Encyclopedia of infant and early childhood development, vol 2 (academic press, 2008)

EDITORS-IN-CHIEF Marshall M Haith received his M.A and Ph.D degrees from U.C.L.A and then carried out postdoctoral work at Yale University from 1964–1966 He served as Assistant Professor and Lecturer at Harvard University from 1966–1972 and then moved to the University of Denver as Professor of Psychology, where he has conducted research on infant and children’s perception and cognition, funded by NIH, NIMH, NSF, The MacArthur Foundation, The March of Dimes, and The Grant Foundation He has been Head of the Developmental Area, Chair of Psychology, and Director of University Research at the University of Denver and is currently John Evans Professor Emeritus of Psychology and Clinical Professor of Psychiatry at the University of Colorado Health Sciences Center Dr Haith has served as consultant for Children’s Television Workshop (Sesame Street), Bilingual Children’s Television, Time-Life, and several other organizations He has received several personal awards, including University Lecturer and the John Evans Professor Award from the University of Denver, a Guggenheim Fellowship for serving as Visiting Professor at the University of Paris and University of Geneva, a NSF fellowship at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences (Stanford), the G Stanley Hall Award from the American Psychological Association, a Research Scientist Award from NIH (17 years), and the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award from the Society for Research in Child Development Janette B Benson earned graduate degrees at Clark University in Worcester, MA in 1980 and 1983 She came to the University of Denver in 1983 as an institutional postdoctoral fellow and then was awarded an individual NRSA postdoctoral fellowship She has received research funding form federal (NICHD; NSF) and private (March of Dimes, MacArthur Foundation) grants, leading initially to a research Assistant Professor position and then an Assistant Professorship in Psychology at the University of Denver in 1987, where she remains today as Associate Professor of Psychology and as Director of the undergraduate Psychology program and Area Head of the Developmental Ph.D program and Director of University Assessment Dr Benson has received various awards for her scholarship and teaching, including the 1993 United Methodist Church University Teacher Scholar of the Year and in 2000 the CASE Colorado Professor of the Year Dr Benson was selected by the American Psychological Association as the 1995–1996 Esther Katz Rosen endowed Child Policy Fellow and AAAS Congressional Science Fellow, spending a year in the United States Senate working on Child and Education Policy In 1999, Dr Benson was selected as a Carnegie Scholar and attended two summer institutes sponsored by the Carnegie Foundation program for the Advancement for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Palo Alto, CA In 2001, Dr Benson was awarded a Susan and Donald Sturm Professorship for Excellence in Teaching Dr Benson has authored and co-authored numerous chapters and research articles on infant and early childhood development in addition to co-editing two books v EDITORIAL BOARD Richard Aslin is the William R Kenan Professor of Brain and Cognitive Sciences at the University of Rochester and is also the director of the Rochester Center for Brain Imaging His research has been directed to basic aspects of sensory and perceptual development in the visual and speech domains, but more recently has focused on mechanisms of statistical learning in vision and language and the underlying brain mechanisms that support it He has published over 100 journal articles and book chapters and his research has been supported by NIH, NSF, ONR, and the Packard and McDonnell Foundations In addition to service on grant review panels at NIH and NSF, he is currently the editor of the journal Infancy In 1981 he received the Boyd R McCandless award from APA (Division 7), in 1982 the Early Career award from APA (developmental), in 1988 a fellowship from the John Simon Guggenheim foundation, and in 2006 was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Warren O Eaton is Professor of Psychology at the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg, Canada, where he has spent his entire academic career He is a fellow of the Canadian Psychological Association, and has served as the editor of one of its journals, the Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science His current research interests center on child-to-child variation in developmental timing and how such variation may contribute to later outcomes Robert Newcomb Emde is Professor of Psychiatry, Emeritus, at the University of Colorado School of Medicine His research over the years has focused on early socio-emotional development, infant mental health and preventive interventions in early childhood He is currently Honorary President of the World Association of Infant Mental Health and serves on the Board of Directors of Zero To Three Hill Goldsmith is Fluno Bascom Professor and Leona Tyler Professor of Psychology at the University of Wisconsin–Madison He works closely with Wisconsin faculty in the Center for Affective Science, and he is the coordinator of the Social and Affective Processes Group at the Waisman Center on Mental Retardation and Human