Physics and modelling of wind erosion

Physics and Modelling of Wind Erosion ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANOGRAPHIC SCIENCES LIBRARY VOLUME 37 Editors Lawrence A Mysak, Department of Atmospheric and Oceanographic Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, Canada Kevin Hamilton, International Pacific Research Center, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI, U.S.A Editorial Advisory Board L Bengtsson A Berger J.R Garratt G Geernaert J Hansen M Hantel H Kelder T.N Krishnamurti P Lemke P Malanotte-Rizzoli D Randall J.-L Redelsperger A Robock S.H Schneider G.E Swaters J.C Wyngaard Max-Planck-Institut für Meteorologie, Hamburg, Germany Université Catholique, Louvain, Belgium CSIRO, Aspendale, Victoria, Australia DMU-FOLU, Roskilde, Denmark MIT, Cambridge, MA, U.S.A Universität Wien, Austria KNMI (Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute), De Bilt, The Netherlands The Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, U.S.A Alfred-Wegener-Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany MIT, Cambridge, MA, U.S.A Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, U.S.A METEO-FRANCE, Centre National de Recherches Météorologiques, Toulouse, France Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, U.S.A Stanford University, CA, U.S.A University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, U.S.A For other titles published in this seires, go to w ww.springer.com/series/5669 Physics and Modelling of Wind Erosion by Yaping Shao University of Cologne, Germany ABC Dr Yaping Shao University of Cologne Germany yshao@uni-koeln.de ISBN 978-1-4020-8894-0 e-ISBN 978-1-4020-8895-7 Library of Congress Control Number: 2008932207 All Rights Reserved c 2008 Springer Science + Business Media B.V No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work Printed on acid-free paper springer.com Preface Wind erosion occurs in many arid, semiarid and agricultural areas of the world It is an environmental process influenced by geological and climatic variations as well as human activities In general, wind erosion leads to land degradation in agricultural areas and has a negative impact on air quality Dust emission generated by wind erosion is the largest source of aerosols which directly or indirectly influence the atmospheric radiation balance and hence global climatic variations Strong wind-erosion events, such as severe dust storms, may threaten human lives and cause substantial economic damage The physics of wind erosion is complex, as it involves atmospheric, soil and land-surface processes The research on wind erosion is multidisciplinary, covering meteorology, fluid dynamics, soil physics, colloidal science, surface soil hydrology, ecology, etc Several excellent books have already been written about the topic, for instance, by Bagnold (1941, The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes), Greeley and Iversen (1985, Wind as a Geological Process on Earth, Mars, Venus and Titan), Pye (1987, Aeolian Dust and Dust Deposits), Pye and Tsoar (1990, Aeolian Sand and Sand Dunes) However, considerable progress has been made in wind-erosion research in recent years and there is a need to systematically document this progress in a new book There are three other reasons which motivated me to write this book Firstly, in most existing books, there is a general lack of rigor in the description of wind-erosion dynamics; secondly, the emphasis of the existing books appears to be placed primarily on sand-particle motion, while topics related to the modelling of dust entrainment, transport and deposition have not been presented in great detail and thirdly, the results presented in the existing books appear to be mainly experimental and lacking in documentation of the computational modelling effort involved My intention is to provide a summary of the existing knowledge of wind erosion and recent progress in that research field The basic contents of the book include