, symbol, 747 Information management systems, 696 Information sources, 695–6 Infrared radiation curing, 84, 515 Injection moulded plastics, 459–60 Insecticides, additives, 194–5 Integrated Pollution Control Regulations, 759 International Standards Organization, see ISO Internet, information source, 695, 696 Interparticle forces, 168–9, 172, 205, 286 see also Surface forces PAIIndex 7/16/99 6:45 PM 776 Page 776 Index Intersleek anti-fouling system, 547 Intrinsic viscosity, 179 Intumescent paints, 530 Iodine value (oils), 29 IPDI, see Isophorone diisocyanate Iron, see under Ferrous metals Iron blue, see CI Pigment Blue 27 Iron driers, 191 Iron oxide pigments, 101, 106, 436 black, see CI Pigment Black 11 black micaceous, 133, 402 brown, see CI Pigment Brown 6, dispersion of bluish red, 117 and light fastness, 102 manufacture, 119 red, see CI Pigment Red 101, 102 transparent, 126, 456 yellow, see CI Pigment Yellow 42, 43 Iron phosphate coatings, 417 Irritant substances, 729, 734, 739 symbol, 736 ISO standards child-resistant packaging, 744 colorimetry of paints and varnishes, 655–6 contrast ratio determination, 649, 650 gloss measurement, 644 paint film opacity, 650 Isocyanates, 38–9, 70–4, 500 adducts, 71–2 blocked, 72, 435, 438 labelling requirements, 743 Isoindoline, see CI Pigment Yellow 139 Isoindolinone pigments, 114 yellow, 142 Isophorone diisocyanate (IPDI), 71, 72 Isophthalic acid, 33, 41, 42, 83 Joinery coatings for, 375, 380 protection by design, 370–1 weathering tests, 688–90 Joyce–Loebl disc centrifuge, 264–5, 282 2K formulations, see under Two-pack products Kaolin, see CI Pigment White 19 Keene’s cement, 389 Keesom forces, 169, 205 Keim binders, 394 Knife-coating, 510 Knowledge based systems, 696 Kubelka–Munk theory, 625, 632, 633, 650–1 Labelling, 740–5 for conveyance, 741, 745–9 derogations from regulations, 742 eco-, 21 special phrases, 742–3, 744 tactile warning, 744 Laboratory information management systems (LIMS), 696 Lacquers, 21, 50, 51 choice of pigments for, 126 drying, 513 see also under Automotive finishes, topcoats Lake pigments, 105, 110, 111 early, 2, 111 Lake Red C, see CI Pigment Red 53 : Laser light scattering, see Photon correlation spectroscopy Lasurs, see Woodstains Lead-based paints, 2, 12, 29 automotive topcoats, 455 labelling requirements, 742–3 pigments, 130, 135–6, 163, 164 primers, 378, 405–6 Lead chromate pigments, 106, 402, 455, 532 see also CI Pigment Orange 21; CI Pigment Yellow 34 Lead driers, 190 Lead silicochromate, 163, 422 Legislation on corrosion standards, 425 COSHH regulations, 750–2 environmental, 15, 21, 182–3, 333–4 environmental protection, 759–60 on flammable liquids, 180 on hazardous substances, 732 on labelling of substances and preparations, 740–5 on major accident hazards, 756–9 new substances regulations, 752–3 on solvent vapour emissions, 167, 183, 333, 475–6, 483, 486 transport of hazardous substances, 745 on wood preservatives, 372 Levelling (paints), 580 rheological measurements during, 583–92 Life-cycle assessments of paints, 21 Light, effect on wood and wood coatings, 369 Light absorption by paint films, 632–3 by pigments, 628–9 Light fastness, pigment systems, 102–4 Light reflection, paint interfaces, 621–4, 624–7 Light scattering by paint films, 624, 625, 632–3 by paints, 346–7 by white pigments, 627–8 particle sizing using, 263, 272–8 Lignin (in wood), 368 Lime bloom, 383 Linseed oil, 25, 26 in oleoresinous vehicles, 30 Lithol® Red, see CI Pigment Red 49 : Lithol® Rubine, see CI Pigment Red 57 : Lithopone, see CI Pigment White London forces, see Surface forces Loop reactor, 59 Loss modulus, 601, 607 Loss tangent, 601 Low shear viscometers, 583, 587–91 Lycopene, 94 Magnesium silicate, see CI Pigment White 26 MAK values, 730 Maleinized fatty acids, 27–8, 78, 81 Maleinized oils, 78, 81 Manganese driers, 191 