Development Among other honors, Goldsmith has received an National Institute of Mental Health MERIT award, a Research Career Development Award from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, the James Shields Memorial Award for Twin Research from the Behavior Genetics Association, and various awards from his university He is a Fellow of AAAS and a Charter Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science Goldsmith has also served the National Institutes of Health in several capacities His editorial duties have included a term as Associate Editor of one journal and membership on the editorial boards of the five most important journals in his field His administrative duties have included service as department chair at the University of Wisconsin Richard B Johnston Jr is Professor of Pediatrics and Associate Dean for Research Development at the University of Colorado School of Medicine and Associate Executive Vice President of Academic Affairs at the National Jewish Medical & Research Center He is the former President of the American Pediatric Society and former Chairman of the International Pediatric Research Foundation He is board certified in pediatrics and infectious disease He has previously acted as the Chief of Immunology in the Department of Pediatrics at Yale University School of Medicine, been the Medical Director of the March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation, Physician-in-Chief at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia and Chair of the Department of Pediatrics at the University Pennsylvania School of Medicine He is editor of ‘‘Current Opinion in Pediatrics’’ and has formerly served on the editorial board for a host of journals in pediatrics and infectious disease He has published over 80 scientific articles and reviews and has been cited over 200 times for his articles on tissue injury in inflammation, granulomatous disease, and his New England Journal of Medicine article on immunology, monocytes, and macrophages vii viii Editorial board Jerome Kagan is a Daniel and Amy Starch Professor of Psychology at Harvard University Dr Kagan has won numerous awards, including the Hofheimer Prize of the American Psychiatric Association and the G Stanley Hall Award of the American Psychological Association He has served on numerous committees of the National Academy of Sciences, The National Institute of Mental Health, the President’s Science Advisory Committee and the Social Science Research Council Dr Kagan is on the editorial board of the journals Child Development and Developmental Psychology, and is active in numerous professional organizations Dr Kagan’s many writings include Understanding Children: Behavior, Motives, and Thought, Growth of the Child, The Second Year: The Emergence of Self-Awareness, and a number of cross-cultural studies of child development He has also coauthored a widely used introductory psychology text Professor Kagan’s research, on the cognitive and emotional development of a child during the first decade of life, focuses on the origins of temperament He has tracked the development of inhibited and uninhibited children from infancy to adolescence Kagan’s research indicates that shyness and other temperamental differences in adults and children have both environmental and genetic influences Rachel Keen (formerly Rachel Keen Clifton) is a professor at the University of Virginia Her research expertise is in perceptual-motor and cognitive development in infants She held a Research Scientist Award from the National Institute of Mental Health from 1981 to 2001, and currently has a MERIT award from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development She has served as Associate Editor of Child Development (1977–1979), Psychophysiology (1972–1975), and as Editor of SRCD Monographs (1993–1999) She was President of the International Society on Infant Studies from 1998–2000 She received the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award from the Society for Research in Child Development in 2005 and was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Science in 2006 Ellen M Markman is the Lewis M Terman Professor of Psychology at Stanford University Professor Markman was chair of the Department of Psychology from 1994–1997 and served as Cognizant Dean for the Social Sciences from 1998–2000 In 2003 she was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and in 2004 she was awarded the American Psychological Association’s Mentoring Award Professor Markman’s research has covered a range of issues in cognitive development including work on comprehension monitoring, logical reasoning and early theory of mind development Much of her work has addressed questions of the relationship between language and thought in children focusing on categorization, inductive reasoning, and word learning Yuko Munakata is Professor of Psychology at the University of Colorado, Boulder Her research investigates the origins of knowledge and mechanisms of change, through a combination of behavioral, computational, and neuroscientific methods She has advanced these issues and the use of converging methods through her scholarly articles and chapters, as well as through her books, special journal issues, and conferences She is a recipient of the Boyd McCandless Award from the American Psychological Association, and was an Associate Editor of