the physics of particle entrainment, transport and deposition and the environmental processes that control wind erosion It is intended to treat the physics of wind erosion as rigorously as possible, from the viewpoint v vi Preface of fluid dynamics and soil physics A considerable proportion of the book is devoted to the computational modelling of wind erosion I hope that this book can be used as a reference point for both wind-erosion researchers and postgraduate students My basic consideration is that wind erosion can only be understood from a multidisciplinary viewpoint and the computational modelling of wind erosion should focus on the development of integrated simulation systems Such a system should tightly couple dynamic models, such as atmospheric prediction models and wind-erosion schemes, with real data that characterises soil and surface conditions In the introductory chapter of the book, this basic concept is reiterated, while in Chapter examples of the advocated modelling approach are given Chapter provides a summary of wind-erosion climatology in the world and selected regions Chapters and are devoted to the description of atmospheric modelling and land-surface modelling, as these are the prerequisite for the modelling of wind erosion Chapter is a description of the basic aspects of wind-erosion theory, while Chapters 6, and are dedicated to the entrainment, transport and deposition of sand and dust particles In Chapter 9, the integrated wind-erosion modelling system and the data requirement are described The concluding remarks are given in Chapter 12 Cologne, Germany Yaping Shao November 1999 Preface Since the publication of the first edition of this book in 1999, much progress has been made in the field of wind-erosion research, especially on dust This is mainly due to the strong interests in understanding the impacts of mineral aerosol on climate change and the role of dust in bio-geochemistry In this edition, I have updated the contents of the book to reflect the new developments and corrected the mistakes known to me in the first edition I have also improved the text and the illustrations Many colleagues have helped with the preparation of this edition In particular, I wish to thank Drs Masao Mikami, Irina Sokolik, Karl-Heinz Wyrwoll, Qingcun Zeng, Gongbing Peng, Chaohua Dong, Zhaohui Lin, Masaru Chiba, Naoko Seino, Taichu Y Tanaka, Masahide Ishizuka, Eunjoo Jung and Youngsin Chun for their support I also wish to thank Ms Dagmar Jansen for her careful proofreading of the manuscript and Ms Martina Klose for helping with the manuscript preparation using LaTeX Cologne, Germany Yaping Shao March 2008 vii Acknowledgements About 10 years ago, Dr M R Raupach introduced me to the research of wind erosion I have ever since maintained a strong interest in this field During these years, I came to know many colleagues, including Professor L M Leslie, Dr J F Leys, Dr G H McTainsh, Mr P A Findlater, Professor W G Nickling, Dr D A Gillette, Professor H Nagashima, Dr B Marticorena, Dr G Bergametti and Dr I Tegen among many others, who helped me to develop a understanding of the topics presented in this book I am grateful to them for the valuable discussions and arguments during the years and to many of them for providing me with their research results for inclusion in this book In the wind-erosion research community, there prevails truly a collaborative spirit The development of the integrated wind-erosion modelling system described in Chapter has been a team effort, and I acknowledge explicitly the significant contributions to the project made by my colleagues and friends, especially, Dr H Lu, Dr P Irannejad, Dr R K Munro, Dr C Werner and Mr R Morison The assistance of Dr P Irannejad and Mr H X Zhuang in preparing the graphs and the manuscript has been very helpful The painstaking final corrections by Dr R A Byron-Scott have resulted in improvements to a text which has been written uncomfortably in my second language