Manufacture of paint, 16–17, 286–329 control techniques, 327–9 PAIIndex 7/16/99 6:45 PM Page 777 Index Manufacture of pigments, 119–24 Marine paints, see under Off-shore structures and Ships Marine pollutants, 746, 749 Markets industrial finishes, 503, 504 paints, 18 solvents (in paint industry), 167–8 Marr accelerated weathering machine, 676, 677, 678 Martin’s particle diameter, 244 Masonry, coatings for, 390–8 Masterbatch (pigments), 129 Material safety data sheets (US), 740 Matt paints, 354, 624 Mechanical properties of paints and coatings, 598–618 experimental determination, 605–11, 668–74 standard test methods, 660 technological tests, 612–17 of polymers, 344–5 Melamine formaldehyde resins, 8, 62–3, 64–5 acrylic modifiers, 51–2 alkyd modifiers, 40 crosslinking agents in automotive finishes, 435, 442, 443 Metal complex brown, see CI Pigment Brown 33 Metal driers, 2, 29, 190–2, 353 Metallic catalysts (accelerators), 29 Metallic finishes, 13, 50, 58, 443, 444–5 alkyd, 496 basecoat/clear, 441 refinishes, 496–7 solvent-borne, 447–51 water-borne, 451–4, 486–7 electrostatic spraying, 467–8 light fastness, 102 particle orientation in, 580 pigment choice for, 101, 126 ‘single coat’, 447, 449, 455–6 Metals, coatings for, 5, 400–6 Metamerism, 455, 498, 631, 637, 654 MFFT, see Minimum film-forming temperature MGPET-200 coatings, 547 Michael reaction, 53, 54 ‘Microbloc’ beads, 349 Microelectrophoresis, 210–11, 212 Microemulsions, 80 Microgels, 35, 58, 59, 62 modelling, 710 Microporosity, 346, 370, 375 Microscopy assessment of flocculation by, 237, 239 particle sizing by, 259 see also Ultramicroscopy Miller–Macosko network analysis, 713–14, 716 Mills and milling, 118–19 rheological considerations, 593–4 see also Ballmills; Beadmills; Centrimill; Rollmills; Sandmills Millscale (ferrous metals), 531, 533 Milori, see CI Pigment Blue 27 Minimum film-forming temperature (MFFT), 55–6 Mixed phase metal oxides, 110, 137–8 777 Mixing, 325–7 modelling, 712 paste mixers, 324 rheological considerations, 594–5 Mixture theory, 332, 335–6 Modelling, see Computer modelling; Molecular modelling Modulus of elasticity, see Elasticity modulus Moisture resistance testing (coatings), 662–3 Molar attraction constants, 170, 171 Molecular modelling, 700, 717 Molybdate red, see CI Pigment Red 104 Monoazo pigments, 106, 112–13 Monoglyceride prepration, 31 Monte Carlo modelling, 698 chain growth polymerization, 707 emulsion polymerization, 710 network formation, 716 step growth polymerization, 701–2 Montreal Protocol, 183 Mould growth assessment, 685–6 Mudcracking, 347, 395 Munsell Book of Color, 652, 653 Mutagenic substances, 735–6 Naphthol AS® pigments, see Arylamide red pigments b-Naphthol pigments, 112, 147 Natural polymers, 23–4 Natural weathering tests, 675, 686–92 assessment of results, 683–6 Nelson–Hemwall–Edwards solubility parameter system, 176–8 Network analysis, 713–16 Neural networks, 699–700, 711, 718 New substances regulations, 752–3 Newtonian viscous liquids, 554 power law materials, 557–8 Nitrocellulose-based systems, 2–3, 10, 24, 494–5 Nitrogen resins, see Amino resins Non-aqueous dispersion (NAD) polymerization, 55, 60–2 Non-aqueous dispersions, 10, 55, 60 automotive finishes, 440, 443–4 masonry paints, 397 Normal force, 554, 555 Novolac resins, 9, 66, 67 Occupational exposure (hazardous substances), 729–32 European Community exposure limits, 731–2 UK limits, 731 units of measurement, 731 Off-gloss paints, 381–2 Off-shore structures, painting of, 547–9 Oil absorption (pigments), 116–17, 339–40 Oil length (resins), 7, 30, 32–3, 35 Oils, 24–30 characterization, 29–30 classification, 24 composition, 25 maleinized, 78, 81 modified, 27–8 Oleoresinous media, 7, 30 Oligomeric polymers, 82 PAIIndex 7/16/99 6:45 PM 778 Page 778 Index Oncur (basic lead silicochromate), 163, 422 Opacifying aids, 