Psychological Review, the field’s premier theoretical journal Arnold J Sameroff, is Professor of Psychology at the University of Michigan where he is also Director of the Development and Mental Health Research Program His primary research interests are in understanding how family and community factors impact the development of children, especially those at risk for mental illness or educational failure He has published 10 books and over 150 research articles including the Handbook of Developmental Psychopathology, The Five to Seven Year Shift: The Age of Reason and Responsibility, and the forthcoming Transactional Processes in Development Among his honors are the Distinguished Scientific Contributions Award from the Society for Research in Child Development and the G Stanley Hall Award from the American Psychological Association Currently he is President of the Society for Research in Child Development and serves on the executive Committee of the International Society for the Study of Behavioral Development FOREWORD This is an impressive collection of what we have learned about infant and child behavior by the researchers who have contributed to this knowledge Research on infant development has dramatically changed our perceptions of the infant and young child This wonderful resource brings together like a mosaic all that we have learned about the infant and child’s behavior In the 1950s, it was believed that newborn babies couldn’t see or hear Infants were seen as lumps of clay that were molded by their experience with parents, and as a result, parents took all the credit or blame for how their offspring turned out Now we know differently The infant contributes to the process of attaching to his/her parents, toward shaping their image of him, toward shaping the family as a system, and toward shaping the culture around him Even before birth, the fetus is influenced by the intrauterine environment as well as genetics His behavior at birth shapes the parent’s nurturing to him, from which nature and nurture interact in complex ways to shape the child Geneticists are now challenged to couch their findings in ways that acknowledge the complexity of the interrelation between nature and nurture The cognitivists, inheritors of Piaget, must now recognize that cognitive development is encased in emotional development, and fueled by passionately attached parents As we move into the era of brain research, the map of infant and child behavior laid out in these volumes will challenge researchers to better understand the brain, as the basis for the complex behaviors documented here No more a lump of clay, we now recognize the child as a major contributor to his own brain’s development This wonderful reference will be a valuable resource for all of those interested in child development, be they students, researchers, clinicians, or passionate parents T Berry Brazelton, M.D Professor of Pediatrics, Emeritus Harvard Medical School Creator, Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) Founder, Brazelton Touchpoints Center ix PREFACE Encyclopedias are wonderful resources Where else can you find, in one place, coverage of such a broad range of topics, each pursued in depth, for a particular field such as human development in the first three years of life? Textbooks have their place but only whet one’s appetite for particular topics for the serious reader Journal articles are the lifeblood of science, but are aimed only to researchers in specialized fields and often only address one aspect of an issue Encyclopedias fill the gap In this encyclopedia readers will find overviews and summaries of current knowledge about early human development from almost every perspective imaginable For much of human history, interest in early development was the province of pedagogy, medicine, and philosophy Times have changed Our culling of potential topics for inclusion in this work from textbooks, journals, specialty books, and other sources brought home the realization that early human development is now of central interest for a broad array of the social and biological sciences, medicine, and even the humanities Although the ‘center of gravity’ of these volumes is psychology and its disciplines (sensation, perception, action, cognition, language, personality, social, clinical), the fields of embryology, immunology, genetics, psychiatry, anthropology, kinesiology, pediatrics, nutrition, education, neuroscience, toxicology and health science also have their say as well as the disciplines of parenting, art, music, philosophy, public policy, and more Quality was a key focus for us and the publisher in our attempts to bring forth the authoritative work in the field We started with an Editorial Advisory Board consisting of major contributors to the field of human development – editors of major journals, presidents of our professional societies, authors of highly visible books and journal articles The Board nominated experts in topic areas, many of them pioneers and leaders in their fields, whom we were successful in recruiting partly as a consequence of Board members’ reputations for leadership and excellence The result is articles of exceptional quality, written to be accessible to a broad readership, that are current, imaginative and highly readable Interest in and opinion about early human development is woven through human history One can find