Several chapters of the book were drafted during my stay at the Institute for Geophysics and Meteorology, University of Cologne, in 1999 when I was an Alexander von Humboldt Research Fellow My stay in Germany has been a happy one, and I thank Professor Dr M Kerschgens and the Humboldt Foundation for making that possible My thanks also go to Dr M de Jong from Kluwer Academic Publishers for her enthusiastic and patient approach toward publishing this book Finally, I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to Professor P Schwerdtfeger, Dr J M Hacker and Dr T H Chen for their continuous encouragements throughout my scientific career ix Contents Preface v Preface vii Acknowledgements ix Wind Erosion and Wind-Erosion Research 1.1 Wind-Erosion Phenomenon 1.2 Wind-Erosion Research 1.3 Integrated Wind-Erosion Modelling 1 Wind-Erosion Climatology 2.1 Climatic Background for Wind Erosion 2.2 Geographic Background for Wind Erosion 2.3 Atmospheric Systems 2.3.1 Monsoon Winds 2.3.2 Cyclones and Frontal Systems 2.3.3 Squall Lines 2.4 Global Wind-Erosion Patterns 2.5 Major Wind-Erosion Regions 2.5.1 Dust Weather Records and Satellite Remote Sensing 2.5.2 North Africa 2.5.3 The Middle East 2.5.4 Central Asia 2.5.5 Southwest Asia 2.5.6 Northeast Asia 2.5.7 The United States 2.5.8 Australia 13 13 18 20 21 23 24 26 29 29 30 34 36 37 39 44 45 xi References 437 Press WH, Flannery BP, Teukolsky SA, Vetterling WT (1989) Numerical Recipes: the Art of Scientific Computing Cambridge University Press, New York Prospero JM (1996a) The atmospheric transport of particles to the ocean In: V Ittekkot, P Schafer, S Honjo, PJ Depetris (eds) Particle Flux in the Ocean, Wiley, Chichester, pp 19–52 Prospero JM (1996b) Saharan dust transport over the North 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in Engineering, Iowa City, IA, 34, pp 111–135 Index abrasion emitter, 413 absorbing aerosol index, 30 active samplers, 393 adiabatic, 54 aerodynamic drag, 124, 125, 150 aerodynamic drag coefficient, 126 aerodynamic entrainment, 6, 188 aerodynamic entrainment rate, 190 aerodynamic lift, 127, 150, 219 aerodynamic lift coefficient, 127 aerodynamic resistance, 102 aerodynamic roughness length, 71, 346 aerosol index, 30 aerosols, aggregated dust, 238 aggregates, 346 aggregation effect, 112 air samplers, 400 air samplers, high-volume, 400 air samplers, low-volume, 400 air-dry soil moisture, 92 albedo, 96 Anderson sampler, 401 angle of internal friction, 378 angular velocity, 150 atmospheric boundary layer, 49 atmospheric boundary layer depth, 49 Australia, 46 auto-abrasion, 220 available soil moisture, 97 avalanches, 363 Bagnold sand trap, 394 Bagnold-Owen saltation model, 162 barchanoid ridges, 363 barchanoid-type dunes, 363 barchans, 363, 364 basal-area index, 310 basic soil population, 341 below-cloud scavenging, 288 Bernoulli equation, 127 bidirectional reflectance distribution function, 346 binding energy, 223, 225 blowing dust, 333 Boltzmann constant, 280 bombardment entrainment, Bott advection scheme, 259 brink-line, 386 bulk aerodynamic method, 102 bulk stomatal resistance, 105 bulk transfer coefficient, 103 canopy air resistance, 104 canopy resistance, 105 canopy roughness length, 283 capillary forces, 143, 324 Cartesian coordinate system, 52 central Asia, 36 chemically-dispersed particle-size distribution, 217 closure, 82 closure, e − , 82, 188 closure, first-order, 82 closure, second-order, 82 447 448 Index cohesive force, 140 collection by impaction, 292 collection by interception, 293 collection by molecular diffusion, 290 collection efficiency, 289 collision efficiency, 289, 290 complex dunes, 361, 367 compound dunes, 361, 367 constant flux layer, 51 continuity equation, 52 convective boundary layer, 50, 63, 64 convective boundary layer depth, 64 convective scaling velocity, 62 Coriolis force, 13 Coulomb friction model, 183 Coulter Multisizer, 411 creep, 133 critical friction velocity, 197 critical lift-off velocity, 196 crust, 327 crust