348–50, 718 Opacity (hiding power) paints, 99, 647–52 and air voids/cavities, 347, 628 changes during drying, 634–5 changes during film formation, 343 contrast ratio determination, 648–50 measurement, 101 and porosity, 341, 347 pigments, 99–101, 126 measurement, 101 Opaque stains, 381 Optical properties (paints), 346–7 see also Light absorption; Light scattering Optical whiteners, 195 ‘Orange jelly’ fungus (Dacrymyces stillatus), 370, 375 Orange pigments, 144–5 Oscillating can viscometer, 595 Oscillating torsion pendulum test method (coating properties), 592, 606–7 Oxidizing substances, 728–9, 732, 758 symbols, 737, 747 Ozone, 182–3 Packaging, child-resistant, 744 Paint classification of types, 125 nature and requirements, 3–5 use of term, see also specific types and properties of paints, and under substrates Panel radiators, finishes for, 521 Paperback books, finishes for covers, 526 Para red, see CI Pigment Red Parallel plate viscometer, 560, 563, 566–7 Paris white, see CI Pigment White 18 Particle segregation, 252–3, 255, 257 Particle shape (pigments), 114–16 Particle size ‘averages’, 245, 246–7, 248 definitions, 243–5 non-aqueous polymer dispersions, 61 pigments, 116 and colour, 95 effect on light absorption, 628–9 Particle size analysis counting requirements, 245–6 methods, 257–82 based on Coulter principle, 271–2 based on surface area measurement, 278–80 chromatographic, 266–9 comparison, 280–1, 282 direct measurement, 259 optical, 272–8 overview, 258 sedimentation, 259, 261–6 sieving, 269–70 sampling for, 246, 252–7 size–frequency curves, 247–52 see also Particle size distribution Particle size distribution (pigments), 116 before and after milling, 105, 204 and opacity, 100, 101 Passivators (pigments), 401–2 Paste mixers, 324 Patent information, 695 Pearlescent pigments, 126, 160 Pencil scratch testing, 613, 672 Pendulum hardness testing, 613–14, 617 Pendulum impact resistance testing, 669 Pentaerythritol, 31 etherification, 34 Perinone orange, see CI Pigment Orange 43 Perinone red, 145 Permeability coatings, 344–5, 375–6 concrete and cement, 387 Permeametry, particle sizing by, 266 Peroxides symbol, 747 see also Dibenzoyl peroxide Perylene pigments, 114, 151–2 Petrol resistance testing, 667 Phenol formaldehyde resins, 66–7 alkyd modifiers, 39 Phenolic resins, Phosphating (automotive finishes), 417–18, 425, 429 Phosphorescence, 636 Phosphoric acid treatment, 405, 417 Photon correlation spectroscopy, use in particle sizing, 274–8, 282 Phthalic anhydride, 33, 34, 35 Phthalocyanine green, see CI Pigment Green and 36 Phthalocyanine pigments, 106, 113, 115–16, 154, 456 see also CI Pigment Blue 16; Copper phthalocyanine pigments Pigment–binder–solvent relationships, 335–50 pigment to binder (P : B) ratio, 127, 335 Pigment preparations, 128 Pigment scarlet 3B lake, see CI Pigment Red 60 : Pigment volume concentration (PVC), 127, 207, 335–7, 338 PVC–property relationships, 344–7 as reference point, 338 see also Critical pigment volume concentration (CPVC) Pigments, 11–14, 91–165 automotive finishes anti-chip coatings, 438 future developments, 489 metallic finishes, 449–51 primers, 421, 422, 425 refinishes, 498–9, 500 surfacers, 435–7 topcoats, 454–7 blending, 127 choosing, 125–7 classification, 105–7 crystal structure, 114 definition, 91–2 dispersion, see Dispersion of pigments early, 1–2, 111, 131, 136 encapsulation, 347 families, 129–65 PAIIndex 7/16/99 6:45 PM Page 779 Index aluminium flake, see Aluminium flake pigments black, 131–4 blue, 154–7 brown, 134–5 corrosion-inhibiting, 162–5, 422, 532 green, 157–8 orange, 144–5 pearlescent, 160 red, 145–53 violet, 153–4 white, 129–31 yellow, 135–44 Hansen solubility parameters, 176 hazards assessment and minimization, 124–5 immersion and wetting, 199–203, 286–8, 346 light absorption by, 628–9 manufacture, 119–24 morphology, and