pronouncements about the import of breast feeding (usually made by men), for example, at least as far back as the Greek and Roman eras, repeated through the ages to the current day Even earlier, the Bible provided advice about nutrition during pregnancy and rearing practices But the science of human development can be traced back little more than 100 years, and one can not help but be impressed by the methodologies and technology that are documented in these volumes for learning about infants and toddlers – including methods for studying the role of genetics, the growth of the brain, what infants know about their world, and much more Scientific advances lean heavily on methods and technology, and few areas have matched the growth of knowledge about human development over the last few decades The reader will be introduced not only to current knowledge in this field but also to how that knowledge is acquired and the promise of these methods and technology for future discoveries CONTENTS Several strands run through this work Of course, the nature-nurture debate is one, but no one seriously stands at one or the other end of this controversy any more Although advances in genetics and behavior genetics have been breathtaking, even the genetics work has documented the role of environment in development and, as Brazelton notes in his foreword, researchers acknowledge that experience can change the wiring of the brain as well as how actively the genes are expressed There is increasing appreciation that the child develops in a transactional context, with the child’s effect on the parents and others playing no small role in his or her own development There has been increasing interest in brain development, partly fostered by the decade of the Brain in the 1990s, as we have learned more about the role of early experience in shaping the brain and consequently, personality, emotion, and xi xii Preface intelligence The ‘brainy baby’ movement has rightly aroused interest in infants’ surprising capabilities, but the full picture of how abilities develop is being fleshed out as researchers learn as much about what infants can not do, as they learn about what infants can Parents wait for verifiable information about how advances may promote effective parenting An increasing appreciation that development begins in the womb rather than at birth has taken place both in the fields of psychology and medicine Prenatal and newborn screening tools are now available that identify infants at genetic or developmental risk In some cases remedial steps can be taken to foster optimal development; in others ethical issues may be involved when it is discovered that a fetus will face life challenges if brought to term These advances raise issues that currently divide much of public opinion Technological progress in the field of human development, as in other domains, sometimes makes options available that create as much dilemma as opportunity As globalization increases and with more access to electronic communication, we become ever more aware of circumstances around the world that affect early human development and the fate of parents We encouraged authors to include international information wherever possible Discussion of international trends in such areas as infant mortality, disease, nutrition, obesity, and health care are no less than riveting and often heartbreaking There is so much more to The central focus of the articles is on typical development However, considerable attention is also paid to psychological and medical pathology in our attempt to provide readers with a complete picture of the state of knowledge about the field We also asked authors to tell a complete story in their articles, assuming that readers will come to this work with a particular topic in mind, rather than reading the Encyclopedia whole or many articles at one time As a result, there is some overlap between articles at the edges; one can think of partly overlapping circles of content, which was a design principle inasmuch as nature does not neatly carve topics in human development into discrete slices for our convenience At the end of each article, readers will find suggestions for further readings that will permit them to take off in one neighboring direction or another, as well as web sites where they can garner additional information of interest AUDIENCE Articles have been prepared for a broad readership, including advanced undergraduates, graduate students, professionals in allied fields, parents, and even researchers for their own disciplines We plan to use several of these articles as readings for our own seminars A project of this scale involves many actors We are very appreciative for the advice and review efforts of members of the Editorial Advisory Board as well as the efforts of our authors to abide by the guidelines that we set out for them Nikki Levy, the publisher at Elsevier for this work, has been a constant source of wise advice, consolation and balance Her vision and encouragement made this project possible Barbara Makinster, also from Elsevier, provided many valuable suggestions for us Finally, the Production team in England played a central role in communicating with authors and helping to keep the records straight It is difficult to communicate all the complexities of a project this vast; let us just say that we are thankful for the resource