correction function, 328 cumulus parameterisation, 275 data assimilation, 359 definitions of dust and sand, 133 diffusive dust flux, 212 diffusive flux, 279 direct numerical simulation, 81, 84 disaggregation, 220 discrete-lattice model, 389 dislodgement rate, 205, 207 dispersion theory, 265 displacement height, 72 displacement tensor, 264 dissipation subrange, 81 disturbed soil surfaces, 26, 27 double drag partition, 321 drag, 68 drag partition, 311, 315, 316 drift parameter, 267 dry convection, 262, 273 dry deposition, 7, 251, 277–279 dry deposition, vegetation, 283, 284 dry sieving, 407 dry-deposition velocity, 278, 281 dune type, 369 dust, dust concentartion equation, 55 dust concentration, 212 dust emission, 28 dust emission, Sahara and Sahel region, 28 dust emission, Scheme-I, 330 dust emission, Scheme-II, 330 dust emission, Scheme-III, 331 dust emission, Scheme-IV, 332 dust emission, Scheme-V, 332 dust in suspension, 333 dust sources, 19 dust storm, 333 dust transport, 250 dust transport, Eulerian framework, 256 dust transport, Lagrangian framework, 252 dust-concentration profile, 212 dust-deposition collectors, 404 dust-deposition rate, 211 dust-emission mechanisms, 216 dust-emission rate, 211, 213, 221, 235 dust-emission scheme, 223, 224, 226, 245 dust-emission scheme, energy-based, 223 dust-emission scheme, Lu-Shao, 232 dust-emission scheme, MarticorenaBergametti, 233 dust-emission scheme, spectral, 235 dust-emission scheme, volume-removal based, 223, 233 dynamic effect, 113 eddy diffusivity, 67 eddy diffusivity, dust particles, 77, 212, 266 eddy viscosity, 67 eddy-diffusivity tensor, 266 effective shear stress, 68 effective shelter area, 311 effective shelter volume, 311 ejection angle, 185 El Ni˜ no, 47 El Nino, 17 electric force, 128, 150 electrostatic force, 143 element-area index, 284 elevation head, 98 elutriator, 410 emissivity, 95 Index energy conservation equation, 55 equation of particle motion, 150, 152 equation of state, 54 equations of motion, 52 equilibration of saltation, 177 equilibrium saltation, 156, 160, 161, 176 equivalent particle size, 117 erodibility, erodibility index, 333, 334, 336 erosivity, Eulerian integral-length scale, 81, 269 Eulerian integral-time scale, 267 evaporation, 103 evaporation efficiency, 98 field capacity, 96 flux Richardson number, 73 force-restore method, 101 free dust, 237 friction velocity, 6, 62, 69 friction-drag coefficient, 314 frontal-area index, 309, 310, 344, 346 Fryrear sand trap, 394, 405 fully-disturbed particle-size distribution, 217 general circulation, 14 geostrophic wind, 14 GIS data, 347 global circulation, 16 global climate models, 89 global dust emission, 28 Gobi Desert, 16, 23, 51 gradient Richardson number, 73 gravitational settling flux, 279 gravity force, 150 ground stress, 312 ground-surface drag, 310 Haboob, 35 Harmattan, 21, 22, 33 Harmattan haze, 22 heterogeneous land surface, 113 heterogeneous land surface, explicit subgrid approach, 114, 349 heterogeneous land surface, mosaic approach, 114, 350 heterogeneous land surface, PDF approach, 113 449 Hexi Corridor, 41 hot spots, 336 hydraulic conductivity, 98 hydraulic conductivity functions, 100 hydraulic head, 98 hypotheses of Raupach, 312 impact angle, 179 impact velocity, 179, 184, 191, 196 impaction, 284 in-cloud scavenging, 288 in-situ particle-size distribution, 123 independent saltation, 174 inertial layer, 51 inertial subrange, 81 inter-tropical convergence zone, 14 interception, 284 intermittency of saltation, 201 inversion, 64 isentropic trajectories, 253 isokinetic, 394 isokinetic sampler, 396 J-functions, 206 K-theory, 67, 82 Kawamura model, 165 Kolmogorov inner scale, 81 Lagrangian integral time scale, 262, 265 Lagrangian stochastic model, 188 Lagrangian velocity-correlation function, 265 Lagrangian velocity-correlation function, particle, 266 Lagrangian velocity-covariance function, 265 Lagrangian velocity-covariance function, particle, 266 Lake Eyre, 45 large eddies, 81 large-eddy