paint properties, 345 nomenclature, 108–9 organic and inorganic compared, 105–7 pastes, 128, 358, 363 physical forms of, 127–9 prediction of colours of mixtures, 633 preparation of millbase, 593–4 prevention of settling, 187–8 quantity in paints, 127 required qualities, 92–105 appearance, 92 colour, 92–5, 126–7 durability, 102–4 insolubility, 97–9 opacity, 99–101, 126 particulate nature, 96–7 stability to chemicals, 104 stability to heat, 104–5 tinctorial strength, 95 transparency, 101, 126 solid surface characterization, 202–3 in tinters, 363–4 see also Extenders Pipes, paste/paint flow in, 594 ‘Pittment’ (extender), 14 Plaster, 383, 389 Plastic pigments, 337, 348, 349 Plasticizers, 50–1, 58–9, 76, 341 Plastics coatings for, 365, 406 automotive plastics, 459–61, 489 pigments for, 110 Plate out (pigments), 97 Pneumatic microindentation apparatus, 605–6, 612 Poiseuille flow viscometer, see Capillary flow viscometer Polar forces, 169, 172, 205 Pollution, 15, 181–3 in use of industrial finishes, 507, 526–7 Pollution control legislation, 167, 183, 333, 475–6, 483, 486, 759–60 Polyamide resins, alkyd modifiers, 39, 352 Polycyclic pigments, 113–14 Polyester resins, 40–4 in automotive surfacers, 433, 434, 437–8 in automotive topcoats, 440, 441–3 779 formulation, 41–2, 701 high solids formulations, 83 modification, 42 in powder coatings, 85 preparation, 42 unsaturated, 10, 40, 42–4 Polyethylene glycol, 77 Poly-12-hydroxystearic acid stabilizers, 60–1, 220, 222, 227, 228, 229 Polymer-extended paints, 14, 348–50 Polymerization control, 710–11 drying oils, 28–9 types, 22–3 see also Chain growth polymerization; Emulsion polymerization; Step growth polymerization Polymers classification, 23 crosslinking, 22, 352–4 in automotive finishes, 435, 442, 443 autoxidative, 28–9, 45, 352–3 test for products, 478 glass transition temperature, 600–1 modelling, 697, 702 Hansen solubility parameters, 175 modelling of properties, 697, 698, 712–16 molecular modelling, 700 natural, 23–4 stereoregularity, and adsorption properties, 233 tin-containing, 544–5 ultimate mechanical properties, 603–5 viscoelasticity, 599–603 viscosity of solutions, 572–3 see also Film formers Polymorphism (pigments), 94–5, 103, 109–10, 114, 129, 155–6 Polyols for alkyd resins, 31, 33 etherification, 34 for polyester resins, 40–1 Polyurethanes, automotive body components, 459, 461 coatings, 72–3 dispersions, 74, 358–9 curing, 78 high solids formulations, 82 in marine paints, 538 masonry paints, 398 polyester modifiers, 437–8 radiation curing, 84 varnishes, 377 Poly(vinyl chloride), coatings for unplasticized, 406 Porosimetry, 279 Porosity concrete and cement, 387 paints and critical PVC, 341–3 see also Microporosity Porosity index, 343, 347 Portland cement, 383, 384–5 in cement paints, 393 in cement renderings, 388 hydration, 385–6 PAIIndex 7/16/99 6:45 PM 780 Page 780 Index Powder coatings, 15, 17, 20 aqueous slurries, 487 choice of pigment for, 125 for coil coating, 523 composition, 85–6 curing, 67, 78, 85–6 future developments, 487 heat treatment, 22 masterbatch tinting for, 129 for panel radiators, 521 polyester resins for, 42 for refrigerators, 521–2 stability of pigments for, 104 stone chip primers, 438 UV curing, 85 see also Electro powder coating Powders classification, 253 flammability, 728 sampling, 252–7 Power law materials, 557–8 Precision coaters, 512 Preservative primers, 380 Preservatives in-can, 193–4 in-film, 194 see also Wood preservatives Presscakes (pigments), 123, 124, 128 Primers, 4, 5, 370, 378–80 alkali-resisting, 393 blast, 534, 535 corrosion-inhibiting, 403, 404 for ferrous metals, 404–6 see also under Automotive finishes Printing inks curing, 516 light fastness, 102 pigments, 101 Prohesion test, 665 Protanomaly, 637 Protective colloids, 24, 57, 220, 357 Prussian blue, see CI Pigment Blue 27 