Principles of geographical information systems

P RINCIPLES OF G EOGRAPHIC I NFORMATION S YSTEMS ITC E DUCATIONAL T EXTBOOK S ERIES c 2001 ITC first previous next last back exit zoom contents index about Principles of Geographic Information Systems An introductory textbook Editor Rolf A de By Authors Rolf A de By Richard A Knippers Yuxian Sun Martin C Ellis Menno-Jan Kraak Michael J C Weir Yola Georgiadou Mostafa M Radwan Cees J van Westen Wolfgang Kainz Edmund J Sides first previous next last back exit zoom contents index about Cover illustration of the printed book: Paul Klee (1879–1940), Chosen Site (1927) Pen-drawing and water-colour on paper Original size: 57.8 × 40.5 cm Private collection, Munich c Paul Klee, Chosen Site, 2001 c/o Beeldrecht Amstelveen Cover page design: Wim Feringa All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or translated in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, microfiche or any other means without written permission from the publisher Published by: The International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences (ITC), Hengelosestraat 99, P.O Box 6, 7500 AA Enschede, The Netherlands CIP-GEGEVENS KONINKLIJKE BIBLIOTHEEK, DEN HAAG Principles of Geographic Information Systems Rolf A de By (ed.) (ITC Educational Textbook Series; 1) Second edition ISBN 90–6164–200-0 ITC, Enschede, The Netherlands ISSN 1567–5777 ITC Educational Textbook Series c 2001 by ITC, Enschede, The Netherlands first previous next last back exit zoom contents index about Contents A gentle introduction to GIS 1.1 1.2 1.3 The purpose of GIS 1.1.1 Some fundamental observations 1.1.2 A first definition of GIS 1.1.3 Spatial data and geoinformation 1.1.4 Applications of GIS The real world and representations of it 1.2.1 Modelling 1.2.2 Maps 1.2.3 Databases 1.2.4 Spatial databases An overview of upcoming chapters 26 R A de By 27 30 33 42 43 45 46 48 49 52 57 Geographic information and Spatial data types 2.1 first 64 R A de By & W Kainz Geographic phenomena 67 previous next last back exit zoom contents index about Contents 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.1.1 Geographic phenomenon defined 2.1.2 Different types of geographic phenomena 2.1.3 Geographic fields 2.1.4 Geographic objects 2.1.5 Boundaries Computer representations of geographic information 2.2.1 Regular tessellations 2.2.2 Irregular tessellations 2.2.3 Vector representations 2.2.4 Topology and spatial relationships 2.2.5 Scale and resolution 2.2.6 Representations of geographic fields 2.2.7 Representation of geographic objects Organizing one’s spatial data The temporal dimension 2.4.1 Spatiotemporal data 2.4.2 Spatiotemporal data models 68 70 73 77 81 82 85 88 90 100 110 111 116 121 123 124 128 Data processing systems 3.1 3.2 3.3 first 139 W Kainz, R A de By & M C Ellis Hardware and software trends 141 Geographic information systems 143 3.2.1 The context of GIS usage 144 3.2.2 GIS software 147 3.2.3 Software architecture and functionality of a GIS 149 3.2.4 Querying, maintenance and spatial analysis 158 Database management systems 165 previous next last back exit zoom contents index about Contents 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5 3.3.6 Using a DBMS Alternatives for data management The relational data model Querying a relational database Other DBMSs Using GIS and DBMS together 167 170 171 180 186 187 Data entry and preparation 194 Y Georgiadou, R A Knippers, E J Sides & C J van Westen 4.1 Spatial data input 195 4.1.1 Direct spatial data acquisition 196 4.1.2 Digitizing paper maps 197 4.1.3 Obtaining spatial data elsewhere 205 4.2 Spatial referencing 207 4.2.1 Spatial reference systems and frames 208 4.2.2 Spatial reference surfaces and datums 211 4.2.3 Datum transformations 219 4.2.4 Map projections 223 4.3 Data preparation 231 4.3.1 Data checks and repairs 232 4.3.2 Combining multiple data sources 239 4.4 Point data transformation 244 4.4.1 Generating discrete field representations from point data 246 4.4.2 Generating continuous field representations from point data248 4.5 Advanced operations on continuous field rasters 260 4.5.1 Applications 261 4.5.2 Filtering 264 first previous next last back exit zoom contents index about Contents 4.5.3 Spatial data analysis 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Computation of slope angle and slope aspect 266 276 Y Sun, C J van Westen & E J Sides Classification of analytic GIS capabilities 278 Retrieval, classification and measurement 280 5.2.1 Measurement 281 5.2.2 Spatial selection queries 286 5.2.3 Classification 299 Overlay functions 305 5.3.1 Vector overlay operators 306 5.3.2 Raster overlay operators 310 5.3.3 Overlays using a decision table 317 Neighbourhood functions 319 5.4.1 Proximity computation 322 5.4.2 Spread computation 327 5.4.3 Seek computation 330 Network analysis 332 Data visualization 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 first GIS and maps The visualization process Visualization strategies: present or explore The cartographic toolbox 6.4.1 What kind of data I have? 6.4.2 How can I map my data? previous next last back exit zoom contents 346 M.-J Kraak 347 357 361 367 368 370 index about Contents 6.5 6.6 6.7 How to map ? 6.5.1 How to map qualitative data 6.5.2 How to map quantitative data 6.5.3 How to map the terrain elevation 6.5.4 How to map time series Map cosmetics Map output 372 373 375 379 383 386 390 Data quality and metadata 7.1 7.2 7.3 first 399 M J C Weir, W Kainz & M M Radwan Basic concepts and definitions 400 7.1.1 Data quality 401 7.1.2 Error 402 7.1.3 Accuracy and precision 403 7.1.4 Attribute accuracy 405 7.1.5 Temporal accuracy 407 7.1.6 Lineage 408 7.1.7 Completeness 409 7.1.8 Logical consistency 410 Measures of location error on maps 412 7.2.1 Root mean square error 413 7.2.2 Accuracy tolerances 415 7.2.3 The epsilon band 417 7.2.4 Describing natural uncertainty in spatial data 419 Error propagation in spatial data processing 422 7.3.1 How errors propagate 423 7.3.2 Error propagation analysis 425 previous next last back exit zoom contents index about Contents 7.4 Metadata and data sharing 7.4.1 Data sharing and related problems 7.4.2 Spatial data transfer and its standards 7.4.3 Geographic information infrastructure and clearinghouses 7.4.4 Metadata concepts and functionality 7.4.5 Structure of metadata 431 432 438 442 444 450 A Internet sites 462 Glossary 466 first previous next last back exit zoom contents index about List of Figures 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 ˜ event of 1997 compared with normal year 1998 The El Nino Schema of an SST measuring buoy The array of measuring buoys Just four measuring buoys 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 Three views of objects of study in GIS Elevation as a geographic field Geological units as a discrete field Geological faults as geographic objects Three regular tessellation types An example region quadtree Input data for a TIN construction Two triangulations from the same input data An example line representation An example area representation Polygons in a boundary model Example topological transformation 65 72 75 79 85 89 91 92 96 98 99 101 first previous next last back exit zoom contents index 31 34 35 62 about 10 ... processing systems 3.1 3.2 3.3 first 139 W Kainz, R A de By & M C Ellis Hardware and software trends 141 Geographic information systems 143 3.2.1 The context of. .. lecturing module on the principles of geographic information systems, to be taught to students in all education programmes at ITC as the second module in their course A geographic information system... number of water quality parameters of different sites in a freshwater lake to improve her/his understanding of the current distribution of Typha reed beds, and why it differs so much from that of