simulation, 81, 83, 187, 384 laser granulometry, 412 latent-heat coefficient, 55 latent-heat flux, 103 Leach sand trap, 395 leaf-area index, 27, 105, 344 length of wind tunnel, 392 lift-off angle, splashed particles, 179 450 Index lift-off velocity, splashed particles, 179 linear perturbation theory, 374 local closure, 83 log-normal distribution, 145, 338 logarithmic layer, 51 logarithmic wind profile, 71, 72 longitudinal dunes, 364, 365 Magnus force, 128, 150 marble dust collector, 404 mass fraction of dust, 218 Mellor-Yamada scheme, 83 Middle East, 34 migration speed, 364, 372 minimally-disturbed particle-size distribution, 217 mixed-layer scaling parameters, 78 mixed-layer similarity functions, 79 mixed-layer similarity hypothesis, 79 mixed-layer similarity theory, 78 mixing length, 67 moisture conservation equation, 55 moisture correction function, 323 molecular diffusivity, 55 moment of inertia, 150 Monin-Obukhov, 105 Monin-Obukhov hypothesis, 75, 76 Monin-Obukhov similarity functions, 76, 77 Monin-Obukhov similarity theory, 75, 76 monsoons, 16 natural aeolian surfaces, 26 net dust-emission rate, 211 net radiation, 95 non-hydrostatic model, 382 non-linear least-squares method, 338 normal force, 180 normalized difference vegetation index, 345 North Africa, 30 northeast Asia, 39 number of splashed particles, 179 Obukhov length, 75 optical particle counter, 402 overshoot of saltation, 177 Owen effect, 71, 165 Owen hypotheses, 159, 160 Owen saltation model, 158, 160, 328 particle eddy diffusivity, 262 particle eddy diffusivity, Csanady’s theory, 262 particle terminal velocity, 129 particle trajectories, 188 particle-borne momentum flux, 157, 174 particle-response time, 129 particle-size distribution, 121, 216 particle-size distribution, airborne dust, 235 particle-size distribution, fullydispersed, 123, 340, 412 particle-size distribution, fullydisturbed, 123 particle-size distribution, minimallydispersed, 122, 340, 411 particle-to-fluid relative velocity, 125 passive samplers, 393 Peclet number, 292 plastic pressure, 228 Poisson equation, 55 potential saltation, 175 potential temperature, 54 Prandtl-Kolmogorov hypothesis, 82 pressure drag, 69 pressure drag coefficient, 313 pressure head, 98 probability density function, 191 probability density function, impact velocity, 191 probability density function, velocity of splashed particles, 192 probability-density function, rebound angle, 192 profile of saltation flux, 171 quadrant technique, 203 raindrop-size distribution, 296 Raupach model, 168 rebound angle, 185 rebound probability, 191 rebound rate, 190 rebound velocity, 185 regional model, 88 retention efficiency, 289 Index revised wind-erosion equation, 9, 304 Reynolds number, 53 Reynolds number, particle, 126 Reynolds number, particle friction velocity, 137 Reynolds number, particle terminal velocity, 130 Reynolds number, raindrop, 291 Reynolds number, roughness element, 69 Reynolds shear stress, 57, 68 Reynolds-averaged simulation, 81 Richards equation, 98, 99 Richardson number, 73 roughness correction function, 315 roughness length, 317 roughness-element-surface drag, 310 Safire, 399 Sahara, 30 Sahel, 30 saltation, 6, 132 saltation bombardment, 6, 149, 219–223, 226, 232 saltation bombardment, efficiency, 226 saltation equations, 164 saltation flux, 221 saltation layer, 157, 159 saltation models, 186 saltation roughness length, 160, 163, 166, 168 saltation similarity, 208 saltation theory of Bagnold, 157 saltation, characteristic trajectory, 153 saltation, mass flux, 154 saltation, modified, 134 saltation, momentum flux, 154 saltation, particle concentration, 153 saltation, particle trajectory, 153 saltation, self-limiting process, 160 saltation-layer depth, 201 Saltiphone, 399 sand, sand blasting, 219 sand transport, dune slope, 378, 380 sand traps, 393 sand-trapping efficiency, 372 saturation soil moisture, 92 scaling velocity, 62 451 scavenging rate, 289, 290 scavenging ratio, 299 Schmidt number, 280, 291 sediment