base that Elsevier provided Finally, we thank our families and colleagues for their patience over the past few years, and we promise to ban the words ‘‘encyclopedia project’’ from our vocabulary, for at least a while Marshall M Haith and Janette B Benson Department of Psychology, University of Denver Denver, Colorado, USA PERMISSION ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The following material is reproduced with kind permission of Oxford University Press Ltd Figure of Self-Regulatory Processes http://www.oup.co.uk/ The following material is reproduced with kind permission of AAAS Figure of Maternal Age and Pregnancy Figures 1a, 1b and 1c of Perception and Action http://www.sciencemag.org The following material is reproduced with kind permission of Nature Publishing Group Figure of Self-Regulatory Processes http://www.nature.com/nature The following material is reproduced with kind permission of Taylor & Francis Ltd Figure 4b of Visual Perception http://www.tandf co.uk/journals G Gender: Awareness, Identity, and Stereotyping K M Zosuls, L E Lurye, and D N Ruble, New York University, New York, NY, USA ã 2008 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved Glossary Collective identity – Refers to the self as a member of a collective group, such as gender or race See also social identity Gender awareness – Although the term ‘awareness’ is often used more generally, in this article, this term specifically refers to children’s ability to distinguish the sexes Gender constancy – Proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg to refer to children’s understanding that gender is not changeable The development of gender constancy includes three stages: (1) accurate identification of sex category membership for oneself and others (basic gender identity); (2) stability of sex category membership over time (gender stability); and (3) consistency of sex category membership across superficial transformations in appearance or context (gender consistency) Gender development – Refers to the processes involved in the development of the components of gender, including concepts and beliefs about gender, gender identity, or self-perception as a member of a gender group, gender-related preferences, and gender-related behaviors Developmental processes are generally described as cognitive, socialization, or biological Habituation methodologies – A type of looking time method in which infants are first presented with a stimulus until they lose interest in it or ‘habituate’ to it and are then presented with a pair of stimuli The pair of stimuli contains one stimulus similar to and one stimulus different from the habituation stimulus The time infants spend looking at each stimulus is measured These studies presume that differences in looking time between the familiar and novel stimulus represent an awareness of differences between the two stimuli Looking time methods (preferential looking methods) – Methods used in studies with infants who are still too young to effectively express their knowledge verbally and who have other infancy-related performance limitations (e.g., cognitive, motor) that not allow for the use of methods in which children have to perform tasks or answer questions These methods typically involve showing infants pairs of stimuli and measuring the time that infants spend looking at each one of the stimuli Sequential touching paradigm – An unstructured task in which children are given a set of objects from two different categories (e.g., male and female dolls) and categorization is inferred if a child touches objects from a single category in succession more than would be expected from chance It is thought that such spontaneous behaviors indicate attention to categorical contrasts Social identity – Although defined in various ways, key elements include: (1) refers to aspects of the self-concept that are defined in terms of or in relation to other people and groups, (2) socially constructed and interpersonally significant categories, and (3) certain values and emotional significance are attached to these role or category memberships Social identity is a broader concept than collective identity in that it can refer to the self as fulfilling a role or the self as a member of a collective group (i.e., collective identity) Violation of expectancy paradigm – A looking time method in which children’s looking times are measured in response to mismatched stimuli or impossible events compared to properly matched or possible events Longer looking times to mismatched stimuli/impossible events are thought to indicate that an event is perceived as novel, surprising, or incongruous, suggesting that it is unexpected Gender: Awareness, Identity, and Stereotyping Introduction Gender Knowledge in Infants and Toddlers ... in early childhood He is currently Honorary President of the World Association of Infant Mental Health and serves on the Board of Directors of Zero To Three Hill Goldsmith is Fluno Bascom Professor... Academy of Arts and Science in 20 06 Ellen M Markman is the Lewis M Terman Professor of Psychology at Stanford University Professor Markman was chair of the Department of Psychology from 1994–1997 and. .. chapters and research articles on infant and early childhood development in addition to co-editing two books v EDITORIAL BOARD Richard Aslin is the William R Kenan Professor of Brain and Cognitive