Pseudoplastic materials, 555–6, 557, 573 power law materials, 557–8 Pugs (heavy duty), 322–4 PVC, see Pigment volume concentration Pyranthrone red, 153 Pyrazolone orange pigments, 144–5 Q-U-V accelerated weathering macine, 683, 691 Quality control dispersions, 327–9 paint colour, 657 Quinacridone pigments, 113, 151 trans-quinacridone, see CI Pigment Violet 19 quinacridone magenta, see CI Pigment Red 122 Quinizarin lake, see CI Pigment Violet Quinophthalone, see CI Pigment Yellow 138 Radiation-curing polymers, 84–5 polyester resins, 43, 44, 84 Radiofrequency drying, 515 Raw sienna, see CI Pigment Yellow 42, 43 Reaction injection moulded (RIM) plastics, 459, 461 Recrystallization (pigments), 98 Red lead, see CI Pigment Red 105 Red ochre, see CI Pigment Red 101, 102 Red pigments, 145–53 Redox polymerization initiation, 46, 57 Reduced pigment volume concentration, 338 Reduced viscosity, 178–9 Reflectance spectrophotometry, 654, 655 Reflection, see Light reflection Refractive index determination (Brewster angle method), 622 and light reflection, 621, 623, 644–5 and opacity, 99–100, 634–5 paint media and comparative materials, 645 Refrigerators, finishes for, 521–2 Relative viscosity, 178–9, 568 Reodorants, 195 Resins, 19 computers in formulation and processing, 694, 701–11 computers in scale-up and manufacture, 711–12 for electrodeposition, 80–2 manufacture, 86–7 in oleoresinous vehicles, 30 see also specific resins Resole resins, 9, 67 Resonance methods (coating properties), 608 Rheology, 550–74 definitions, 552–60 measurements, 555 instrumentation, 581–3 interpretation of results, 567–74 rheological structure, 573–4 for simple liquids, 567–8 for solutions and dispersions, 568–73 techniques dynamic (oscillatory), 566–7 steady state, 564–5 transient, 565–6 see also Viscometers modifiers, see Thickeners of paints, 575–95 of polymers, 599–603 see also Brabender Plastograph; Viscosity Rheometers, see Viscometers Rheotropic materials, 558–9 Risk phrases, 738–9, 741, 761–4 Risks, 725–6, 751 Rod climbing effect, 554, 556 Roller-coating forward, 511–12 reverse, 512 rheological considerations, 577 Rolling ball test (paint rheology), 586–7 Rollmills, 322, 323 ‘Ropaque’ extender, 350 Rosin, 30, 33 crystal growth control, 95, 101, 124 phenolic resin modifier, 67 Roto dipping, 421 Rubine toner, see CI Pigment Red 57 : PAIIndex 7/16/99 6:45 PM Page 781 Index Rust removal, 417 see also Ferrous metals, corrosion Sacrificial anodes (corrosion protection), 532 Safety data sheets, 726, 739–40 Safety, health and environment issues, 15, 333–4 Approved Supply List, 732–8 control of hazardous substances, 750–2 database software, 695 in electrocoating, 430 in industrial finishing, 507, 526–7 information provision, 732 labelling of substances and preparation, see Labelling major accident hazards, 756–9 new substances regulations, 752–3 occupational exposure to hazardous substances, 729–32 in pigment handling, 124–5 raw materials and intermediates, 726–9 risk phrases, 738–9, 741, 761–4 safety phrases, 738–9, 741, 764–6 see also Safety data sheets Safety phrases, 738, 741, 764–6 Sagging, 15, 16, 445, 592 Salt spray tests, 477, 481, 663–5, 666 Sampling dispersions, 255–6 powders, 252–7 Sampling thief, 254 Sandmills, 316–19 Saponification value (oils), 30 Sapwood, 367, 372 Scab corrosion, 424–5 test, 481–2 Scarlet chrome, see CI Pigment Red 104 Schulze–Hardy rule, 217 Scratch resistance testing, 613, 672–3 Sealers (masonry), 392–3 Sedimentation of dispersions, 235–40 methods of particle sizing, 259, 261–6 Self-cleaning coatings, Self-stratifying coatings, 718 Sensitizing substances, 729, 734–5, 739 ‘Seveso’ Directives, 757–9 Shear deformation, 552 Shear elasticity modulus, 553–4, 606 Shear rate cycle experiment, 556, 557, 559 Shear strain, 552–3 Shear strain rate (shear rate), 553 Shear stress, 552, 553 Shear