particle-size distribution, 217 self-abrader emitter, 218 sensible-heat flux, 102 SENSIT, 397 settling tube, 408 Shamal, 21, 22, 35 Sherwood number, 285, 291, 292 sigma-coordinate system, 86 single air-burst resuspension, 218 single-layer dry-deposition model, 286 slip-surface slope, 379 soil hydraulic model, 100 soil moisture, 323 soil moisture, bucket scheme, 96 soil plastic pressure, 241 soil texture classification, 121 soil-hydraulic parameters, 107 soil-hydraulic parameters, Brooks and Corey model, 107 soil-hydraulic parameters, van Genuchten model, 107 soil-moisture equation, 92 soil-moisture retention functions, 100 soil-moisture retention functions, Brooks and Corey model, 100 soil-moisture retention functions, van Genuchten model, 100 soil-moisture, force-restore scheme, 98 soil-temperature equation, 92 soil-texture classes, 338 source-limited saltation, 175 Southern Oscillation, 17 southwest Asia, 37, 39 speed-up ratio, 375 splash, splash entrainment, 176, 178, 184, 194 splash entrainment coefficient, 192 splash rate, 190 splash scheme, 191 squall lines, 20, 25 stable boundary layer, 51, 65 stable boundary layer depth, 66 star dunes, 366 static stability, 72 steady-state saltation, 195 Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 95 452 Index Stokes law, 127 Stokes number, 280, 293 Stokes parameter, 267 Stokes region, 126 Stokes-Einstein formula, 280 stomatal resistance, 104 streamers, 205 streamwise saltation flux, 156, 158, 198, 213 streamwise saltation flux, multi-size soils, 328, 329 streamwise saltation flux, verticallyintegrated, 173 stress on roughness elements, 313 supply-limited saltation, 175 surface energy-balance equation, 95 surface layer scaling velocity, 62 surface protrusion coefficient, 346 suspension, 6, 132 suspension, long-term, 132, 133 suspension, short-term, 132, 133 Taklimakan Desert, 16 tangential force, 182 Tarim Basin, 43 Taylor dispersion theory, 266 terminal velocity, 56 terminal velocity, raindrop, 296 terrain-following coordinate system, 383, 384 threshold friction velocity, 6, 135, 308, 323, 327 threshold friction velocity, Bagnold scheme, 135 threshold friction velocity, correction functions, 309 threshold friction velocity, dune slope, 379 threshold friction velocity, dust particles, 145 threshold friction velocity, GreeleyIversen scheme, 138 threshold friction velocity, McKenna Neuman scheme, 142 threshold friction velocity, normalised, 137 threshold friction velocity, Shao-Lu scheme, 139, 140 total stress, 314 trade wind, 14 trajectory-crossing, 262 trajectory-crossing, gravitational settling effect, 262 trajectory-crossing, inertial effect, 262 transpiration, 104 transverse dunes, 363, 364 troposphere, 49 turbulent dust flux, 60 turbulent flux, 60 two-layer dry-deposition model, 279 Udden-Wentworth grade scale, 119 uniform saltation, 152 United States of America, 44 up-winding scheme, 258 van der Waals forces, 143 vertical-adjustment scheme, 273 viscous layer, 52 viscous shear stress, 53, 68 visibility, 29 volumetric soil heat capacity, 92 volumetric soil water content, 92 von Karman constant, 71 Walker circulation, 17 wet convection, 262, 273 wet deposition, 7, 251, 277, 288, 299 wilting point, 96 wind erosion, wind tunnel, 391 wind-erosion equation, 8, 304 wind-erosion modelling, 303 wind-erosion modelling system, 303 wind-erosion prediction system, 9, 304 wind-erosion scheme, 307 ... the modelling of wind erosion Chapter is a description of the basic aspects of wind- erosion theory, while Chapters 6, and are dedicated to the entrainment, transport and deposition of sand and. .. 447 Wind Erosion and Wind- Erosion Research 1.1 Wind- Erosion Phenomenon Wind erosion is a process of wind- forced movement of soil particles This process has the distinct phases of particle... proportion of this dust is deposited in the ocean (Duce et al 1991) Y Shao, Physics and Modelling of Wind Erosion, c Springer Science+Business Media B.V 2008 Wind Erosion and Wind- Erosion Research