viscosity, 553 Sheen, assessment, 646–7 Sheet moulded compound (SMC) plastics, 459, 460–1 Shell Solvent Computer Programs, 176 Ships fouling, 529–30, 541–2 painting of, 529–47 corrosion and corrosion protection, 530–3 paint systems, 534, 536–47 surface preparation, 533 see also Anti-fouling paints 781 Shrivelling, 15–16 Sieving, particle sizing by, 269–70 Silica, see CI Pigment White 27 Silicate-based paints, 393–4 Silicone resins, 74–5, 79 alkyd modifiers, 39, 381 epoxy modifiers, 70 polyester modifiers, 42 water repellents, 392 Silver paints, 449, 450 Size-exclusion chromatography, 267, 268 Sled viscometers, 591–2 Software, see Computer software Softwood, 366, 367 Solubility maps, 176–8 Solubility parameters, 169–72, 717–18 three-dimensional, 172–8 Hansen system, 172–6, 700, 717 Nelson–Hemwall–Edwards system, 176–8 Solvency, 168–78 Solvent-popping resistance, 445 Solvent resistance coatings, testing, 667–8 pigments, 98–9 Solvent spectra, 169, 170 Solvents, 14–15, 21, 166–83 boiling points, 181 coupling, 352 effects on plastics, 460 effects on viscosity, 178–9 emissions, 167, 182–3, 333, 451–3, 475–6, 483, 760 evaporation from coatings, 179–80, 579–80, 581 modelling, 716–17 flashpoints, 180–1, 726, 727, 749 hazards and risks, 726–8 legislation concerning, 167, 180, 181–2 markets, 167–8 modelling, 716–17 molecular modelling, 700 recovery, 167 recycling, 525 Soya bean oil, 25, 26 Spacers, 346 Specific adsorption, 233–4 Specific viscosity, 178–9, 568 Spectrophotometry, reflectance, 654, 655 Spectroscopic simulations, 699 ‘Spindrift’ (extender), 14, 348–9 Spinning riffler, 254, 256 Spray application, 17, 192 future developments, 490 rheological considerations, 576–7 see also under Automotive finishes Spreadsheets, 695, 698, 707 Stability of pigments to chemicals, 104 to heat, 104–5 Stabilization of dispersions, 357 depletion, 224–7 Stabilizers masonry sealers, 392–3 polymer dispersions, 60–1 adsorption on particles, 227–34 ‘super-stabilized’, 444 PAIIndex 7/16/99 6:45 PM 782 Page 782 Index Stain primers (stain basecoats), 380 Staining resistance testing, 668 Stains, see Woodstains Stand oils, 27 Starved feed polymerization, 710 Static electricity hazard, 727–8 protective additives, 192 Statistical modelling, 698 Statistical process control, 719 Steel, see under Ferrous metals Step growth (condensation) polymerization, 22–3, 34 simulation, 701–2, 716 Steric (entropic) stabilization, 60, 209, 219–24, 288 Stockmeyer equation, 36 Stone, 389, 390 Stone chip (gravel) resistance testing, 480, 614–15 see also Anti-chip coatings Storage of paints changes of rheological structure in, 595 stability of architectural paints in, 334 Stoving automotive finishes, 415, 472–7, 500 automotive refinishes, 493–4, 500 Stress relaxation studies, 565–6, 600, 605 Strontium chromate pigments, 532 Strontium molybdate, 163 Stucco, 389 Suga accelerated weathering machines, 677, 679, 680, 682, 683 Supplementary pigments, 11 Surface area measurement, particle sizing by, 278–80 Surface area (pigments), 16–17 Surface balance measurements, particle sizing by, 280 Surface coating, use of term, Surface forces (dispersion forces, London forces), 169, 172, 205–7 Surfacers, see under Automotive finishes Surfactants, 357 emulsion polymerization, 56 solubility parameters, 700 in tinters, 363 wetting agents, 288 Suspension polymerization, 55 Tactile warning labels, 744 Talc, see CI Pigment White 26 Tall oil, 25, 26 Tar oils, 372 Telechelic polymers, 82 Textured masonry coatings, 391, 395–6 Thermal mechanical analysis (coatings films), 609 Thermodynamics of polymerization, 58 of solutions, 14 Thermoplastic coatings automotive, 440–1, 446–7, 457, 458, 459 for masonry, 397 Thermoplastic resins, 50–1 Thermosetting polymers, 6, 51–4, 60 Thickeners (rheology modifiers), 218, 227, 352, 357 associative, 73, 352 modelling, 718 Thin-layer wicking technique (powder surface characterization), 203 Thinners, 166 alkyd preparations, 35 see also Solvents Thio indigo red Y, 287 Thixotropic aids, 187, 438, 484, 486, 537, 538–9 Thixotropic materials, 39, 550, 558–9, 566, 574 rheological studies, 583, 589 in can, 595 Threshold limit values (solvents), 181–2, 730 Tie coats, 541 Timber, see Wood Tin-based biocides, 543–6 Tinctorial strength (pigments), 95 tinters, 364 Tinters factory-made coatings, 359–60 in-store systems, 360–1, 363–5 Titanates, 110, 137–8 Titanium dioxide pigments, 3, 11–12, 106, 109–10, 129–30, 381 assessment of flocculation of dispersion, 237, 239 in automotive surfacers, 436 coating, 203, 205 dispersion in alkyd media, 594 choice of solvent for, 199, 200, 201, 238, 240 and light fastness, 102 light scattering by, 627–8 opacity, 99, 101, 635 optical properties, 346–7 particle size, 116 particle size analysis, 203–5, 261–2 polymorphism, 95, 109–10, 129 surface characterization, 203 TMDI, see Trimethyl hexamethylene diisocyanate Toluene diisocyanate, 71, 72 alkyd modifier, 38–9 Toluidine red, see CI Pigment Red Toner pigments, 98, 106, 110–11, 149–50 Topcoats, 4–5 Torque rheometer, see Brabender Plastograph Torsion pendulum test method (coating properties), 592, 606–7 Torsional braid analysis (coating properties), 592, 607–8 Torsional rod test coatings mechanical properties, 610–11 paint rheology, 585, 586 Toxic substances, 729, 734, 736, 738, 758 symbols, 736, 737, 747 toxic for reproduction, 735, 737–8 Toxicity considerations, 14–15 anti-fouling coatings, 546 choice of industrial finish, 507 pigments, 124–5 surfactants, 363 Toxicity testing, solvents, 181 Transparency (pigments), 99–100, 101, 126, 347 Transparent stains, 376 Trichloroethylene paints, 520–1 PAIIndex 7/16/99 6:45 PM Page 783 Index Trimethyl hexamethylene diisocyanate (TMDI), 71, 72 Trimethylolpropane, 33 Tristimulus colorimetry, 654–5 Tritanopia, 637 TRK values, 731 Truncated multiple traversing, 245–6 Tukon indentation tester, 480, 612 Tumbling, paint application by, 510 Tung oil, 25 in alkyd resins, 32 in oleoresinous vehicles, 30 Turbidimetry, use in particle sizing, 273 Turpentine, Two-pack products 2K formulations, 72, 73, 449, 457, 461, 488 acrylic enamels, 496 epoxy resins, 9, 70, 398 etch primers, 405 marine paints, 538, 540–1 polyurethanes, 8, 72–3, 398 unsaturated polyesters, 44 Ultra high solids formulations, 485 ‘Ultra transparent’ pigments, 100 Ultrafiltration (electropaints), 427, 429 Ultramarine, see CI Pigment Blue 29 Ultramicroscopy, particle sizing by, 278 Ultrasonic impedance studies, 585–6, 609–11 Ultraviolet radiation absorbers, 195–6 curing, 84–5, 516 effect on wood and wood coatings, 369 and light fastness, 102 tests of resistance to, 482, 682–3, 691 Undercoats, 4, 380–1 Units, 312, 361 occupational exposure limits, 731 Unsaturated polyesters, 10, 40, 42–4 Urea formaldehyde resins, 8, 62–3, 64, 65 crosslinking agents in automotive surfacers, 435 Urethane alkyds, 8, 28, 38–9, 71, 381, 396 Urethane oils, 8, 28 Vacuum impregnation, 509–10 van der Waals forces, see Surface forces Vanadium driers, 191 Vapour curing, 517 Varnishes, 19, 373, 374, 376–7 early, effect of application, 626 Vat dyes, 96, 113 Vegetable oils, see Oils Vehicles, see Film formers Versatic Acid glycidyl ester, see Cardura E10 Vinyl resins, 75–6 Vinylated alkyds, 39–40 Vinylated oils, 28 Violet pigments, 153–4 Viscoelasticity of coatings, 617 of polymers, 599–603 Viscometers, 592 capillary flow, 563–4, 566, 581–2, 583 783 low shear, 583, 587–91 oscillating can, 595 rotary, 560–3 concentric cylinder, 562–3 cone and plate, 560–2, 582–3 parallel plate, 560, 563, 566–7 sled, 591–2 standard instruments, 583 Viscosity of alkyd preparations, 35 apparent, 554, 555, 556 of automotive metallic coatings, 445 dynamic, 566 and flocculation assessment, 236–7 history of measurement of, 551 of marine paints, 537 of paints, solvent effects, 178–9 reduced, 178–9 relative and specific, 568 shear, 553 of simple liquids, 567–8 of solutions and dispersions, 568–73 concentration effects, 569–71 of polymers, 20, 21, 351–2, 572–3 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), emissions, 182–3 Wash primers, see Etch primers Washburn equation, 200–1, 203 Water effect on masonry coatings, 383–4, 391 role in metal corrosion, 400–1 in wood, 368–9, 375–6 see also Portland cement, hydration Water-based systems, 14, 15, 75, 76–80 acrylics, 53–4, 78, 79 alkyds, 37–8, 78 architectural paints, 350–1, 354, 355, 360 rheological modifiers, 352 automotive finishes basecoat/clear technology, 451–4, 486–7, 488 electrostatic application, 469–70 future developments, 485–7, 490 primers, 419, 422, 422–31 resins for electrodeposition, 80–2 topcoats, 441, 451–4 classification, 356–9 coatings for beer/beverage can interiors, 524 coatings for metals, 404, 523 epoxy resins, 79 gloss paints, 382 nitrogen resins, 62 polyesters, 41–2 powder slurries, 487 radiofrequency drying, 515 solvent reduction in, 333, 357 UV curing, 85 varnishes, 377 wetting agents in, 288 wood preservatives, 372 wood primers, 378–9 woodstains, 375, 376 Water immersion testing, 662 automotive finishes, 481 Water marking, assessment, 685 PAIIndex 7/16/99 6:45 PM 784 Page 784 Index Water repellents (masonry), 392 Water spotting, assessment, 685 Weatherability, pigment systems, 103 Weathering tests modelling, 718 see also Accelerated weathering tests; Florida exposure tests; Natural weathering tests Wet rot (Coniophora puteana), 370 Wetting efficiency curves, 293–5, 296 Wetting of pigments, 199–200, 286–8, 346 White lead, see CI Pigment White White pigments, 129–31 light scattering by, 627–8 Whiting, see CI Pigment White 18 Williams–Landel–Ferry (WLF) time–temperature superposition principle, 600, 605, 608 Winnofil, see Calcium carbonate, stearate-coated WLF principle, see Williams–Landel–Ferry time–temperature superposition principle Woad, 111 Wood, 366 biodegradation, 369–70 causes of degradation, 368–70 characteristics, 366–8, 686 coatings for, 358, 359, 366, 373–82, 512, 525 effect of light, 369 effect of permeability, 370 effect of water on performance, 368–9 paints, 373, 378–82 see also Varnishes; Woodstains preservation, 371–3 protection by design, 370–1 see also Joinery Wood preservatives, 370, 372–3, 375 early, Woodstains, 373, 374, 375–6 primers, 380 Wrought iron, 399 X-ray scattering, particle sizing using, 263, 265 Xenon arc lamps, in light fastness testing, 103 Yellow G, see CI Pigment Yellow Yellow 10G, see CI Pigment Yellow Yellow 4GX, see CI Pigment Yellow 73 Yellow 5GX, see CI Pigment Yellow 74 Yellow ochre, see CI Pigment Yellow 42, 43 Yellow pigments, 135–44 Yield stress, 559–60, 605 Yielding, see Ductile failure Zeta potentials, 209–10, 211, 217–18 measurement, 277 Zinc chromates, see CI Pigment Yellow 36 Zinc-coated metals, primers for, 405–6 Zinc driers, 191 Zinc dust, see CI Pigment Black 16; CI Pigment Metal Zinc molybdate, 163 Zinc oxide, see CI Pigment White Zinc phosphate, see CI Pigment White 32 Zinc primers, 403, 412, 420 Zinc sulphide, see CI Pigment White Zirconium driers, 191 ... 129 165 Solvents, thinners, and diluents R Lambourne 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The market for solvents in the paint industry 4.3 Solvent. .. the solvent plays no long-term role in this This is not to say that in the early life of the film solvent retention does not affect hardness, flexibility, and other film properties The term solvent. .. function of the diluent is the same as a solvent, as stated above In water-based systems the water may act as a true solvent for some components, but be a non -solvent for the main film former This